Running Head: ELL COMPREHENSION IN CONTENT AREAS 1

Underlying Processes Influencing Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency and

Comprehension for English Language Learners in Content Areas

Vivian Cai
Queen’s University
PME 843
Instructor: Dr. Doris Cunning
Individual Formal Academic Paper
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The English Language Learner (ELL) designation is used in school systems to identify

students whose native language is not English but who are in the process of acquiring the English

language. The ELL designation is acquired through a series of school evaluations including

language assessments and comparison to grade level English proficiency standards (Klingner,

Boardman, Eppolito & Schonewise, 2012). ELLs may be born in other countries, but also in

Canada in a second or third generation immigrant household. In the US, approximately 10.5% of

all students are ELLs with the expectation that within the next 10-15 years, up to 25% of students

will be ELLs in American schools (Vaughn et al., 2017). It is estimated that number is higher in

Canada, with over 25% of students designated as ELLs in Ontario alone (Ministry of Education,

2013).

Some ELLs are “simultaneous bilinguals (Klingner et al., 2012, p.35)” meaning they

speak both English and another language at home, while learning both languages at the same

time. Others are considered “sequential bilinguals (Klingner et al., 2012, p.35)”, who come from

homes where they speak their native language exclusively and are now learning English as an

additional language. The amount of previous schooling and language experience differs with

each individual ELL and each student’s English proficiency and learning progresses at a

different rate. Proficiency in Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS) may be

developed quickly from exposure and practice in an English environment, while Cognitive

Academic Language Proficiency (CALP), mastery of academic English, takes roughly five to

seven years to develop (Ministry of Education, 2013). This research summary will focus on

current research dedicated to the development of CALP in ELLs with regards to comprehension

in content-specific areas such as Math, Science, and Social Studies, and include recommended

instructional strategies for content area teachers.

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Although ELLs come with assets such as linguistic and cultural diversity, implementing

effective instruction for ELLs in schools has been a significant challenge for content area

teachers. Despite the growing number of ELLs in Canadian and US schools, they face many

academic challenges including low achievement across subject areas and are more at risk for

school dropout (Vaughn et al, 2017). Canadian-born ELLs underperform in academics compared

to their English-speaking counterparts as well as newly-arrived immigrants (Ministry of

Education, 2013). An underlying cause of this issue is as ELLs transition to middle school, they

struggle with increasing demands for sophisticated language, academic literacy, and background

knowledge. Although an ELL may seem fluent in spoken conversational English, this oral

language proficiency may disguise their need for support in navigating content-based academic

language. Many ELLs have broad vocabularies that lack depth. These students struggle in

content-area classrooms for a number of reasons including academic English language ability,

lack of knowledge of school and classroom norms, academic tracking standards, poverty, and

amount and quality of literacy instruction prior to entering Canadian schools (Klingner et al.,

2012; Janzen, 2008). They may find it hard to express opinions about academic topics, challenge

others' ideas, and explain their thinking (Klingner et al., 2012) - which hinders their ability to

participate in content classrooms such as Science and Social Studies.

A second underlying cause of academic failure in ELLs is the critical issue that content

teachers lack extensive training for working with non-native English speakers (Janzen, 2008). A

US survey determined that although 41% of teachers have ELLs in their classrooms, only 12% of

those teachers had 8 or more hours of training on how to assist them. From this fact alone, it is

evident that much research and work needs to be done in providing sufficient teacher training for

teaching content specific materials while also enhancing ELLs development of CALP. ELLs are
ELL COMPREHENSION IN CONTENT AREAS 4

faced with restricted opportunities for learning when there is a lack of access to high-quality

teachers, proficient student learners, and curricula. Teachers are more likely to provide more

challenging material for students who are proficient in English (Vaughn et al., 2017), while

ELLs are often given reduced requirements for assignments. The focus of instruction should be

placed on the learner’s ability to comprehend content material instead of the learner’s language

proficiency (Tissington & LaCour, 2010) and this support must be provided across the

curriculum by all teachers, not just specialized language teachers (Ministry of Education, 2013).

By middle school, most ELLs participate in regular content area classes with their

English-proficient peers. Most can read fluently, yet still have difficulty learning subject specific

material. Academic textbooks tend to be written in figurative or technical language and use text

structures that are not commonly understood (Klingner et al., 2012). In Science learning, ELLs

have traditionally been marginalized as their learning needs have yet to be met (Lee, Quinn &

Valdes, 2013). Scientific language is complex and content knowledge is often assessed through

effective writing (Janzen, 2008), a skill which is not often taught in science classes. Social

studies, particularly history, make unique demands on students and the language of history

textbooks can be very difficult for ELLs. In order for ELLs to be successful in high school

history classes, studies determined that the skills needed went beyond linguistic and history

knowledge and included factors such as familiarity with pop culture, confidence, and ability to

participate in quick-paced intertextual interactions. ELLs in these studies expressed concern and

fear of being ridiculed by English-speaking peers and were generally quiet during discussions

(Janzen, 2008). Math is often believed to be less difficult for ELLs because it is based on the

language of numbers. This belief has been contradicted by some researchers; they argue that

English proficiency is critical in math since most of the content is taught through oral language.
ELL COMPREHENSION IN CONTENT AREAS 5

In addition, learning specialized mathematical language can only be learned in school and not

through conversational interaction. ELLs are also faced with the challenge of transferring math

knowledge from one language to another, which often leads to imperfect transference (Janzen,

2008). It is clear that based on the multiple challenges ELLs face in content area classrooms that

intervention strategies should be prioritized in order to enhance comprehension, extend academic

language, and set student’s up for future school success.

ELLs are the biggest group that struggle with literacy, but educators and school

professionals often disagree on best methods of instruction (Tissington & LaCour, 2010).

Fortunately there is an abundance of research that provides strategies on how to support ELLs in

content classrooms that are also language-rich learning environments. Research shows that ELLs

benefit from same explicit, systematic instruction proven to be effective for native English

speakers. In addition, four salient factors were identified for ELL success in high schools

including: a) students’ native languages and cultures were valued, b) teachers had high

expectations for students, c) parents had high levels of involvement, and d) students had access

to challenging, coherent academic curriculum (Klingner et al., 2012). Vaughn et al. (2017) found

that content knowledge and comprehension were improved in ELL students who received PACT

(Promoting Adolescents Comprehension of Text) interventions. The study also demonstrated that

interventions such as PACT also benefited native English speakers in classrooms with an ELL

population of less than 10%. In an attempt to determine the effectiveness of intervention

strategies for at-risk ELLs, Blake, Richards-Tutor, Sparks, and Canges (2018) reviewed 10 case

studies in which ELL students were exposed to various 1-on-1, small group, or no-treatment

interventions. Results showed that interventions were indeed effective on 12 of 18 dependent

variables measured - among the 12 effective variables were small-group interventions and direct,
ELL COMPREHENSION IN CONTENT AREAS 6

explicit instructional methods. Although short-term interventions are provided by many school

districts, it is important to note that intervention effects quickly fade if classroom instruction

does not support and enhance language learning (Ministry of Education, 2013).

Content-area teachers are knowledgeable in their respective content areas, but some may

feel that teaching components of English language is out of their comfort zones. A review of

research identified the following strategies effective for teachers of social studies, science, and

math to include in instructional practices when working with ELLs. Research recommends social

studies teachers shift towards integrating content area instruction to develop functional language

use, and explicitly teach low-frequency vocabulary and grammatical features of history language

to develop proficiency in reading and writing. In practice, this may involve the teaching of

different types of verbs that may appear in history texts (Janzen, 2008), demonstrating

connections between language and content. In addition, teachers can teach cognates and word

roots, introduce role play activities, provide social and cultural support through content-rich

small group discussions, and use graphic organizers to further support use of English language

with links to content (Janzen, 2008; Tissington & LaCour, 2010).

To incorporate science learning with language learning, research recommends teachers

demonstrate “instructional congruence”, which requires teachers to “integrate academic

disciplines with students’ linguistic and cultural experiences” (Janzen, 2008, p.1026). Keeping

this principal in mind, teachers will hold students to higher standards with a focus on elaboration

instead of simplification. With ELLs, the primary focus should be on the discussion of scientific

concepts in everyday English, and then provide scaffolds to help students convert these concepts

to academic language (Lee et al., 2013). Similar to social studies instruction, explicit teaching of

scientific vocabulary is necessary as it is not used in everyday language. Use of students’ first
ELL COMPREHENSION IN CONTENT AREAS 7

language in instruction has also proven to be effective as students feel valued in their

backgrounds and cultures (Janzen, 2008).

Focus on mathematical language is critical for student learning in math classrooms, and

instruction should assist students to move from everyday conversational English to formal

mathematical language. Observations of teachers who were successful in working with bilingual

students showed that they were able to identify student needs without relying on cultural

stereotypes, and did not require their students to speak English at all times, especially during

group work and discussions. Using vocabulary in word problems that were derived from

students’ personal narratives and experiences also helped them grasp mathematical language

better (Janzen, 2008).

Although ELLs are faced with significant challenges in developing CALP, two themes

were apparent of how content teachers can better support language acquisition. The first involves

the teaching of explicit vocabulary and grammar with regards to the subject, and the second is

the importance of recognizing the diversity and cultures of ELL backgrounds during instruction

in order for students to feel included and valued. Creating language-rich learning environments

should be considered the duty of teachers across all curricular subjects, where ELLs can feel

engaged and challenged, in order to be set up to achieve academic success.

ELL COMPREHENSION IN CONTENT AREAS 8

References

Baker, D. L., Richards‐Tutor, C., Sparks, A., & Canges, R. (2018). Review of single subject
research examining the effectiveness of interventions for At‐Risk english learners.
Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 33(2), 64-74. doi:10.1111/ldrp.12160

Janzen, J. (2008). Teaching English Language Learners in the Content Areas. Review of
Educational Research, 78(4), 1010-1038. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org/stable/40071153

Klingner, J. K., Boardman, A. G., Eppolito, A. M., & Schonewise, E. A. (2012). Supporting
Adolescent English Language Learners’ Reading in the Content Areas. Learning
Disabilities -- A Contemporary Journal, 10(1), 35–64.

Lee, O., Quinn, H., & Valdés, G. (2013). Science and language for english language learners in
relation to next generation science standards and with implications for common core state
standards for english language arts and mathematics. Educational Researcher, 42(4),
223-233.

Ministry of Education (2013). Capacity Building Series: Canadian-born English Language

Learners. Secretariat Special Edition #31. Retrieved from
http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/literacynumeracy/inspire/research/CBS_CBELL.pdf

Tissington, L., & LaCour, M. (2010). Strategies and content areas for teaching english language
learners. Reading Improvement, 47(3), 166-171.

Vaughn, S., Martinez, L. R., Wanzek, J., Roberts, G., Swanson, E., & Fall, A. (2017). Improving
content knowledge and comprehension for english language learners: Findings from a
randomized control trial. Journal of Educational Psychology, 109(1), 22-34.