Hypothesis:

HDD engines will hit Euro IV, V, and

US2007 with no more than DOCs
(or less)

Tim Johnson
August 2002
The case
• Increased understanding of combustion principles is
resulting in rapidly increasing technology
• Improved combustion design is rapidly advancing using
current tools, with more to come
Being optimized: split injections, rate shaping, HP injection, cooled
EGR and control, combustion chamber design
In the labs: VVT, virtual sensors, combustion pressure control yet to
come
• HCCI is rapidly developing; increasing load range
• Heavily oxygenated fuels are very clean
– Japan taking step toward mandating DMM
– Application in fleets

2
Combustion Fundamentals
The heat release curve is explained using a
conceptual model of combustion

Sandia SAE 970873

Initial valley of HR curve. Peak of pre-mix burn. Diffusion flame well- Start of mixing controlled combustion.
First indications of oxidation formed, significant soot forms in head Structure maintained until end of injection
offset evaporating fuel.
4
 The model serves as a basis for understanding
efficiency and emissions
Fresh air entrained
in lift-off region • Two stage combustion during injection: 1) pre-mixed rich A/F
mixture burns, generating PM precursors and consuming all the
entrained oxygen; 2) Stoichiometric diffusion flame surrounds these
rich hot gases, completing the combustion. (Sandia SAE 970873;
Cummins, Sandia, LLNL SAE 1999-01-0509)
• 65% of NOx is generated in diffusion flame, balance from hot
remnant gases (Sandia SAE 980147). All internal PM is consumed if
diffusion flame is present. PM emission remnant from plume collapse.
(Sandia, BYU SAE 2001-01-1295, Sandia SAE 2001-01-1296)
• Entrained oxygen will drop PM contained in the envelope, as do oxy-
fuels (Sandia, BYU SAE 2002-01-0889, Sandia SAE 2001-01-0530)
• Entrained oxygen is independent of EGR (Sandia SAE 2002-01-
0890)
• Impingement of the plume on walls causes flame to extinguish at
interface, but lengthens diffusion flame. Soot deposition on wall.
(Sandia, BYU SAE 2001-01-1295).

Parameters that can be used to drop or eliminate emissions:

•Increased mixing/turbulence to entrain more oxygen and burn more fuel in pre-mix zone
(split injections, injection pressure and orifice diameter, bowl design and swirl)
•Pre-mix air/fuel prior to combustion
•Heavily oxygenated fuels to decrease PM formation in pre-mix zone
5
Fuel injection improvements
 Split injections decrease pre-mix burn, drop noise,
increase late A/F mixing, and drop emissions

Pilot injections decrease the pre-mixed burn but drop noise.

(ETH, SAE 2001-01-3497)

Split injections give leaner vapor late in the combustion.

SAE 940897 The timing of the second injection can fine tune this further
Combustion bomb studies. “D75-1.0-25” means 75% in
pilot, followed 1.0 msec by 25% late. (Univ. of Hiroshima
7 SAE 2001-01-3498)
Split injections drop emissions and engine noise
Up to 5 independent
fuel injections per
cycle are now
achievable at the
prototype level from
the major FEI
suppliers

Multiple injections can drop emissions

significantly

8 Ricardo 8/01
Models of injection rate shaping show the “boot” shape
is best. Within 35% NOx of hitting Euro IV for the high speed/load point
NTU Athens, DC SAE 2002-01-0074

At high speed and 100% load, emissions and fuel economy

are significantly improved using the boot shape injection.
Modeled results, but earlier work shows excellent correlation
between model and measured.

9
 Smaller orifice diameters allow better A/F
mixing and can drop emissions

Color shows soot, gray shows combustion. The 45 µm orifice shows no soot
Percent of stoichiometric oxygen entrained in the pre-mix zone formation under either air or “EGR” conditions. Sandia SAE 2002-01-0890
increases as orifice diameters go down and injection pressures go
up. (Sandia SAE 2001-01-0530)

D=130 µm, A=230 µm

10 λ > 2 to 2.5 is needed to efficiently combust the fuel delivered by the smaller orifice. Slightly better NOx/PM
trade-off curves can be attained. 2 liter single cyl. (Volvo, Chalmers SAE 2002-01-1633)
Increasing injection pressure drops PM but increases NOx. Low
PM allows high levels of EGR to more than offset NOx effect.

•2.1 liter single cylinder turbocharged engine

•19 bar BMEP, 17.2 CR

Combination of high pressure injection

and cooled EGR comes close to hitting
Euro IV. Reasonable chances of doing
so if multiple injections are used.

11 (ETH, SAE 2001-01-3497)

 HDD bowl design changes little with optimization, but
NOx shows impact

Modeling of a large bore combustion chamber Bowl design improvements resulted in significant
shows little improvement in bowl design decrease in NOx

•Precise control over the global air / fuel ratio is very important for achieving
simultaneous emissions and fuel consumption reductions.
• The optimum combustion chamber designs found in the current study were
able to keep the soot away from the combustion chamber walls, where it
could contaminate the lubricating oil and threaten engine longevity.

12 Univ. WI SAE 2001-01-0547

Homogeneous charged compression ignition
 PCCI is improved for LDD, extending the pre-
mixed combustion to medium load conditions

Conventional MK approach achieves NOx reduction using heavy EGR to

drop NOx and give a prolonged ignition delay, resulting in simultaneous In the second generation MK system, to fully inject the fuel at
low PM. Combustion chamber optimization minimizes fuel consumption higher loads before ignition, the fuel is injected faster, and
and UHC emissions. Only pertinent at low load, wherein ignition delay is temperature is dropped by using cooled EGR and lower CR.
long enough for good pre-mixing.

For a 5000#
SUV to hit Bin 5,
a DPF and 70%
efficient LNT will
be needed

14 Nissan SAE 2001-01-0200

PCCI applied to HDD shows significant NOx reductions at low
load, flat at high load, but with significant increase in BSFC, CO,
PM, and HC
SwRI SAE 2002-01-0963 High load / High speed condition 1998 calib. CAT C-12
6 cylinder, 12 liter engine
16:1 CR

HRR for
this line BSFC up 2%, HC, CO,
PM up with 20% PFI

At high speed and high load with 20% PFI, about 4% of fuel burns in pre-mix mode (starts 10° BTDC), and probably drops NOx.
However, resulting increased temperature during diffusion burn produces offsetting NOx. Similar, but larger offsets at low RPM.
Low load / High speed condition

BSFC up 6%, HC, CO,

PM up with 20% PFI
HRR for
this line

At high speed low load condition PFI fuel is probably burned along with the rest of the fuel, but NOx is not
15 increased in diffusion burn because low-load temperatures are not hot enough. NOx dropped by 50%.
Oxygenated fuels
 Oxygenated fuels with minimal emission
control can have gasoline-like emissions

Overlay of luminousity readings over soot

emissions shows a good correlation
between soot in the envelope and
emissions. Oxygenate molecular structure
is also important. BM 88: 88% dibutyl
maleate, GE80: 80% TPGME (ether).
Sandia, U of IL AE 2002-01-1631

Dimethoxy methane is being mandated in Japan. By using a split strategy of

A/F management, EGR, and TWC, low fuel consumption and emissions can
be realized. (Hokkaido Univ. SAE 2000-01-1819)
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 Where are HDD engines today (0 - 2 years)?
•SCR for long haul; engine out at 9 g NOx

0.14 •(DPF or DOC) + EGR for MD and urban

•some engines hitting Euro IV w/o DOC
PM, g/kW-hr; ESC test

0.12 US2004

0.1
SwRI, Euro III
0.08 potential

0.06 Univ. WI, AVL, actual

virtual eng. AVL, Proto
0.04 DDC, Ricardo, 1 cyl.
25% load Ricardo,
Ricardo, 1 cyl SFIT, 1 cyl, 1600 bar, EGR; no flex FIE
US2010 est. Deutz, 2013
0.02 Euro V potential prototype
Euro IV
US2007
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
NOx, g/kW-hr; ESC test
•Prototype Engines have cooled EGR, combustion optimization, fully flexible
fuel injection, staged turbocharging, multi-hole injectors, high pressure injection.
18 Japan 2005 = Euro V in 2008
 Prognosis of hypothesis is reasonable
• Continuing advances in understanding, modeling, FIE, and combustion
chamber design will bring NOx/PM trade-off curve to within Euro V by
2005 (-20% NOx, -40% PM from today’s prototypes)
• Implementation of new methods will bring prototype engines of 2005 to
within reach of US2007 (additional -20% NOx, -40% PM)
– VVT, virtual sensors, HCCI, cylinder cut-off, drive-by-wire, CVT
• Oxygenated fuels and/or water injections will be used for fleets to drop
capital costs

However, emission control system integration

and subsequent synergies are the wildcards
19