INVESTIGATION OF BENDING CRACKINGS ON PRESTRESSED

CONCRETE SLEEPERS

VITHIAWATHI REDDY A/P PAIDATHALIE

A report submitted in partial fulfilment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of
Bachelor of Civil Engineering

Faculty of Civil Engineering

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

APRIL 2009
 iii

Especially dedicated to

My Beloved parents…Mr. Mrs. Paidathalie

Husband… Jaya Babu Samuthram

Special thanks to

Krishnaveni, Ramesh, Jsudass, Siva

Prem Rakesh, Eswaran, Nava & Komala.

 iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is my greatest experience to have an opportunity to complete a thesis

entitled “Investigation of Bending Cracking on Prestressed Concrete Sleepers”.

First of all, I would like to express my gratitude to the Faculty of Civil

Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia for giving an opportunity to do this

thesis. My most profound gratitude and deepest respect to my Supervisor, Dr.

Arizu Sulaiman for his support, encouragement, invalueable guidance and

constructive comments throughout the duration of this project. His precious

inspiration and thoughts through the time and effort meant a lot for this study. I

also wish to extend my sincere appreciation to Eastern Pretech, En. Zaire and

special thanks to Associates Prof. Dr. Azmi for giving some idea in laboratory

procedure and other information related to my study. I also take this opportunity

to thanks my friend Md. Azili from Universiti Teknologi Mara who had

contributed assistance and advice in this study.

Last but not least, my sincere appreciation to my family, course mates

and friends for their constant source of encouragement and kindness. Finally,

my special thanks to everyone who has directly or indirectly contributed to the

success of this project.

 v

ABSTRACT

The prestressed concrete sleepers is well recognized as a vital constituent of

the modern railway track structure. The use of prestressed concrete sleepers can
increase the structural stiffness and can develop unique problems that are not
associated with wooden sleepers, such as flexural cracks which could lead to
deterioration of the sleepers. This research discusses the investigation of failure on
prestressed concrete sleeper under serviceability limit state due to bending crackings
under applied static load. The prestressed concrete sleeper samples were provided
by Keretapi Tanah Melayu Berhad, which were manufactured by a company known
as AIO for them. This investigation was carried out experimentally by using Rail
Seat Positive Test procedure which is obtained from Australian Standard Railway
(AS1085). Three samples that comprise of one sample with existing bending
crackings and two samples without any cracks were tested and compared. The
shape of all specimen is trapezium with dimension of 2000mm length, 230mm high,
275mm bottom wide and 170mm top wide. A displacement control loading rate of
range 0.008 mm/s to 0.012 mm/s was applied for the testing of samples under static
load. The prestressed concrete sleepers have a grade of high strength concrete at 60
N/mm2. The cracks propagation appeared during the testing were in bending cracks
therefore much data were recorded in term of cracks length. The lowest ultimate
load from the experiment is 207.58kN (Sample 1) and the design load is 125kN
which results in a ratio of 1.7. It can be concluded that the ultimate load of
prestressed concrete is more than adequate compared to the design load.
 vi

ABSTRAK

Landas konkrit prategasan sangat dikenali sebagai satu komponen penting

dalam struktur landasan keretapi yang moden. Kegunaan landas konkrit pretegasan
boleh meningkatkan kekuatan struktur dan boleh mewujudkan masalah yang unik
yang tidak berkaitan dengan landas kayu, diantaranya keretakan yang boleh
mengakibatkan kerosakan pada landas. Kajian ini membincangkan mengenai
kegagalan dalam had kebolehkhidmatan landas konkrit pra-tegasan disebabkan
retakan lenturan di bawah beban statik. Contoh ujian diperolehi daripada pihak
Keretapi Tanah Melayu Berhad, dimana ianya dibuat oleh syarikat AIO. Ujian ini
dilakukan dengan menggunakan carakerja Rail Seat Positive Test daripada Australia
Standard Railway (AS 1085). Tiga contoh yang terdiri daripada satu contoh yang
sudah terdapat retakan lenturan dan dua contoh yang terdapat sebarang keretakan
telah diuji dan dibandingkan. Bentuk kesemua contoh adalah trapezium dengan
panjang 2000mm, ketinggian 230mm, kelebaran bawah 275mm dan kelebaran atas
170mm. Kadar pembebanan kawalan anjakan adalah diantara 0.008mm/s –
0.012mm/s digunakan untuk menguji contoh di bawah beban statik. Landas konkrit
prategasan mempunyai nilai kekuatan konkrit pada 60 N/mm2. Penularan retakan
yang berlaku adalah retakan lenturan di mana panjang retakan telah direkodkan.
Beban muktamad yang terendah ialah 207.58kN (Contoh 1) dan beban rekabentuk
ialah 125kN yang menghasilkan nisbah 1.7. Oleh itu boleh dirumuskan bahawa
beban muktamad landas konkrit pretegasan lebih dari mencukupi berbanding dengan
beban rekabentuk.
 vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

DECLARATION ii
DEDICATION iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES xi
LIST OF FIGURES xii
LIST OF SYMBOLS xvi
LIST OF APPENDICES xv

1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Problem Statement 3
1.3 Objectives of Study 4
1.4 Scope of Study 4
1.5 Research Significant 6
 viii

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 7
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 Sleepers 10
2.3 Type of Sleepers 11
2.3.1 Hardwood and Softwood Sleepers 11
2.3.2 Steel and Metal Sleepers 12
2.3.3 Concrete Sleepers 13
2.4 Function of Concrete Sleepers 14
2.5 Types of Concrete Sleepers 15
2.5.1 Twin-block Concrete Sleepers 15
2.5.2 Mono-block Sleepers 16
2.5.3 High Strength Prestressed concrete 17
2.6 Methods of prestressing concrete 18
2.6.1 Pre-tensioning 18
2.6.2 Post-tensioning 20
2.7 Structural Behaviour of Prestressed Concrete 21
2.8 Properties of Prestressed Concrete Sleepers 24
2.8.1 Elastic Modulus 25
2.8.2 Poisson’s Ratio 26
2.8.3 Drying Shrinkage 26
2.8.4 Creep 27
2.8.5 Relaxation of Concrete 28
2.9 Cracking on Prestresed Concrete Sleepers 28
2.10 Effect of Cracking on Prestressed Concrete Sleeper 29
2.10.1 Strain-rate Effect in Compress & Tension 29
2.10.2 Changes in the Structural Behavior due to
Static Loading 29
2.10.3 Effects of Shrinkage 30
2.10.4 Tension Bending Crack of Concrete 31
 ix

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 32
3.1 Research Design and Procedure 32
3.2 Types of Study 33
3.3 Prestressed Concrete Sleepers 34
3.4 Preparation of Experiment 36
3.4.1 Equipments 36
3.4.2 Materials 36
3.4.3 Safety Aspect 37
3.5 Experiment Setup 37
3.5.1 Machinery 37
3.5.2 Strain gauge 38
3.5.3 Transducer 38
3.5.4 Data Logger 39
3.5.5 Static Load Test 39
3.6 Procedure of Testing – Rail Seat Positive Test 39

4 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS 42

4.1 General 42
4.2 Load Against Displacement 43
4.3 Load Against Principal 47
4.4 Bending Stresses Against Principal Strain 48
4.5 Crack Patterns 50
4.5.1 Sample 1 50
4.5.2 Sample 2 52
4.5.3 Sample 3 54
4.6 Load Against Crack Length 57
 x

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATIONS 59

5.1 Conclusion 59
5.2 Recommendations 61

REFERENCES 62

APPENDICES (A-D) 64
 xi

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE

2.1 Advantages and disadvantages of hardwood and softwood

sleeper 12
2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of steel and metals sleepers 13
2.3 Advantages and disadvantages of concrete sleepers 14
2.4 Typical range for the static modulus of elasticity at 28 days
of normal weight concrete (BS 8110, Part 2, 1985) 25
4.1 Ultimate load and maximum displacement for all samples 47
4.2 The value of ultimate stress and maximum strain for all
sample 49
4.3 The summarized results of cracks appearing on all samples 56
 xii

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE TITLE PAGE

NO.

1.1 Existing prestressed concrete sleepers 5

2.1 Malaysia rail network - intersity network 9
2.2 Twin-block prestressed concrete sleepers 16
2.3 Mono block concrete sleepers 17
2.4 Pre-tensioning prestressed concrete 19
2.5 Example of pre-tensioned member 19
2.6 Post-tensioning prestresses concrete 20
2.7 Deflected pre-tensioning tendons 20
2.8 Axially loaded member 21
2.9 Axially prestressed member 22
2.10 Stresses due to prestress and service load 23
2.11 Stresses due to prestress and self weight 24
3.1 Existing Prestressed Concrete Sleepers 34
3.2 Dimension of prestressed concrete sleepers 35
3.3 Hydraulic jack machine 37
3.4 Location of strain gauges and transducer 38
3.5 Setting for Rail Seat Positive Test 40
3.6 Sketch of seting for Rail Seat Pisitive Test 41
4.1 Comparison of T1 and T2 for Sample 2 43
4.2 Load against displacement for Sample 1 44
4.3 Load against displacement for Sample 2 45
 xiii

FIGURE TITLE PAGE

NO.

4.4 Load against displacement for Sample 3 45

4.5 Typical behaviour of load against diaplacement for all
samples 46
4.6 Load against principal strain for Sample 2 at S1 and S2 48
4.7 Bending Stress against principal strain for all samples
at seat A 49
4.8 Cracks pattern for Sample 1 51
4.9 Cracks pattern for Sample 2 53
4.10 Cracks pattern for Sample 3 55
4.11 Load against crack length 58
 xiv

LIST OF SYMBOLS

E - Young’s modulus
P - Axial load
Ac - Cross sectional are of the member
F - External Force
Zb - Member section modulus for the bottom
Zt - Member section modulus for the top
Ms - Total uniform load
mLT - Equivalent uniform moment factor for lateral torsional buckling
Mx - Maximum major axis moment in the segment under consideration
pb - Bending strength of the section
Z - Elastic modulus of the whole section
- Beam mid-span deflection
h, - Lateral deflection
v - Vertical deflection
 xv

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX TITLE PAGE

A Data of Sample 1 64
B Data of Sample 2 67
C Data of Sample 3 71
D Crack Patterns For Sample 1, Sample 2 & Sample 3 75
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Keretapi Tanah Melayu (KTM) or the Malay Railway is the main railway
system in Peninsular Malaysia. It was formerly run by the Malayan Railway
Administration, but since corporatisation in 1991 has been run by Keretapi Tanah
Melayu Berhad (KTM Bhd or KTMB), which is wholly owned by the Federal
Government. The Malaysian railway system operated since the British colonial era
around on 1885 when it was first built to transport tin. Those days the types of train
were not as sophisticated as these days train, trains are made to transport materials
from remote province to town or town to town. Nowadays trains are designed for
faster light. Thus the type of rail and its component must be changed in order to take
different kinds of load and new technologies. Because of that the components of rail
transportation like sleepers, ballast, rail fastenings and railway track have change to
make sure free from failure and avoid from tragedy occur.
 2

The railway was originally developed to have higher load-carrying capacities

than the roads due to increasing dynamic loading and speed of the train. One of the
pioneers in the history of railways was G. Stephenson, who built his first steam
locomotive in 1813. In the development of the railway a component acting and
looking like the sleeper of today was invented quite soon. The demands for the
sleepers have increased with the improvement of the railway. In the early railways,
the natural choice of material for the sleeper was often wood. One reason for starting
to use reinforced concrete sleepers was to get a great reduction in the overall cost of
track maintenance. The use of reinforced concrete sleepers increased the structural
stiffness and developed unique problems that are not associated with wooden
sleepers, such as flexural cracks which could lead to deterioration of the sleepers.
This fact, together with shortage of good-quality timber and its made forces in
developing and using pre-stressed concrete sleepers.

Since then, the use of prestressed concrete sleepers has increased and
become standard in the railway tracks of several countries. The development of
prestressed concrete sleepers solved the early problems associated with the ordinary
reinforced concrete sleepers.

The prestressed concrete mono-block sleeper is well recognized as a vital

constituent of the modern railway track structure. The primary function of the rail
track sleeper is to transmit the wheel load to the ballast medium. In addition to the
above, it has additional functions such as maintaining track alignment and gauge,
restraining longitudinal and lateral rail movements, and providing strength and
stability to track structure. The superiority of the prestressed concrete sleeper, in
comparison with other sleepers made of timber, steel, cast iron or reinforced
concrete, lies in its improved structural performance, in terms of stability, stiffness,
strength, improved resistance to fatigue loading and durability.
 3

The railway system in Malaysia was started operating in 1881 with the short
line at interior part on the west coast. The rapid growth of the rail track system in
Malaysia has led to the ever increasing trend of shift of paradigm from the
traditional utilization to newer ones, resulting in constant introduction of newer
material to the railway sleepers. Traditionally wood is used as a material to the
sleeper but it has affected by decay and have a short lifetime, so that nowadays
prestressed concrete sleepers has been used to change the wooden sleeper since they
can support higher loading capacity on the rail track.

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Higher demand on railway technology in Malaysia forces the system to be

upgraded, especially in dynamic loading and speed of the train. Other major
problems faced when using prestressed concrete sleepers are they are poor in
compressive strength, plastic, plastic shrinkage cracks, high rate of water absorption
easily disperse when it cracks and have low resistance. For that one may have to
investigate the bending crackings on prestressed concrete to identify whether the
design is reliable to be used in the railways track sleepers.

Traditional prestressed concrete sleepers in Malaysia which produced for

KTMB found the problem in bending cracking due to drying shrinkage and with
time creep. Crackings may also occur during the prestressing of tendon. These may
cause failure on the rail track system and reduce the life time of sleeper. Therefore
investigation on the existing and propagation of crack on existing prestressed
concrete sleepers is needed in order to identify the possible problem of sleeper’s
failure due to bending cracking.
 4

1.3 OBJECTIVE OF STUDY

This research intends to develop more information on the structural behaviour and
the cause of failure of prestressed concrete sleepers due to bending cracks.

The objectives of this study are as follows:

1. To determine the structural behaviour and material properties of prestressed

concrete.
2. To investigate the locations and measures the propagation of the existing
bending crackings under applied static load.

1.4 SCOPE OF WORK

The scope of this study is to investigate the failure of prestressed concrete

sleepers in accordance to KTMB specification due to static loading. Sleepers failed
halfway through their serviceability limit state (SLS) due to bending cracks.
Therefore the design of prestressed concrete sleepers needs to be checked.

Testing of samples was carried out at the Heavy Structures Laboratory in the
Faculty of Civil Engineering. The test conducted was Rail Seat Positive Test. The
procedures of testing follow the specification of KTMB which use Australian
 5

Standard test procedures. One (1) samples with existing bending crackings and two
(2) sample without any cracks were tested and compared. All the cross-sections of
the samples are of trapezium shape with dimensions of 230 mm high, 275 mm
bottom wide and 170 mm top wide. Each sample has a length of 2000 mm. Figure
1.1 show the prestressed concrete sleepers provided by KTMB.

Figure 1.1 Existing prestressed concrete sleepers

 6

1.5 RESEARCH SIGNIFICANT

This research is essential for train transportation to be safe and to reduce the
maintenance of sleepers through reliable design prestressed concrete sleepers.
However the prestressed concrete sleepers are more costly but low in maintenance
compared to reinforced concrete. Prestressed concrete also suitable to be applied on
the rail track railway because it can supports the high rate loading of dynamic
loading and static loading without much failure in cracking. Trains in Malaysia are
mainly used to transfer goods and people to town. When upgrading the train system,
it may cause in the increased of loads because the new technology of trains can carry
more than people and goods to save the time in transportation. Its may effect on the
rail track especially on pre-stressing concrete sleeper to fail or have crackings. This
project is important because it may develop and guide us to upgrade the train
industry especially in Malaysia. By investigating the bending crackings on existing
sleepers we can identify the main factor of prestressed concrete sleepers failure
cracking.
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Keretapi Tanah Melayu (KTM) or the Malayan Railway is the main railway
system in Peninsular Malaysia. It was formerly run by the Malayan Railway
Administration, but since corporatisation in 1991 has been run by Keretapi Tanah
Melayu Berhad (KTM Bhd or KTMB), which is wholly owned by the Federal
Government. The Malaysian railway system operated since in the British colonial
era. Malaysian Rail Network had been established in 1885. On the early of its
construction, it had used to transport tin. The first rail network in Malaysia is from
Port Swetenham to Taiping. The KTMB operates passenger services on about 2,262
km of track across the peninsular, most of which is shared with freight service.
Nowadays, there is a wide variety of train transportation in Malaysia that is Electric
Commuter, Light Rail Transit (LRT) and Express Rail Link (ERL). LRT is
connecting from one place to others in a city. There are two main lines that use this
type of train that is Sistem Transit Aliran Ringan (STAR) and Projek Usahasama
 8

Transit Ringan Automatik (PUTRA). ERL is made only to cater passenger from KL
Sentral to Kuala Lumpur International Airport or the other.

Star LRT is the one type of light rail transit that consisting of two metro
lines. It connects between two areas; Ampang and Sri Petaling. This rail covering a
distance of 12 km and 15 km respectively and is a driver-operated system. Besides
Star LRT, KTMB had introduced Putra LRT as light rail. It covering a distance of 29
km linking east-west suburbs of Kuala Lumpur densely populated areas. The
construction involved sophisticated tunneling technologies and uses the Advanced
Rapid Transit Mark II technology that used early in North America and Europe rail
network.

Another type of rail network is inner-city transit. This type of network was
divided into two; ERL and KL Monorail. ERL is an express 57km rail link between
KL city and the principal international airport (KLIA). Its services integrate with the
main lines and commuter services of KTMB, the PUTRA LRT and KL Monorail
system at the main Sentral station. ERL is privately own and has a concession period
of 30 years to finance, build, operate and maintain the link. KL Monorail is an inner-
city public transit system that serves the central business, hotel and shopping district
of Kuala Lumpur city.

To avoid from any hazardous tragedy, every type of rail network had
construct with the complete rail structures. The components in rail structure are
railway track, ballast, rail fastening and sleeper.
 9

Figure 2.1: Malaysia rail network - intercity network

Prestressing means the artificial creation of stresses in a structure before

loading, so that the stresses which then existing under load is more favorable than
would otherwise be the case (Mosley 1976). Prestressed concrete is the most recent
major form of construction to be introduced structural engineering. It can be define
as recompressed concrete which means that a compressive stress is put into a
concrete before it begins its working life and is positioned to be in areas where
 10

tensile stresses will develop under working load, knowing that concrete is weak in
tension.

Prestressing concrete when properly designed and fabricated can be virtually

crack free under normal service loads as well as under moderate overload. This
believed to be an advantage in structure exposed to corrosive atmosphere in service.
Prestressed concrete efficiency utilizes high strength concrete and steel is
economical even with long span (James R. Libby 1977).

Recently concrete has to major types of sleepers which are mono blocked
concrete sleepers and twin block pre stressed concrete sleepers. Regarding to
increasing loading, speed of the train and environment effect newly types of
concrete sleepers which is pre stressed plain concrete sleepers. The use of 60 MPa
prestressed concrete sleepers ensures that the sleepers are able to withstand the
aggressive loading conditions to which they will be exposed during their lifetime.

2.2 SLEEPERS

The sleepers provide support of the rails and preserve gauge, level, and
alignment of the track. The sleepers transmit vertical, lateral and longitudinal forces
from the rail down to the ballast bed. They should also provide electrical insulation
between the two rails. Nowadays ballasted railway tracks are usually constructed
with mono block concrete sleepers. Timber sleepers have been used almost since the
beginning of railway construction. In countries where timber price is acceptable,
 11

timber sleepers are still frequently used. Sometimes it is suitable to use steel
sleepers.

2.3 TYPES OF SLEEPERS

2.3.1 Hardwood and Softwood Sleepers

Sleepers may be made of hardwoods or softwoods, these being used for

different purposes and under different conditions. Hardwood sleepers are made
chiefly from oak, beech, and hornbeam and softwood sleepers from Scots pine,
maritime pine (Pines pinaster), and larch.

The useful life of a sleeper depends upon its resistance to fungi, insects, and
mechanical pressure. Sleepers must have certain required mechanical properties.
Damage to sleepers due to mechanical defects has become more frequent because
both the weight of the loads carried and the speed of trains have increased. Such
mechanical damage consists mainly in crushing, splitting, becoming imbedded, etc.
 12

Table 2.1 Advantages and disadvantages of hardwood and softwood sleeper

Advantages Disadvantages
Few and simple fastening Difficult to find good types of wood
Less noisy track cause of its absorb Wood commonly subjected to
shocks and vibration natural decay
Reliable for all types of ballast Resistance to fungi, insects, and
Lower Weight mechanical pressure
Height is Short Difficult to gauge maintenance
Reduce wear and tear of rail Minimum life span (<15 years )
Only upper and lower trunk can
produce a sleepers
Expensive

2.3.2 Steel and Metal Sleepers

The manufacture of metal sleepers is simple and inexpensive. Since the total
steel needed is not large, there should be no difficulty in supplying the demand.
Metal sleepers were developed during a period of over-production of steel, when
they were less costly than wooden sleepers. They are noisy, and in the long run more
costly, because the rolling stock has to be repaired more often. Finally, they cannot
be used in close proximity to industries which give off vapors or gases which affect
metals.
 13

Table 2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of steel and metals sleepers

Advantages
Life span between 30 – 60 years
Good longitudinal , lateral and
frame resistance ample to meet the
needs of the LWR (long welded rail)
track
Free from fire hazard
Good in behavior on yielding
formation
Can be maintained without skill
worker
Disadvantages
Difficult to make longitudinal and
transverse track positioning
Steel sleepers are noisy therefore its
needed special insulating devices for
signaling
Sensitive to chemical attack
Not fit for track circuiting

2.3.3 Concrete Sleepers

Concrete sleepers have been used for a long time; their transportation is
difficult, however, as they weigh two or three times as much as wooden sleepers.
They are most widely used in Italy. During the last war, the United Kingdom
experimented with a new type of reinforced concrete sleeper which seems highly
satisfactory. They have been used there for the past five years and show no sign of
wear. As a result, the United Kingdom is at present constructing a large factory for
the manufacture of this type of sleeper.
 14

Table 2.3: Advantages and disadvantages of concrete sleepers

Advantages Disadvantages
Lifetime around 50 tears Heavy (285kg)
Satisfactory transverse tracks Required mechanical appliances for
resistance and allows handling
Keeps tracks gauges satisfactory Required pads and plugs
tolerance
Less expensive than timber
Easy to construct
Low maintenance cost
Free from natural decay
Unaffected by moisture, chemical
action of ballast, cinder and subsoil

2.4 FUNCTION OF CONCRETE SLEEPERS

The railway track was originally developed in order to exceed the load-
carrying capacity of the roads. In the development of the railway track a component
acting and looking like the sleeper of today was invented quite soon specifies the
functions that are required of a modern sleeper used in railway tracks today
(Bonnett 1996).

1. Spread wheel loads to ballast.

2. Hold rails to gauge and inclination.
3. Transmit lateral and longitudinal forces.
 15

4. Insulate rails electrically.

5. Provide a base for rail seats and fastenings.

The functions described above show that the sleeper has an important role in
the track system. It is thereby obvious that the sleeper has to be analyzed in an
accurate way. Even if the load is determined, the problem of analyzing the sleeper
accurately still exists if the sleeper is given a static analysis. Several physical
phenomena occur when dynamic (impact) loads are applied to concrete sleepers that
do not occur under static conditions.

2.5 TYPES OF CONCRETE SLEEPER

2.5.1 The Twin-block Concrete Sleepers

The twin-block sleeper consists of two reinforced concrete blocks connected

by steel tie-bar. The concrete blocks are placed on the ballast to support the rails,
and twin-block sleepers of this sort are being increasingly used within the railway
networks to satisfy the most demanding conditions of traffic and safety. Concrete
for the sleepers is likewise carefully batched and mixed, before being fed into the
holding hopper of the pre-casting machine.
 16

Figure 2.2 Twin-block prestressed concrete sleepers

2.5.2 Mono-block Sleepers

Prestressed mono-block sleepers have been in use around the world for more
than sixty years, and have proved to be the preferred sleeper internationally. Mono-
block sleepers maintain their geometry regardless of the conditions in which they are
placed ensuring constant rail gauge and rail seat inclinations. The weight of the
sleeper combined with it end face design and large soffit area ensures a large contact
area with the ballast and provides excellent track stability while reducing ballast
pressure. The friction of the ballast on the inverted cross section of the sleeper
assists in resisting track uplifting forces.
 17

Figure 2.3 Mono block concrete sleepers

2.5.3 High strength pre stressed concrete

The use of 60 MPa concrete ensures that the sleepers are able to withstand
the aggressive loading conditions to which they will be exposed during their
lifetime. By using a pre tensioned design any small cracks that could form as a result
of accidental damage will automatically close, preventing degradation of the
reinforcing and damage to the integrity of the sleeper. Concrete sleepers with
insulated fastenings also provide the excellent electrical resistance required to ensure
reliable and safe track circuiting.
 18

2.6 METHODS OF PRESTRESSING CONCRETE

There are two basic methods of producing prestressed concrete members namely:-

a. Pre-tensioning
b. Post-tensioning

2.6.1 Pre-Tensioning

The steel wires or strands are stretched to the required tension and anchored
to the ends of the moulds for the concrete. The concrete is cast around the tension
steel and when it reached sufficient strength, the anchors are released and the force
in the steel is transferred to the concrete by bond. For the long term prestressing
concrete losses due to creep, shrinkage and relaxation and immediate drop in
prestresses force occurs due to elastic shortening of the concrete. After stressing the
wires the sides form of the moulds are positioned and concrete is placed around the
tensioned wires. The wires are cut and released and the bond between the stressed
wires and concrete will prevent the tendons from regaining their originally length
thus inducing pre-stressed. Pre-stressing also can say that pre-tensioning bond
between the tendon and concrete will prevent the pre-stressing wire returning to its
original length.
 19

Figure 2.4 Pre-tensioning prestressed concrete

Figure 2.5 Example of pre-tensioned member

 20

2.6.2 Post Tensioning

In this method the concrete is cast around ducts in which the stressing
tendons can be houses and the stressing is carried out after the concrete has
hardened. The tendon are stressed from one or both end and when the stress required
has been reached the tendons are anchored at their ends to prevent them returning to
their originally length thus inducing the compressive force. The anchors use from
parts of the finishes component. Pre-tensioning can be also saying the anchorages
which prevent the stressing tendon from returning to its original length. This method
usually carried out on site, curved tendons are required, and the complete members
to be formed by joining together a series of precast concrete units and where
negative bending moment are encountered.

Figure 2.6 Post-tensioning prestresses concrete

Figure 2.7 Deflected pre-tensioning tendons

 21

2.7 STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

Before designing the prestressed concrete it need to know some principle of

structural behavior of concrete sleepers. From principle it considers a rectangular
concrete member with an axial load P applied thought its centroid (Figure 2.8a). At
any section of the member, stresses at each point in the section are:

p
F= (2.1)
Ac

Where Ac is the cross sectional area of the member. The external force is now to be
supplied by a tendon passing through a duct along the member centroid.

Figure 2.8 Axially loaded member

 22

The tendon is trenched by some external means, such as hydraulic jack, the
stretching force is removed and the force required to keep the tendon in its extended
state is transferred to the concrete via bearing plate (Figure 2.9).

Figure 2.9 Axially prestressed members

If the location of the duct is moved downward so that it no longer coincides

with the member centroid, but the distance e from the centroid (Equation 2.2) then
the stresses distribution at any section is no longer uniform. It would be distribution
given by treating the section as through it had an axial force P and a moment Pe
acting on it. On the assumptio0n that the member behavior can be approximated as
linearly elastic, the stresses distribution can be determined from ordinary bending
theory (Equation 2.3), where Zt and Zb are the member section modulus for the top
and bottom fibers of the rectangular section respectively.

P Pe
Ft = − (2.2)
Ac Z t

P Pe
Fb = − (2.3)
Ac Z b
 23

If the member is now mounted on simple support at either end and subjected
to a uniform load in addition to its own weight (Figure 2.10a), then the stresses at
mid-span can be determined for a bending moment, Ms which is due to the total
uniform load. The resulting stress distribution is shown in (Figure 2.10b) below.

Figure 2.10 Stresses due to prestress and service load

Figure 2.11 below shows the stresses due to the combination of prestresses
force and self weight of the beam. A net tension may occur at the top of the beam,
rather than at the soffit as is the case with the maximum load. This is particularly
important since the minimum load condition usually occurs after transfer, the point
when the prestresses force is transferred from the tensioning equipment to the
concrete and is at its member and the strength of the concrete at this age is usually
lower than, or service load acts on the members.
 24

Figure 2.11 Stresses due to prestress and self weight

2.8 PROPERTIES OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE SLEEPERS

Extensive laboratory experiments with small specimens were carried out to

clarify the bonding (adhesion and friction) between strands (tendons) and concrete in
materials and maintenance a prestressed concrete sleeper. It was found that adhesion
was the main bonding mechanism in the initial phase. A change of the strand surface
or the concrete recipe that increases adhesion will thus largely improve the
anchorage of the prestressing force during prestressing release in sleeper
manufacturing. Full scale laboratory tests on sleepers showed how different strand
designs affect both the pre-stressing process during the production of sleepers and
the response (deformation, crushing and cracking) when the sleepers are submitted
to increased loading (Charmec 1995).
 25

2.8.1. Elastic Modulus

Elastic Modulus of concrete is important to design prestressed concrete

because it must be in computing deflections and losses of prestressed. Unfortunately
the elastic modulus of concrete is a function of many variables including the amount
of ingredient used in making concrete, as well as manner and duration of curing the
concrete, age at the time of loading, rate of loading and other factor (Troxxel, Davis
and Kelly, 1956)

Table 2.4: Typical range for the static modulus of elasticity at 28 days of
normal weight concrete (BS 8110, Part 2, 1985)

fcu,28 Ec,28 day

Mean value Typical range
(N/mm²)
(kN/mm²) (kN/mm²)
20 24 18 - 30
25 25 19 - 31
30 26 20 – 32
40 28 22 – 34
50 30 24 – 36
60 32 26 – 38
 26

2.8.2. Poisson’s Ratio

When the concrete is subjected to a uniaxial stress a transverses deformation

takes place simultaneously with the axial deformation. The ratio of the transverse
deformation to the axial deformation is known as poison ratio.

2.8.3. Drying Shrinkage

The shrinkage of concrete is an important factor to the designer of

prestressed concrete for several reasons. As has been stated, the shrinkage of the
concrete contributes to the loss of prestress. The magnitude of the shrinkage also
must be known with reasonable accuracy when the deflection of prestressed
members is being computed by sophisticated methods. One cannot compute the
deflection of composite prestressed concrete members without knowing the
shrinkage characteristics of each of the concrete in each of the components involved.
In addition, the magnitude of the concrete shrinkage must be estimated in order to
evaluate secondary stresses (due to volume changes) that may result. The designer of
prestressed concrete structures must give particular attention to the effects of
shrinkage, creep, and temperature variations. If these movements are restrained,
forces of very high magnitude can result, with the very real possibility of serious
structural and nonstructural damage (James R. Libby, 1990).The drying shrinkage of
concrete is known to result from loss of moisture. It also has been shown that
concrete will expand if after having dried or partially dried, it is also subjected to
very high humidity.
 27

2.8.4 Creep

Creep of concrete is defined as the time-dependent strain that takes place in

concrete subjected to constant stress. Under laboratory conditions, creep tests are
made with all conditions of the environment, such as temperature and humidity in
which the test specimens are stored, being kept as constant as possible. Two types of
creep are recognized is a basic creep and drying creep.

Basic creep is not dependent upon the loss of moisture from the concrete and
will occur with concrete protected from drying; however, drying creep, like drying
shrinkage, is dependent upon the loss of moisture from the concrete to its
environment. Unlike shrinkage, creep is affected by stress in the concrete as well as
the maturity of the concrete. Maturity refers to the degree of hydration of the cement
in the concrete and is a function of time and temperature history of the concrete; as
an approximation, it often is taken as the age of the concrete.

In normal structural engineering applications, one does not distinguish

between basic drying creep and creep normally is considered to vary directly with
the applied stress. The term specific creep is also found in the literature, where
specific creep is defined as creep per unit of stress and has the units of inches per
inch per pound per square inch (James R. Libby 1990).
 28

2.8.5 Relaxation of Concrete

Relaxation of concrete is defined as the loss of stress in concrete that is

subjected to constant strain. Prestressed concrete normally is not subjected to
constant stress or to constant strain. It is subjected to time dependent changes in
stress and strain due to variation external loads, together with changes in the
prestressing forces that result from relaxation of prestressing steel and the shrinkage
and creep of the concrete. However, for purposes of computing the loss of prestress
and other computations, the loss due to the plasticity of concrete is more commonly
based upon creep than on relaxation data for the concrete (Neville and Liska 1973).

2.9 CRACKING ON PRESTRESSED CONCRETE SLEEPERS

In general, tensile cracking will occur in an economically design concrete

member even under service load. Tensile cracking develops when concrete with a
limited capacity for elongation tends to deform. Mechanism of cracking is based on
redistribution of concrete stress at crack formation that is compatible with observed
internal and surface cracking (Yusuf A, 1999). In prestressed concrete structures,
one of the requirements for the serviceability limit state is that local damage due
cracking and spalling must not affect the appearance, efficiency or durability.

It’s generally identified with the process of slow crack growth in metals
subjected to rising or cyclic load. The phenomenon, however, it is exclusively
associated neither with ductile fracture nor with plastic deformation. Cracks can
spread slowly in an elastic stress environment as long as the crack driving force is
 29

below critical state. More precisely, it is the combined interaction of loading

geometry and size specimen, material; and environment that determines the crack
growth characteristics (G.C. Sih, 1983).

2.10 EFFECT OF CRACKING ON PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

SLEEPERS

2.10.1 Strain-Rate Effects in Compression and Tension

In order to determine the behavior of concrete when subjected to high strain

rates, studies have been conducted where the relation between different material
properties and the strain rate was investigated. The Young’s modulus of concrete has
been found to increase with increasing strain rate. Both the ultimate compressive and
tensile strengths have been found to increase with increased strain rate.

2.10.2 Changes in the Structural Behavior due to Static Loading

The general phenomenon reported is that concrete structures have a tendency

to change their failure mechanism, from bending to shear or punching failure, as the
loading rate increased. Indicated an explanation of this phenomenon for the case of a
simply supported beam of prestressed concrete loaded by a point load in the mid
span a significant portion of the applied load is balanced by the distributed inertial
load along the beam, whose resultant force has a much shorter moment arm to the
mid span of the beam than the support load has, leading to a reduced bending
 30

moment at mid span. Therefore, the applied load can go too much higher levels than
the static flexural cracking load without any flexural cracks in the beam. When this
load reaches the shear cracking load, which is the same under impact as under static
loading, a shear crack may appear first (Wang 1996).

2.10.3 Effects of Shrinkage

The advent of shrinkage cracking depends on the degree of restraint to

shrinkage, the extensibility and strength of the concrete in tension, tensile creep and
the load induced tension existing in the member. Cracking can only be avoided if the
gradually increasing tensile stress induced by shrinkage, and reduced by creep, is at
all times less than the tensile strength of the concrete. Furthermore, the relief offered
by creep decreases with age. The existence of load induced tension in uncracked
regions accelerates the formation of time dependent cracking. In many cases,
therefore, shrinkage cracking is inevitable. The control of such cracking requires two
important steps. First, the shrinkage-induced tension and the regions where
shrinkage cracks are likely to develop must be recognized by the structural designer.
Second, an adequate quantity and distribution of anchored reinforcement must be
included in these regions to ensure that the cracks remain fine and the structure
remains serviceable.
 31

2.10.4 Tension Bending Crack of Concrete

Concrete cracks because it can resist tension only about 1/10 as well as it can
resist compression. But the concrete often finds itself in tension as well as
compression. This typically happens when the concrete bends, such as in a beam or
floor slab, and when it shrinks as it dries. Anyone in the field knows this and uses
many different methods to help concrete elements resist tension, for example by
placing reinforcing steel within concrete beams, slabs, and columns. Prestressing
and post-tensioning can also be effective against tension-causing loads, whether
these loads are applied or internal but cracks will appear in concrete.
 CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN AND PROCEDURE

The purpose of research design is to get all the objectives of the study. As
informed ealier, this study focuses on cracking of prestressed concrete sleepers with
samples provided by KTMB. The samples come with existing bending crackings,
thus we need to investigate their failure due to those under static loading. Some
preparations need to be done before testing the samples. The summary of the
research methods shown below:
 33

Measure Dimension of Prestressed Concrete Sleeper

Identify location of existing bending crackings on concrete sleepers

Measure cracks lengths of bending cracks

Testing (Rail Seat Positive)

Data Analysis

Conclusion

3.2 TYPES OF STUDY

Under classification of the research method, this type of research can be

classified under experimental research which involved testing work on samples. All
the testing were conducted at the Heavy Structure Laboratory in the Faculty of Civil
Engineering, UiTM Shah Alam.
 34

3.3 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE SLEEPERS

In this study the samples were provided by KTMB, manufactured by AIO for
them. Each sample is of trapezium shape and has dimension as shown in Figure 3.2.
The sample properties followed the specification from KTMB and it was designed
using Australian Standard (AS 1085) and Railway Permanent Way Part14:
Prestressed Concrete Sleepers. The sample with existing bending cracking was
tested and compared for their strength and structural behaviour.

Figure 3.1: Existing Prestressed Concrete Sleepers

 35

170

275
2000

CONCRETE SLEEPER

170
230

CROSS SECTION

Figure 3.2: Dimension of prestressed concrete sleepers

 36

3.4 PREPARATION OF EXPERIMENT

Proper planning must be done initially before testing so that the test progress
smoothly. This is because the samples provided are limited, thus we need to follow
the test procedure correctly. It is important to understand the test procedure
especially on the equipments that are used for testing. Apart from that we have to
make sure that the equipment are availability in the laboratory and suitable.

3.4.1 Equipments

The equipments must be set-up and checked before proceed the testing. All
surrounding area must be clear and dry from any materials to ensure smooth testing.

3.4.2. Materials

All the materials used in this experiment should be checked to make sure it
fulfills the specifications before proceeding with testing.
 37

3.4.3. Safety Aspect

Safety is an important part during testing so we need to follow all the

guidelines and rules in the laboratory.

3.5 EXPERIMENT SETUP

3.5.1 Machinery

The machine used to test the samples (prestressed concrete sleepers) is called
Hydraulic Jack Testing Machine with maximum capacity of 1000 kN. The hydraulic
jack machine consists of hydraulic cell that applies the load on the sample during
testing. The applied load can be adjusted by pressure to control the load
displacement in this testing. Figure 3.3 shows the hydraulic jack machine and the
location of hydraulic load cell.

Load Cell

Figure 3.3 Hydraulic jack machine

 38

3.5.2 Strain gauge

For this testing, two strain gauges were used to measure the strains that occur
when load was applied on the samples. The strain gauges were positioned in
between the support at the rail seat, on one of the longitudinal surface of the sample.
Figure 3.4 shows the location of both strain gauges on the samples. The strain
gauges were labeled as S1 and S2.

3.5.3 Transducer

Transducer was use in this testing to measure the displacement of the

samples. A total of two (2) transducers were placed below the sample as shown in
Figure 3.4. It is important to place the transducers at the critical section of
displacement, such as below the section where load was applied (T1) and at the free
end of the sample (T2).

Figure 3.4 Location of strain gauges and transducer

 39

3.5.4. Data Logger

Data logger is a device that gives the data output of the readings during
testing. The hydraulic jack machine, strain gauges and transducers were connected
to the data logger and it will print out the readings on the loadings, strains and
displacements. The advantage of using a data logger is that it is capable to handle
hundred of inputs.

3.5.5. Static Load Test

For this study, only static load were applied on the samples. Testing was
done until the samples failed. For the static loading test the strain gauges was set
according to instruction manual provided by the Australian Standard Test Method.
In this study a loading rate for static load is between the range of 0.008 mm/s to
0.0012 mm/s. According to Australian Standard Test Method, two types of testing to
achieve the purpose of the study which is Rail Seat Positive Test and Rail Seat
Negative Test. For this study , only Rail Seat Positive Test had been carried out in
the experiment.

3.6 PROCEDURE OF TESTING – (Rail Seat Positive test)

The testing procedures consist of two (2) types of test which are rail seat
positive and negative tests, but in this study only rail seat positive test was
 40

conducted. Rail seat positive test is the way whereby the sample was tested in its
actual position. The procedures of rail seat positive test are:

i. The concrete sleepers were supported in a hydraulic jack machine with

loading point at the centre of support. The supports were set-up 330 mm on
right side and 330 mm on left side from the applied load and the load is
supported with neoprene 45 mm at both left and right side as shown in
Figure 3.6 below.
ii. A test load at a rate not greater than 25 kN/min (0.42 kN/sec) was applied
until the test load P1 required to produce the proof rail seat positive is
established.
iii. When a sleeper is to be tested, the existing cracking on the structure was
inspected. The load shall then be recorded.
iv. The load was released after specimen is failure.

Figure 3.5 Setting for Rail Seat Positive Test

 41

Figure 3.6 Sketch of setting for Rail Seat Positive Test

 CHAPTER 4

RESULT AND ANALYSIS

4.1 GENERAL

This chapter discusses the data obtained from experimental works. Analyses
were done based on plotted graph of prestressed concrete sleepers tested under
flexural behaviour. The results include the crack patterns of the prestressed concrete
sleepers which were identified in term of before and after the static test. Further test
were done by testing cored cylinders from the samples under compressive load.
Analysis was based on graph plots of load against displacement, bending stress
against principle strain, load against principle strain and also load against crack
length.
 43

4.2 LOAD AGAINST DISPLACEMENT

Figure 4.1, shows the load against displacement for both transducer 1 (T1)
and transducer 2 (T2) at both seat A and seat B for Sample 2. Sample 2 is a new
sample, and it can be seen on the graph that the displacement of T1 are positive
while displacements of T2 are negative. Maximum displacement recorded from T1
on both seat A and seat B are 11.49 mm and 13.16 mm respectively, whilst from T2
the readings are -10.49 mm and -5.42 mm for both seat A and seat B respectively.

The values of positive and negative displacement are due to the location of
T1 and T2, where T1 was positioned directly below the applied load and T2 was
located at the free end of the sample. Thus, when load was applied on the sample,
the free end moved upward and gave negative readings. Therefore the data from T1
is chosen to show the relationship of load-displacement curve for all samples.

Load Vs Displace me nt

250

200
Load (kN)

150

100

50

0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20
Displacement (mm)

Seat A, T1 Seat A, T2 Seat B, T1 Seat B, T2

Figure 4.1 Comparison of transducer 1 and transducer 2 for Sample 2

 44

Figure 4.2, Figure 4.3 and Figure 4.4 show the load against displacement
relationship for all samples at both seat A and seat B. From the figures, it can be
seen that the vertical displacement pattern for all samples increased when the load is
increased. Once the sample failed, load decrease rapidly and at the same time the
displacement increased.

Sample 1 (Figure 4.2) , Sample 2 (Figure 4.3) and Sample 3 (Figure 4.4) for
both seat A and seat B failed at ultimate loads of 207.58 kN, 174.77 kN, 227.22 kN,
209.8 kN, 214.94 kN and 214.5 kN with corresponding maximum displacement of
12.59 mm, 10.84 mm, 12.84 mm, 11.88 mm, 11.49 mm and 13.16 mm respectively.
This value occurred at location of T1 which was located directly below the applied
load. Each sample also shows higher ultimate load at seat A compared to seat B.
This is due to the applied load at seat A first during the testing for each sample. It
affected the result when load is applied at seat B.

Load Vs Displacement

250
207.58 kN
200
174.77kN
Load (kN)

150

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20
Displacement (mm)

Seat A Seat B

Figure 4.2 Load against displacement for Sample 1

 45

Load Vs Displacement

250
227.22kN
209.81kN
200
Load (kN)

150

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20
Displacement (mm)

Seat A Seat B

Figure 4.3 Load against displacement for Sample 2

Load Vs Displacement

250
214.94kN
214.5kN
200
Load (kN)

150

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20
Displacement (mm)

Seat A Seat B

Figure 4.4 Load against displacement for Sample 3

 46

Figure 4.5 below shows the typical behaviour of load against displacement
for all samples. The graph plotted was considered only at seat A because the values
of loads and displacements at this seat are higher compared to seat B. Sample 2 has
higher ultimate load compared to Sample 1 and Sample 3. The ultimate load for
Sample 2 is 227.27 kN followed by 207.58 kN for Sample 1 and 214.94 kN for
Sample 3. The corresponding displacements for Sample 1, Sample 2 and Sample 3
are 12.84 mm, 12.59 mm and 11.49 mm respectively.

Load Vs Displacement

250

200
Load (kN)

150

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20
Displacement (mm)

Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3

Figure 4.5 Typical behaviour of load against displacement for all samples
 47

Table 4.1 below shows the summarized results of maximum displacement at

ultimate load for all samples.

Table 4.1 Ultimate load and maximum displacement for all samples
Maximum Ratio
Ultimate Design
Sample Displacement Ultimate/
load (kN) load (kN)
(mm) Design load
Seat A 207.58 12.59 125.0 1.7
Sample 1
Seat B 174.77 10.84 125.0 1.4
Seat A 227.22 12.84 125.0 1.8
Sample 2
Seat B 209.80 11.88 125.0 1.7
Seat A 214.94 11.49 125.0 1.7
Sample 3
Seat B 214.50 13.16 125.0 1.7

4.3 LOAD AGAINST PRINCIPAL STRAIN

Figure 4.6 below shows that the relationship between load and principal
strain for both strain gauge 1 (S1) and strain gauge 2 (S2) on Sample 2. It can be
observed from the graph that S2 has negative values compared to S1. This is due to
the position of the strain gauges where S2 was located at the compression side and
S1 at the tension side of the sample. Since prestressed concrete sleepers are weak in
compression, thus readings of S2 are chosen to show the relationship of bending
stress-principal strain for each sample.
 48

Load Vs Strain

200
180
160
140
Load (kN)

120
100
80
60
40
20
0
-1000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000
-6
Strain (x10 )

Strain 1 Strain 2

Figure 4.6 Load against principal strain for Sample 2 at S1 and S2

4.4 BENDING STRESSES AGAINST PRINCIPAL STRAIN

Figure 4.7 shows the relationship between bending stress and principle strain
for all samples. It can be seen from the graphs the maximum stresses recorded from
Sample 1, Sample 2 and Sample 3 are 0.00703 kN/mm2, 0.0103 kN/mm2, and
0.01297 kN/m2, which correspond to of principal strains of 1293 , 1610 and
1664 respectively.
 49

Bending Stress Vs Principal Strain

0.016
0.014
0.012
Stress (kN/mm2)

0.010
0.008
0.006
0.004
0.002
0.000
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Strain (x10-6)

Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3

Figure 4.7 Bending Stress against principal strain for all samples at seat A

Table 4.2 shows the summary of ultimate stresses and corresponding maximum
strain for all samples

Table 4.2 The value of ultimate stress and maximum strain for all sample
Sample Maximum Stress Maximum Strain
(kN/mm2) ( )
1 0.00703 1293
2 0.01030 1610
3 0.01297 1664
 50

4.5 CRACK PATTERNS

4.5.1 Sample 1

Figure 4.11 shows the crack patterns of Sample 1 before and after testing for
both seat A and seat B. Sample 1 has existing bending cracks on both front and rear
elevations. The existing crack (i) on the front elevation at seat B is of length 18.8 cm
and this crack propagated 6.8 cm after testing, while at seat A, a new crack (a)
appeared with a length of 23.7 cm. For the rear elevation, there was one (1) existing
crack (ii) at seat A and three (3) existing cracks (iii), (iv) and (v) at seat B before
testing, and all these cracks propagated as shown in Figure 4.11 after testing.

Existing cracks (ii), (iii), (iv) and (v) are of length 8.3 cm, 9.2 cm, 5.7 cm
and 5.1 cm before testing. After testing, the cracks propagated by 12.8 cm, 4.8 cm
and 3.3 cm for existing cracks (ii), (iii), and (iv) but none on cracks (v). There is no
new cracks appearing after load is applied.
 51

Front Elevation
Before testing

Seat A Seat B
After testing

Seat A Seat B

Rear Elevation
Before Testing

iii
ii
ivv

Seat A Seat B
After testing

iii
ii
iv v

Seat A Seat B
Figure 4.8 : Cracks pattern for Sample 1
 52

4.5.2 Sample 2

Figure 4.12 shows the crack patterns occurring on Sample 2. Sample 2 is a

new sample therefore it has no existing crack before testing. After testing, four (4)
bending cracks appeared on both seat A and seat B at the front elevation. The length
of each cracks is 24.6 cm, 15.1 cm, 4.8 cm and 5.6 cm for cracks (i), (ii), (iii) and
(iv) respectively. For rear elevation, one (1) crack appeared at each seat after testing.
Bending cracks (v) has a length of 25.8 cm while bending cracks (vi) has a length of
26.8 cm.
 53

Front Elevation
Before testing

Seat A Seat B
After testing

iv iii
i
ii
Seat A Seat B

Rear Elevation
Before testing

Seat A Seat B

After testing

v vi
Seat A Seat B

Figure 4.9 : Cracks pattern for Sample 2

 54

4.5.3. Sample 3

Figure 4.13 shows the crack patterns occurring on Sample 3. This sample has
no existing cracks before testing. After testing there are ten (10) cracks appearing at
both seat on both elevation, and all cracks are bending cracks. At front elevation
four new cracks appeared with lengths of 20.5 cm, 17.9cm, 3.2cm and 4.5 cm for
cracks (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv) respectively, while at seat B two (2) new cracks
appeared with lengths of 19.1 cm and 21.5 cm for cracks (v) and (vi) respectively.
On rear elevation, one (1) cracks appeared at seat A with 29.8 cm length and three
(3) new cracks appeared at seat B with lengths of 18.5 cm, 4.6 cm and 4.2 cm for
cracks (vii), (viii), (ix) and (x). The crack patterns on this sample show the typical
behaviour of cracks under applied load, thus the results obtained from this sample
are used to show relationship between load and cracks length.
 55

Front Elevation
Before testing

Seat A Seat B
After testing

iii iv

i ii vi v
Seat A Seat B

Rear Elevation
Before testing

Seat A Seat B
After testing

x ix

vii viii
Seat A Seat B

Figure 4.10 : Cracks pattern for Sample 3

 56

Table 4.3 below shows the summarized results of cracks appearing on all samples.

Table 4.3 Cracks length for all samples

Sample 1

Sample Existing Crack Propagation New Crack

Front Seat A None None i. 23.7cm
Seat B i. 18.8cm i. 3.8cm None
Back Seat A ii. 8.3cm ii. 12.8cm None
Seat B iii. 9.2cm iii. 4.8cm None
iv. 5.7cm iv. None
v. 5.1cm v. 3.3cm

Sample 2

Sample Existing Propagation New Crack

Crack
Front Seat A None None i. 24.6cm

Seat B None None ii. 15.1cm

iii. 4.8cm
iv. 5.6cm
Back Seat A None None v. 25.8cm
Seat B None None vi. 26.8cm
 57

Sample 3

Sample Existing Crack Propagation New Crack

Front Seat A None None i. 20.5cm
ii. 17.9cm
iii. 3.2cm
iv. 4.5cm
Seat B None None v. 19.1cm
vi. 21.5cm
Back Seat A None None vii. 29.8cm
Seat B None None viii. 18.5cm
ix. 4.6cm
x. 4.2cm

4.6 LOAD AGAINST CRACK LENGTH

Figure 4.11 shows the relationship of load against crack length for Sample 2
at seat A. The relationship is obtained from crack (i) on the front elevation of
Sample 2 (refer to Figure 4.9 after testing). It can be observed from the graph that
the crack length is proportional with the applied load. When the load reaches
ultimate load the crack continues to propagate until the sample fails. All cracks
appeared from the bottom of the sample and propagate upwards.
 58

Load vs. Crack length

250
Load (kN)

200

150

100

50

0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Crack Length (mm)

Figure 4.11 Load against crack length

 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION

1) Structural behaviour and material properties of prestressed concrete sleepers

in the static test, the prestressed concrete sleepers has weak in compressive
strength therefore the propagation of cracks appeared slow at bottom
sleepers.

2) Location and length of the existing bending cracks.

The prestressed concrete sleepers have existing crack lengths of between 5.1
cm to 18.8 cm for shorter and longer crack lengths respectively. All cracks
appeared at rail seat under the applied load. At least half of the surfaces at
both rail seats of the prestressed concrete sleepers have cracks after testing.
All the cracks are classified as bending cracks.
 60

3) Propagation of Cracks.
Existing bending cracks propagated between lengths of 3.3 cm to 12.8 cm for
all samples. As for new cracks, the length of the cracks appeared are between
4.2 cm to 29.8 cm. All bending cracks appeared and propagated from bottom
of the samples to top for all samples.

4) Checking the design under serviceability limit state of the prestressed

concrete sleepers

a. Maximum load
The average ultimate load from the experiment is 207.58kN for the
sample 1 and the design load is 125kN, which results in a ratio of 1.7.
It can be concluded that the ultimate load of prestressed concrete
sleepers is more than adequate compared to design load. This is
because the ultimate load is greater than the design load.
 61

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

Below are the recommendations after completion of the tests for prestressed
concrete sleepers:

The machine must be set-up at a constant displacement control rate of 0.008

mm/s only so that crack propagation can be measured properly. This is because
under applied constant rate, propagation of cracks appears slowly compared to
applied load due to range between 0.008 mm/s to 0.012 mm/s.

Strain gauges must be attached within 24 hour before testing to obtain the
accurate value of strains.
 62

REFERENCES

Australian Standard , Rail Seat Vertical load , Prestressed Concrete Sleepers (AS
1085,14,2003)

Dean Brean , Doug aker and Ernie Redford (1999), Miniature Concrete Sleepers,
Published by Steam Lines

E. W Bonnet (1975), Development in Prestressed Concrete, edited by F. Sawko,

Applied Science Publishers, London

G. Kumaran, Devdas Menon, K. Krishnan (2002), Dynamic Studies of Rail Tracks

Sleepers in a Tracks Structure System.
Department of Civil Engineering , Indian Institute of Technology, Chennai, India

James R. Libby (1989), Modern Prestressed Concrete. Design Principle and

Construction Method, Fourth Edition

J S Mundrey (1993), Railway Tracks Engineering, Published by Tata McGrawHill

Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi, Second Edition

J Zhang, (Department of Civil engineering). Size effect on fatique in bending of

concrete. Journal of Material in Civil Engineerin, v 13, n 6, November/Dicember
2001, p 446-453 ISSN : 0899-1561
 63

Kartini Kamauddin (2000), Construction Material , Construction Engineering &

Management Division, Faculty of Civil Engineerig, Uitm Shah Alam, Edition 2

Md. Azili, Lateral Cracking on Precast Concrete, Construction Engineering &

Management Division, Faculty of Civil Engineerig, Uitm Shah Alam

M.K Hurst (1988), Prestressed Concrete Design, Published by Chapman and Hall
Ltd, Loandon New York

Nikolaus Flippi (2001), Various Types of Cracking and Reason for Cracking.
Focusing on Flawork Laboratory Assignment, Structural Analysis IV

TORE DAHBERG, Railway Tracks Dynamics-A Survey, Solid Mechanics/IKP,

Linkoping University SE-581 83 Linkoping Sweden.

V.A Profilldis (1995), Railway Engineering, Printed in Great Britain at University

Press, Cambridge

W.H Mosley, J.H. Bungey & R. Hules (1999), Reinforced Concrete Design,
Published by PALGRAVE publishers Ltd, Fifth Edition
 APPENDICES A

DATA OF SAMPLE 1

Seat A Seat B
Load Stress Load Stress
(kN) 1 2 1 2 M max kN/m (kN) 1 2 1 2 M max (kNm)
0 0 0 0 0 66.88 0.00003 0 0 0 0 0 66.88 0.00003
2.46 0.73 -1.84 3 -4 417.43 0.00020 12.05 1.5 -3.65 2 -21 1,784.00 0.00087
5.13 1.13 -2.67 10 -9 797.90 0.00039 15.18 1.74 -3.9 3 -25 2,230.03 0.00109
7.59 1.37 -3.22 15 -13 1,148.45 0.00056 17.41 1.89 -4.05 5 -27 2,547.80 0.00125
9.82 1.59 -3.47 20 -14 1,466.23 0.00072 19.2 2.06 -4.19 3 -30 2,802.88 0.00137
12.5 1.8 -3.61 25 -20 1,848.13 0.00091 22.54 2.2 -4.41 4 -33 3,278.83 0.00161
15.18 2.01 -3.79 33 -21 2,230.03 0.00109 25.22 2.37 -4.59 5 -37 3,660.73 0.00179
17.41 2.18 -3.87 39 -27 2,547.80 0.00125 27.23 2.5 -4.7 5 -38 3,947.15 0.00193
19.86 2.34 -4.08 45 -29 2,896.93 0.00142 29.69 2.65 -4.84 5 -40 4,297.70 0.00211
22.32 2.49 -4.12 52 -30 3,247.48 0.00159 32.59 2.81 -4.95 6 -41 4,710.95 0.00231
24.78 2.64 -4.3 60 -36 3,598.03 0.00176 34.6 2.94 -5.13 5 -45 4,997.38 0.00245
27.45 2.82 -4.41 68 -38 3,978.50 0.00195 37.05 3.07 -5.2 6 -46 5,346.50 0.00262
29.91 2.94 -4.55 77 -40 4,329.05 0.00212 39.95 3.19 -5.36 7 -50 5,759.75 0.00282
32.81 3.12 -4.62 87 -47 4,742.30 0.00232 42.63 3.36 -5.53 8 -52 6,141.65 0.00301
35.04 3.24 -4.77 96 -49 5,060.08 0.00248 44.86 3.47 -5.64 9 -53 6,459.43 0.00317
37.72 3.38 -4.91 110 -54 5,441.98 0.00267 47.1 3.6 -5.78 9 -54 6,778.63 0.00332
39.73 3.52 -5.06 121 -55 5,728.40 0.00281 50.22 3.72 -5.93 7 -54 7,223.23 0.00354
42.63 3.64 -5.06 135 -61 6,141.65 0.00301 52.23 3.85 -6.03 11 -52 7,509.65 0.00368
44.64 3.78 -5.13 150 -63 6,428.08 0.00315 55.35 3.97 -6.18 9 -50 7,954.25 0.00390
47.32 3.9 -5.24 167 -67 6,809.98 0.00334 57.81 4.09 -6.29 11 -45 8,304.80 0.00407
49.77 4.01 -5.31 175 -72 7,159.10 0.00351 59.82 4.19 -6.5 12 -38 8,591.23 0.00421
52.9 4.15 -5.42 193 -77 7,605.13 0.00373 62.5 4.32 -6.61 11 -31 8,973.13 0.00440
54.91 4.25 -5.49 209 -79 7,891.55 0.00387 65.17 4.42 -6.68 11 -26 9,353.60 0.00458
57.81 4.37 -5.53 230 -84 8,304.80 0.00407 67.41 4.55 -6.86 13 -13 9,672.80 0.00474
60.26 4.47 -5.64 253 -88 8,653.93 0.00424 69.64 4.66 -6.9 11 -2 9,990.58 0.00490

64
 62.5 4.57 -5.64 273 -93 8,973.13 0.00440 72.54 4.77 -7.01 13 15 10,403.83 0.00510
65.17 4.67 -5.71 298 -97 9,353.60 0.00458 74.77 4.88 -7.12 14 40 10,721.60 0.00525
67.41 4.8 -5.78 332 -99 9,672.80 0.00474 77.67 4.99 -7.15 15 82 11,134.85 0.00546
70.31 4.88 -5.78 360 -106 10,086.05 0.00494 80.35 5.11 -7.33 16 153 11,516.75 0.00564
72.76 4.98 -5.82 396 -111 10,435.18 0.00511 82.36 5.21 -7.37 15 226 11,803.18 0.00578
75.22 5.08 -5.85 437 -114 10,785.73 0.00529 84.82 5.32 -7.48 18 311 12,153.73 0.00596
77.9 5.19 -5.93 483 -120 11,167.63 0.00547 87.49 5.46 -7.62 19 431 12,534.20 0.00614
80.35 5.28 -5.93 537 -124 11,516.75 0.00564 90.4 5.57 -7.73 19 547 12,948.88 0.00635
82.14 5.37 -6 594 -128 11,771.83 0.00577 92.63 5.67 -7.88 20 675 13,266.65 0.00650
84.82 5.46 -6 648 -133 12,153.73 0.00596 95.08 5.79 -7.98 22 808 13,615.78 0.00667
87.72 5.57 -6.11 710 -138 12,566.98 0.00616 97.76 5.9 -8.06 20 960 13,997.68 0.00686
90.62 5.65 -6.11 805 -141 12,980.23 0.00636 99.99 6.02 -8.24 21 1122 14,315.45 0.00702
92.85 5.74 -6.14 923 -144 13,298.00 0.00652 102.67 6.11 -8.35 25 1285 14,697.35 0.00720
95.31 5.84 -6.14 1030 -148 13,648.55 0.00669 105.35 6.22 -8.56 25 1472 15,079.25 0.00739
97.54 5.92 -6.18 1152 -145 13,966.33 0.00684 107.58 6.32 -8.64 25 1651 15,397.03 0.00755
100.22 6 -6.21 1293 -146 14,348.23 0.00703 109.59 6.42 -8.78 27 1832 15,683.45 0.00769
102.9 6.11 -6.25 -124 14,730.13 0.00722 112.94 6.55 -9 28 2069 16,160.83 0.00792
105.13 6.19 -6.32 -120 15,047.90 0.00737 115.62 6.66 -9.1 29 2275 16,542.73 0.00811
107.14 6.28 -6.36 -116 15,334.33 0.00751 117.63 6.74 -9.25 27 2440 16,829.15 0.00825
110.48 6.36 -6.4 -106 15,810.28 0.00775 120.08 6.86 -9.36 28 2663 17,178.28 0.00842
113.16 6.46 -6.47 -95 16,192.18 0.00793 122.54 6.97 -9.57 28 2899 17,528.83 0.00859
115.17 6.55 -6.54 -77 16,478.60 0.00808 125.22 7.08 -9.68 27 3134 17,910.73 0.00878
117.63 6.65 -6.61 -60 16,829.15 0.00825 127.67 7.19 -9.86 28 3376 18,259.85 0.00895
120.08 6.76 -6.68 -31 17,178.28 0.00842 130.35 7.3 -10.04 27 3645 18,641.75 0.00914
122.98 6.87 -6.9 6 17,591.53 0.00862 132.58 7.41 -10.15 28 3895 18,959.53 0.00929
125.22 6.98 -7.05 53 17,910.73 0.00878 135.04 7.53 -10.41 29 4162 19,310.08 0.00946
127.67 7.09 -7.19 103 18,259.85 0.00895 137.71 7.66 -10.62 28 1816 19,690.55 0.00965
130.13 7.22 -7.3 165 18,610.40 0.00912 140.17 7.77 -10.8 29 1555 20,041.10 0.00982
132.58 7.29 -7.48 224 18,959.53 0.00929 142.85 7.88 -11.02 27 1496 20,423.00 0.01001
135.26 7.41 -7.7 304 19,341.43 0.00948 145.3 8.01 -11.27 28 1479 20,772.13 0.01018
137.94 7.53 -7.91 386 19,723.33 0.00967 147.76 8.13 -11.45 29 1482 21,122.68 0.01035
139.72 7.66 -8.09 486 19,976.98 0.00979 150.21 8.28 -11.71 30 1504 21,471.80 0.01052

65
142.62 7.78 -8.42 587 20,390.23 0.00999 152.89 8.41 -12 30 1536 21,853.70 0.01071
145.08 7.89 -8.56 668 20,740.78 0.01016 154.45 8.54 -12.21 30 1574 22,076.00 0.01082
147.54 8 -8.89 775 21,091.33 0.01034 157.8 8.71 -12.65 32 1629 22,553.38 0.01105
149.99 8.13 -9.1 898 21,440.45 0.01051 159.81 8.85 -12.97 32 1680 22,839.80 0.01119
152.89 8.25 -9.39 1056 21,853.70 0.01071 162.94 9.05 -13.4 32 1755 23,285.83 0.01141
155.57 8.39 -9.61 1205 22,235.60 0.01090 165.17 9.23 -13.95 34 1851 23,603.60 0.01157
157.8 8.48 -9.79 1333 22,553.38 0.01105 167.62 9.52 -14.67 34 1996 23,952.73 0.01174
160.03 8.61 -10.15 1480 22,871.15 0.01121 170.08 9.77 -15.36 33 2102 24,303.28 0.01191
162.71 8.72 -10.33 1618 23,253.05 0.01139 172.76 10.08 -16.22 36 2180 24,685.18 0.01210
165.39 8.88 -10.69 632 23,634.95 0.01158 174.77 10.84 -18.61 39 2065 24,971.60 0.01224
167.62 8.99 -10.95 564 23,952.73 0.01174 172.53 11.49 -20.74 40 1862 24,652.40 0.01208
170.3 9.13 -11.24 544 24,334.63 0.01192 170.08 11.84 -22.11 37 1729 24,303.28 0.01191
172.76 9.25 -11.53 542 24,685.18 0.01210 167.18 12.13 -23.27 37 1636 23,890.03 0.01171
175.21 9.4 -11.89 541 25,034.30 0.01227 165.39 12.29 -23.95 38 1588 23,634.95 0.01158
177 9.48 -12.28 544 25,289.38 0.01239 162.27 12.51 -24.71 37 1544 23,190.35 0.01136
179.9 9.65 -12.65 552 25,702.63 0.01260 159.81 12.68 -25.29 37 1513 22,839.80 0.01119
182.58 9.83 -13.12 563 26,084.53 0.01278 157.58 12.84 -25.87 38 1477 22,522.03 0.01104
184.81 9.98 -13.51 571 26,402.30 0.01294 155.12 13.05 -26.86 38 1388 22,171.48 0.01086
187.71 10.2 -14.05 585 26,815.55 0.01314 152.45 13.4 -27.93 37 1288 21,791.00 0.01068
190.17 10.38 -14.49 601 27,166.10 0.01331
192.62 10.6 -15.14 617 27,515.23 0.01348
195.08 10.76 -15.86 627 27,865.78 0.01366
197.53 11.02 -16.58 641 28,214.90 0.01383
200.21 11.34 -17.74 644 28,596.80 0.01401
202.44 11.64 -18.75 644 28,914.58 0.01417
204.67 12.09 -20.31 660 29,232.35 0.01432
207.58 12.59 -22.11 696 29,647.03 0.01453
204.9 13.3 -24.28 667 29,265.13 0.01434
135.26 14.65 -30.64 1125 19,341.43 0.00948

66
 APPENDICES B

DATA FOR SAMPLE 2

Sample
2
Seat A Seat B
Load Stress Load Stress
(kN) 1 2 1 2 M max kN/m (kN) 1 2 1 2 M max kN/m
0 0 0 0 0 66.88 0.00003 0 0 0 0 0 66.88 0.00003
2.23 0.87 -2.64 1 -3 384.65 0.00019 2.68 1.54 -5.17 1 -1 448.78 0.00022
5.36 1.37 -3.65 5 -4 830.68 0.00041 5.13 2.04 -6.25 4 -3 797.90 0.00039
7.59 1.6 -4.23 9 -7 1,148.45 0.00056 7.59 2.42 -6.9 8 -5 1,148.45 0.00056
10.04 1.88 -4.62 13 -8 1,497.58 0.00073 9.6 2.69 -7.26 9 -8 1,434.88 0.00070
12.28 2.12 -4.88 15 -9 1,816.78 0.00089 12.95 2.96 -7.44 10 -6 1,912.25 0.00094
14.95 2.36 -5.13 18 -11 2,197.25 0.00108 14.73 3.19 -7.66 14 -11 2,165.90 0.00106
17.63 2.58 -5.31 20 -14 2,579.15 0.00126 17.86 3.42 -7.73 19 -12 2,611.93 0.00128
19.86 2.77 -5.49 23 -15 2,896.93 0.00142 19.86 3.65 -7.77 22 -13 2,896.93 0.00142
22.1 2.93 -5.64 26 -15 3,216.13 0.00158 22.1 3.82 -7.84 22 -15 3,216.13 0.00158
24.78 3.11 -5.82 28 -19 3,598.03 0.00176 25 4.01 -7.95 26 -18 3,629.38 0.00178
27.9 3.4 -6.14 32 -21 4,042.63 0.00198 27.68 4.2 -8.02 28 -22 4,011.28 0.00197
29.91 3.5 -6.21 35 -23 4,329.05 0.00212 30.13 4.34 -8.09 33 -21 4,360.40 0.00214
32.36 3.64 -6.29 37 -25 4,678.18 0.00229 32.36 4.51 -8.13 36 -22 4,678.18 0.00229
35.27 3.78 -6.36 41 -27 5,092.85 0.00250 35.27 4.65 -8.24 38 -25 5,092.85 0.00250
37.72 3.91 -6.47 46 -27 5,441.98 0.00267 37.5 4.79 -8.27 43 -27 5,410.63 0.00265
39.95 4.05 -6.65 48 -30 5,759.75 0.00282 39.95 4.94 -8.38 45 -30 5,759.75 0.00282
42.41 4.16 -6.65 50 -31 6,110.30 0.00299 42.18 5.08 -8.49 47 -31 6,077.53 0.00298
44.64 4.27 -6.76 56 -32 6,428.08 0.00315 44.86 5.19 -8.6 51 -33 6,459.43 0.00317
47.76 4.41 -6.79 57 -35 6,872.68 0.00337 47.54 5.32 -8.6 53 -36 6,841.33 0.00335
49.55 4.51 -6.83 59 -36 7,127.75 0.00349 50 5.44 -8.71 57 -36 7,191.88 0.00352
52.45 4.66 -6.86 63 -37 7,541.00 0.00370 52.45 5.57 -8.71 63 -39 7,541.00 0.00370
54.91 4.77 -6.86 65 -41 7,891.55 0.00387 55.13 5.68 -8.82 63 -40 7,922.90 0.00388

67
57.81 4.84 -6.86 68 -43 8,304.80 0.00407 57.81 5.8 -8.85 67 -41 8,304.80 0.00407
59.59 4.93 -6.94 71 -42 8,558.45 0.00419 60.26 5.91 -8.85 71 -44 8,653.93 0.00424
62.27 5.02 -6.97 74 -44 8,940.35 0.00438 62.27 6 -8.89 74 -48 8,940.35 0.00438
65.4 5.14 -7.01 77 -47 9,386.38 0.00460 65.17 6.11 -8.89 78 -47 9,353.60 0.00458
67.63 5.23 -6.97 79 -47 9,704.15 0.00476 67.63 6.22 -8.96 79 -50 9,704.15 0.00476
70.08 5.28 -7.01 83 -52 10,053.28 0.00493 70.53 6.32 -8.92 82 -52 10,117.40 0.00496
72.54 5.4 -6.97 86 -52 10,403.83 0.00510 72.54 6.42 -8.96 87 -54 10,403.83 0.00510
75 5.48 -7.01 90 -55 10,754.38 0.00527 75 6.51 -8.92 90 -57 10,754.38 0.00527
77.67 5.57 -7.01 91 -57 11,134.85 0.00546 77.45 6.61 -8.92 91 -58 11,103.50 0.00544
80.13 5.64 -6.97 96 -60 11,485.40 0.00563 80.13 6.69 -8.96 96 -58 11,485.40 0.00563
82.81 5.71 -7.01 99 -62 11,867.30 0.00582 82.58 6.78 -8.96 100 -61 11,834.53 0.00580
85.26 5.8 -6.94 102 -64 12,216.43 0.00599 84.82 6.86 -8.89 100 -63 12,153.73 0.00596
88.16 5.89 -7.01 104 -65 12,629.68 0.00619 87.94 6.95 -8.89 106 -63 12,598.33 0.00617
90.62 5.97 -7.01 110 -67 12,980.23 0.00636 89.95 7.05 -8.85 110 -68 12,884.75 0.00631
92.63 6.03 -7.01 111 -69 13,266.65 0.00650 92.4 7.12 -8.82 111 -67 13,233.88 0.00649
95.08 6.12 -7.05 115 -72 13,615.78 0.00667 94.86 7.19 -8.82 114 -70 13,584.43 0.00666
97.76 6.18 -7.05 118 -73 13,997.68 0.00686 97.32 7.27 -8.78 117 -72 13,934.98 0.00683
99.77 6.25 -7.08 121 -75 14,284.10 0.00700 100.44 7.35 -8.82 121 -75 14,379.58 0.00705
102.9 6.33 -7.01 125 -78 14,730.13 0.00722 102.67 7.41 -8.74 125 -76 14,697.35 0.00720
105.8 6.39 -7.05 128 -80 15,143.38 0.00742 105.13 7.49 -8.78 128 -80 15,047.90 0.00737
107.81 6.46 -7.01 133 -80 15,429.80 0.00756 108.03 7.55 -8.78 132 -81 15,461.15 0.00758
110.48 6.52 -7.01 137 -83 15,810.28 0.00775 110.26 7.61 -8.67 138 -82 15,778.93 0.00773
112.94 6.58 -7.01 141 -86 16,160.83 0.00792 112.72 7.68 -8.67 142 -82 16,129.48 0.00790
115.39 6.63 -6.97 143 -87 16,509.95 0.00809 115.17 7.75 -8.64 147 -87 16,478.60 0.00808
118.07 6.7 -6.97 147 -89 16,891.85 0.00828 117.63 7.8 -8.64 148 -88 16,829.15 0.00825
120.3 6.75 -6.94 151 -92 17,209.63 0.00843 119.86 7.87 -8.56 154 -91 17,146.93 0.00840
122.98 6.81 -6.94 155 -82 17,591.53 0.00862 122.54 7.94 -8.56 160 -91 17,528.83 0.00859
125.22 6.86 -6.97 165 -96 17,910.73 0.00878 124.99 7.999 -8.56 169 -95 17,877.95 0.00876
127.89 6.9 -6.94 240 -97 18,291.20 0.00896 127.89 8.05 -8.56 176 -99 18,291.20 0.00896
129.9 6.96 -6.9 267 -97 18,577.63 0.00910 129.68 8.1 -8.45 183 -99 18,546.28 0.00909
133.03 7.01 -6.94 309 -100 19,023.65 0.00932 132.36 8.16 -8.45 191 -105 18,928.18 0.00928
135.48 7.06 -6.9 347 -105 19,372.78 0.00949 135.26 8.21 -8.45 205 -112 19,341.43 0.00948

68
137.49 7.11 -6.86 393 -107 19,659.20 0.00963 137.94 8.28 -8.45 236 -116 19,723.33 0.00967
140.39 7.16 -6.83 545 -108 20,072.45 0.00984 140.17 8.32 -8.42 274 -119 20,041.10 0.00982
142.85 7.22 -6.9 762 -109 20,423.00 0.01001 142.85 8.38 -8.42 401 -126 20,423.00 0.01001
145.08 7.27 -6.94 947 -108 20,740.78 0.01016 145.08 8.43 -8.42 502 -133 20,740.78 0.01016
147.09 7.36 -7.01 1610 -97 21,027.20 0.01030 147.09 8.5 -8.42 691 -144 21,027.20 0.01030
150.21 7.71 -7.88 558 21,471.80 0.01052 150.21 8.57 -8.38 921 -162 21,471.80 0.01052
152.67 7.78 -8.02 681 21,822.35 0.01069 152.67 8.65 -8.35 1332 -175 21,822.35 0.01069
155.79 7.87 -8.09 826 22,266.95 0.01091 155.12 8.74 -8.45 1827 -186 22,171.48 0.01086
157.8 7.94 -8.24 942 22,553.38 0.01105 157.58 8.86 -8.64 -158 22,522.03 0.01104
160.03 8 -8.35 1043 22,871.15 0.01121 160.03 8.94 -8.71 -126 22,871.15 0.01121
162.71 8.09 -8.45 1176 23,253.05 0.01139 162.27 9.03 -8.82 -83 23,190.35 0.01136
165.39 8.16 -8.53 1300 23,634.95 0.01158 165.17 9.12 -9 -20 23,603.60 0.01157
167.62 8.22 -8.6 1417 23,952.73 0.01174 167.4 9.22 -9.1 42 23,921.38 0.01172
170.3 8.3 -8.78 1567 24,334.63 0.01192 169.63 9.28 -9.25 102 24,239.15 0.01188
172.53 8.39 -8.85 1705 24,652.40 0.01208 172.53 9.39 -9.36 178 24,652.40 0.01208
174.99 8.47 -8.96 1849 25,002.95 0.01225 175.21 9.49 -9.54 283 25,034.30 0.01227
177.67 8.53 -9.1 2007 25,384.85 0.01244 177.44 9.57 -9.65 389 25,352.08 0.01242
180.12 8.62 -9.21 2172 25,733.98 0.01261 180.12 9.66 -9.76 509 25,733.98 0.01261
183.02 8.71 -9.39 2345 26,147.23 0.01281 182.58 9.77 -9.94 716 26,084.53 0.01278
185.03 8.77 -9.5 2496 26,433.65 0.01295 185.03 9.88 -10.22 910 26,433.65 0.01295
187.49 8.86 -9.61 2683 26,784.20 0.01313 187.49 10.01 -10.41 1180 26,784.20 0.01313
189.94 8.95 -9.76 3078 27,133.33 0.01330 189.72 10.14 -10.66 1417 27,101.98 0.01328
192.62 9.03 -9.94 27,515.23 0.01348 192.62 10.3 -10.98 1812 27,515.23 0.01348
195.08 9.15 -10.12 27,865.78 0.01366 195.08 10.47 -11.42 2237 27,865.78 0.01366
197.98 9.31 -10.33 28,279.03 0.01386 197.53 10.64 -11.85 2710 28,214.90 0.01383
200.43 9.44 -10.66 28,628.15 0.01403 199.99 10.86 -12.43 3369 28,565.45 0.01400
202.44 9.54 -10.91 28,914.58 0.01417 202.44 11.09 -12.97 4086 28,914.58 0.01417
205.12 9.7 -11.27 29,296.48 0.01436 205.12 11.34 -13.66 4919 29,296.48 0.01436
207.35 9.89 -11.67 29,614.25 0.01451 207.58 11.52 -14.38 5754 29,647.03 0.01453
210.03 10.23 -12.21 29,996.15 0.01470 209.81 11.88 -15.36 1950 29,964.80 0.01468
212.93 10.51 -12.61 30,409.40 0.01490 207.8 12.13 -19.04 2205 29,678.38 0.01454
214.5 10.72 -13.19 30,633.13 0.01501 204.45 12.36 -19.8 2353 29,201.00 0.01431

69
217.84 11.02 -13.84 31,109.08 0.01524 202.67 12.51 -20.34 2448 28,947.35 0.01419
219.63 11.49 -14.56 31,364.15 0.01537 199.76 12.69 -20.96 2534 28,532.68 0.01398
222.75 11.8 -15.21 31,808.75 0.01559 197.09 12.84 -21.5 2604 28,152.20 0.01380
225.21 12.31 -16.55 32,159.30 0.01576 194.63 12.94 -21.79 2657 27,801.65 0.01362
227.22 12.84 -17.92 32,445.73 0.01590 191.95 13.07 -22.29 2703 27,419.75 0.01344
224.99 13.66 -20.38 32,127.95 0.01574 189.27 13.18 -22.65 2742 27,037.85 0.01325
222.08 13.99 -21.5 31,713.28 0.01554 186.37 13.32 -23.16 2828 26,624.60 0.01305
219.63 14.16 -22.18 31,364.15 0.01537
213.83 14.49 -23.59 30,537.65 0.01496
206.46 14.77 -24.89 29,487.43 0.01445
187.93 18.65 -29.42 26,846.90 0.01316

70
 APPENDICES C

DATA FOR SAMPLE 3

Sample
3
Seat A Seat B
Load Stress Load Stress
(kN) 1 2 1 2 M max kN/m (kN) 1 2 1 2 M max kN/m
0 0 0 0 0 66.88 0.00003 0 0 0 0 0 66.88 0.00003
2.68 1.15 -2.93 2 -2 448.78 0.00022 3.12 1.2 -1.3 9 -2 511.48 0.00025
5.36 1.65 -3.79 4 -4 830.68 0.00041 5.13 1.71 -1.52 20 -4 797.90 0.00039
7.81 2.04 -4.08 6 -6 1,179.80 0.00058 7.81 2.09 -1.66 29 -9 1,179.80 0.00058
10.04 2.34 -4.37 10 -9 1,497.58 0.00073 9.82 2.4 -1.7 37 -10 1,466.23 0.00072
12.5 2.62 -4.48 13 -12 1,848.13 0.00091 12.05 2.68 -1.7 48 -12 1,784.00 0.00087
15.4 2.99 -4.48 15 -14 2,261.38 0.00111 15.18 2.97 -1.7 60 -14 2,230.03 0.00109
17.63 3.13 -4.48 17 -16 2,579.15 0.00126 17.86 3.21 -1.73 72 -18 2,611.93 0.00128
19.64 3.31 -4.48 18 -19 2,865.58 0.00140 19.86 3.43 -1.66 84 -20 2,896.93 0.00142
22.54 3.5 -4.48 22 -21 3,278.83 0.00161 22.1 3.67 -1.59 94 -21 3,216.13 0.00158
25 3.68 -4.48 26 -23 3,629.38 0.00178 24.78 3.88 -1.59 109 -24 3,598.03 0.00176
27.45 3.86 -4.55 29 -25 3,978.50 0.00195 27.9 4.09 -1.52 125 -29 4,042.63 0.00198
30.13 4.01 -4.59 35 -28 4,360.40 0.00214 30.13 4.25 -1.52 140 -29 4,360.40 0.00214
35.04 4.33 -4.66 36 -34 5,060.08 0.00248 32.36 4.4 -1.52 157 -31 4,678.18 0.00229
37.5 4.46 -4.7 39 -35 5,410.63 0.00265 35.04 4.59 -1.41 179 -36 5,060.08 0.00248
39.95 4.61 -4.73 43 -37 5,759.75 0.00282 37.27 4.73 -1.41 199 -37 5,377.85 0.00264
42.63 4.76 -4.77 45 -39 6,141.65 0.00301 39.95 4.9 -1.34 230 -41 5,759.75 0.00282
44.64 4.86 -4.77 50 -41 6,428.08 0.00315 42.63 5.05 -1.34 257 -43 6,141.65 0.00301
47.1 5.01 -4.84 54 -43 6,778.63 0.00332 45.31 5.2 -1.26 289 -48 6,523.55 0.00320
50 5.12 -4.88 55 -46 7,191.88 0.00352 47.76 5.33 -1.23 324 -52 6,872.68 0.00337
52.9 5.26 -4.84 59 -47 7,605.13 0.00373 50 5.45 -1.19 358 -53 7,191.88 0.00352
54.91 5.36 -4.91 63 -49 7,891.55 0.00387 52.45 5.59 -1.12 407 -57 7,541.00 0.00370
57.81 5.49 -4.91 67 -53 8,304.80 0.00407 55.13 5.71 -1.12 450 -59 7,922.90 0.00388

71
59.82 5.61 -4.91 72 -54 8,591.23 0.00421 57.59 5.84 -1.04 510 -62 8,273.45 0.00405
62.5 5.72 -4.91 75 -56 8,973.13 0.00440 59.82 5.95 -1.01 562 -67 8,591.23 0.00421
64.95 5.82 -4.91 80 -57 9,322.25 0.00457 62.27 6.07 -0.98 632 -69 8,940.35 0.00438
66.96 5.92 -4.95 86 -62 9,608.68 0.00471 65.84 6.18 -0.94 712 -72 9,449.08 0.00463
70.08 6.04 -4.99 94 -65 10,053.28 0.00493 67.41 6.29 -0.87 792 -76 9,672.80 0.00474
72.99 6.15 -4.95 101 -66 10,467.95 0.00513 70.08 6.39 -0.79 885 -76 10,053.28 0.00493
74.55 6.22 -4.99 107 -68 10,690.25 0.00524 72.99 6.49 -0.76 1003 -77 10,467.95 0.00513
77.45 6.33 -4.95 117 -72 11,103.50 0.00544 75.22 6.59 -0.69 1123 -79 10,785.73 0.00529
80.35 6.41 -4.95 126 -74 11,516.75 0.00564 77.45 6.7 -0.69 1268 -76 11,103.50 0.00544
82.36 6.5 -4.95 134 -76 11,803.18 0.00578 80.13 6.8 -0.65 1629 -74 11,485.40 0.00563
85.04 6.59 -4.95 146 -78 12,185.08 0.00597 82.81 6.89 -0.58 -50 11,867.30 0.00582
87.27 6.67 -4.95 155 -82 12,502.85 0.00613 84.82 6.98 -0.58 -45 12,153.73 0.00596
89.73 6.76 -4.88 163 -85 12,853.40 0.00630 87.72 7.09 -0.51 -36 12,566.98 0.00616
92.63 6.84 -4.84 177 -88 13,266.65 0.00650 90.4 7.17 -0.51 -26 12,948.88 0.00635
95.08 6.91 -4.84 186 -91 13,615.78 0.00667 92.63 7.26 -0.47 -12 13,266.65 0.00650
97.98 6.99 -4.81 199 -93 14,029.03 0.00687 95.31 7.35 -0.43 6 13,648.55 0.00669
100.22 7.07 -4.81 209 -96 14,348.23 0.00703 97.54 7.45 -0.4 26 13,966.33 0.00684
102 7.12 -4.81 220 -97 14,601.88 0.00716 100.22 7.54 -0.4 55 14,348.23 0.00703
104.9 7.21 -4.77 235 -101 15,015.13 0.00736 102.9 7.63 -0.29 80 14,730.13 0.00722
107.14 7.27 -4.73 244 -103 15,334.33 0.00751 104.9 7.71 -0.29 107 15,015.13 0.00736
110.04 7.35 -4.73 259 -107 15,747.58 0.00772 107.14 7.78 -0.29 136 15,334.33 0.00751
113.16 7.42 -4.66 275 -110 16,192.18 0.00793 110.48 7.89 -0.22 179 15,810.28 0.00775
115.39 7.47 -4.66 286 -113 16,509.95 0.00809 113.16 7.97 -0.25 220 16,192.18 0.00793
117.63 7.54 -4.59 306 -115 16,829.15 0.00825 115.17 8.05 -0.22 259 16,478.60 0.00808
119.86 7.61 -4.59 322 -119 17,146.93 0.00840 117.4 8.14 -0.18 304 16,796.38 0.00823
122.76 7.67 -4.55 337 -123 17,560.18 0.00861 120.53 8.21 -0.22 356 17,242.40 0.00845
124.77 7.72 -4.48 354 -128 17,846.60 0.00875 122.31 8.27 -0.22 399 17,496.05 0.00857
128.12 7.79 -4.52 376 -129 18,323.98 0.00898 125.66 8.38 -0.18 470 17,973.43 0.00881
130.57 7.85 -4.48 383 -133 18,673.10 0.00915 127.45 8.46 -0.14 526 18,228.50 0.00893
132.58 7.91 -4.48 316 -138 18,959.53 0.00929 130.35 8.53 -0.11 585 18,641.75 0.00914
135.26 7.98 -4.44 323 -143 19,341.43 0.00948 132.36 8.61 -0.18 651 18,928.18 0.00928
138.16 8.05 -4.37 322 -148 19,754.68 0.00968 134.81 8.7 -0.18 728 19,277.30 0.00945

72
140.17 8.1 -4.37 328 -151 20,041.10 0.00982 137.94 8.8 -0.18 832 19,723.33 0.00967
143.07 8.17 -4.41 205 -154 20,454.35 0.01002 140.95 8.87 -0.18 898 20,152.25 0.00988
145.3 8.26 -4.52 158 -140 20,772.13 0.01018 142.62 8.97 -0.22 1001 20,390.23 0.00999
147.54 8.36 -4.73 142 -105 21,091.33 0.01034 144.63 9.03 -0.18 1087 20,676.65 0.01013
149.99 8.45 -4.77 128 -61 21,440.45 0.01051 147.76 9.14 -0.22 1223 21,122.68 0.01035
152.67 8.55 -4.81 123 4 21,822.35 0.01069 150.21 9.23 -0.25 1349 21,471.80 0.01052
155.35 8.63 -4.95 119 92 22,204.25 0.01088 152.45 9.32 -0.29 1479 21,791.00 0.01068
157.8 8.71 -4.95 119 188 22,553.38 0.01105 155.35 9.41 -0.33 1621 22,204.25 0.01088
160.7 8.8 -4.99 118 284 22,966.63 0.01125 157.58 9.5 -0.36 1770 22,522.03 0.01104
162.27 8.86 -5.02 117 357 23,190.35 0.01136 160.03 9.58 -0.4 1912 22,871.15 0.01121
165.17 8.94 -5.06 114 458 23,603.60 0.01157 162.71 9.69 -0.47 2143 23,253.05 0.01139
167.62 9.01 -5.13 117 544 23,952.73 0.01174 165.17 9.8 -0.51 2330 23,603.60 0.01157
169.86 9.07 -5.09 114 623 24,271.93 0.01189 167.67 9.98 -0.54 2516 23,959.85 0.01174
172.76 9.14 -5.17 117 729 24,685.18 0.01210 170.08 10.07 -0.76 2691 24,303.28 0.01191
175.44 9.23 -5.27 118 860 25,067.08 0.01228 172.31 10.18 -0.83 2885 24,621.05 0.01207
177.89 9.31 -5.35 119 985 25,416.20 0.01245 174.99 10.29 -0.94 3121 25,002.95 0.01225
180.57 9.38 -5.49 120 1112 25,798.10 0.01264 177.67 10.38 -0.98 3337 25,384.85 0.01244
180.32 9.45 -5.53 122 1269 25,762.48 0.01262 179.45 10.47 -1.05 3514 25,638.50 0.01256
185.26 9.53 -5.64 126 1664 26,466.43 0.01297 182.58 10.59 -1.16 3793 26,084.53 0.01278
188.16 9.66 -5.96 148 26,879.68 0.01317 185.03 10.69 -1.26 4036 26,433.65 0.01295
189.94 9.76 -6.11 152 27,133.33 0.01330 187.49 10.81 -1.41 4358 26,784.20 0.01313
192.62 9.89 -6.43 148 27,515.23 0.01348 189.5 10.93 -1.66 4681 27,070.63 0.01327
195.3 10.01 -6.65 150 27,897.13 0.01367 192.62 11.23 -1.81 5134 27,515.23 0.01348
197.76 10.13 -6.94 148 28,247.68 0.01384 195.08 11.38 -1.91 5644 27,865.78 0.01366
200.43 10.27 -7.33 142 28,628.15 0.01403 197.53 11.53 -2.13 28,214.90 0.01383
202.67 10.41 -7.7 133 28,947.35 0.01419 200.43 11.68 -2.31 28,628.15 0.01403
205.12 10.6 -8.17 117 29,296.48 0.01436 202.67 11.86 -2.64 28,947.35 0.01419
207.35 10.77 -8.64 85 29,614.25 0.01451 205.34 12.09 -2.96 29,327.83 0.01437
209.81 10.96 -9.25 78 29,964.80 0.01468 207.58 12.3 -3.54 29,647.03 0.01453
212.71 11.2 -9.97 76 30,378.05 0.01489 209 12.53 -3.9 29,849.38 0.01463
214.94 11.49 -10.91 75 30,695.83 0.01504 212.49 12.91 -5.02 30,346.70 0.01487
212.26 12.6 -15.28 74 30,313.93 0.01485 214.5 13.16 -5.42 30,633.13 0.01501

73
209.14 12.82 -16.15 76 29,869.33 0.01464 212.93 14.59 -8.35 30,409.40 0.01490
207.35 12.94 -16.66 76 29,614.25 0.01451 210.03 14.97 -9.07 29,996.15 0.01470
204 13.16 -17.41 80 29,136.88 0.01428 206.68 15.19 -9.39 29,518.78 0.01447
201.55 13.29 -17.78 78 28,787.75 0.01411 204.9 15.36 -9.76 29,265.13 0.01434
199.32 13.39 -18.21 79 28,469.98 0.01395 202.44 15.5 -10.15 28,914.58 0.01417
195.52 13.53 -18.86 80 27,928.48 0.01369 199.99 15.61 -10.33 28,565.45 0.01400
192.18 13.64 -19.4 78 27,452.53 0.01345 196.19 15.77 -10.66 28,023.95 0.01373
187.49 13.77 -20.12 79 26,784.20 0.01313 194.41 15.87 -10.98 27,770.30 0.01361

74
64
 75

APPENDICES D

CRACK PATTERNS

SAMPLE 1

SAMPLE 2
 76

SAMPLE 3