A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY OF INTERGENERATIONAL

POLITICAL PARTICIPATION: MOTIVES AND MODES

Gianfranco Bañaga

Monique Esperida

Rostanica Viloria

Researchers

Prof. Richard Talento

Thesis Adviser

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page i
Table of Contents ii

Chapter I THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING

Introduction 1
Statement of the Problem 3
Theoretical Framework 3
Conceptual Framework 6
Significance of the Study 7
Scopes and Delimitations 8
Definition of Terms 9

Chapter II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

Related Literature and Studies 11

Synthesis 31

Chapter III RESEARCH METHOD AND PROCEDURES

Research Design 32
Locale of the Study 33
Participants of the Study 34
Analysis and Interpretations of Data 36

Ethical Considerations 38

BIBLIOGRAPHY 40

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 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The political climate of the Philippines has faced a whirlwind of changes since the

liberation and independence from the Americans. There was an influx of hope, and an atmosphere

of anticipation for the future of the country. 1946 marks the end of the Commonwealth, and the

dawn of a new Philippine republic, along with President Manuel Roxas. This study focused on the

political participation of people born 1946 up to 2010, exactly during the post war rehabilitation

efforts up to the digital media age.

The researchers chose Adamson University as the research population for the following

reasons; Manila City is the seat of the government of the Philippines, and boasts the second highest

population in the country with 1.78 million as of the 2016 census. That’s why, Adamson University

is a multicultural mix of students and employees from various degrees of financial statuses and

financial backgrounds. Adamson University’s campus is situated in Manila City and is not far

away from government institutions such as the Supreme Court, Malacanang Palace, Intramuros,

and the City Hall of Manila.

The Baby Boomer Generation was the first generation born after the war. They enjoyed a

time when the nations are rebuilding relations and economic ties with each other. Seven out of the

15 wealthiest people in the Philippines are Baby Boomers. The Generation X-ers also known as

“Martial Law” babies were confined to a single president. They grew up not in economic

abundance but with instability due to Martial Law. The gas crisis was on its way, the national debt

grew exponentially, and there was widespread food shortage. The once rice independent country

was now importing tons of rice. The Gen X-ers were the most constrained generation due to the

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effects of Martial Law. The Millennials succeeded the Gen X-ers, and were the generation that

experienced the EDSA revolution and its aftermath. It wasn’t all smooth sailing for the succeeding

governments. There were subsequent coup attempts and a huge debt brought over by the Marcoses.

The Generation Z is the generation that grew up during the time of technological innovation.

Communication was much easier for people between two different places. The political climate

was very much against illegal gambling, and saw another president ousted. The internet usage was

rising, and it became easier to share opinions, advertise and campaign for the elections, and fact

check claims (Agoncillo, 1990).

In the ever changing political climate, the researchers would like to further understand how

the political participation of these people evolved through time, development of technology, and

political events that have shaped current history. These particular interactions range from the

smallest actions to actions leading to ousters of presidents. The agents of socialization also play a

huge part in the political factors. Interaction with individuals and groups greatly affect inputs and

opinion over the state and the national government. There were dark times that lead to the silencing

of people over political matters, and it is always possible for this time to return. Political

participation has changed Philippine history, and it will continue to do so, even in small ways of

interaction, to large scale protests and movements.

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Statement of the Problem

This study aims to determine and understand the motives and modes of political

participation across these following generations from the Adamson University:

• Baby Boomers (1946-1964)

• Generation X (1965-1979)

• Millennials (1980-1994)

• Generation Z (1995-2010)

The researchers expect to find answers to the following sub-problems:

1) What are the modes and factors of political participation across generations?

2) Why do people participate and engage themselves in political matters?

3) What are the similarities and differences between the motives and modes behind the

political participation of each generation?

Theoretical Framework

Political participation can be defined as citizens’ activities which gives influence to

political decisions. Political activities can be used as the basis of people’s intrinsic value and

necessity for the mental well-being, and on the platform to articulate interests and opinions in a

decision-making process that aims to take those expressions. Action-theory model of personality

to political participation as a structural approach to person-situation interactions within personality

theory implies (functionalistic) about the significance of the taxonomy of person and personality

variables which are relevant for analyses of political action and political attitudes. AMP establishes

missing links between action theory (especially expectancy value theories) and selected

personality variables (self-concept of own competence, control orientations, trust, subjective

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knowledge, and value orientations), which have proved to be significant in the prediction of

political activities.

This theory allows the reconstructions and predictions of different types of political

participation found on person-situation interactions. It distinguishes between the types of (1)

popular, conventional types of political participation (e.g., voting, political information)

presupposing none or only small personal involvement and (2) exposed (unconventional) types of

political participation (e.g., actively working for political party or movement, running for a

political office, political protest activities) presupposing personal involvement and engagement,

which exceeds the social norms and the culturally usual. In the prediction of behavior and

experience, well-defined, well- known situations can be subjectively anticipated and involved

sufficient information for political actions. Person-situation interactions result in cognitive

structures which imply specific expectations and action goals adequate for (a) habitual behavior

(automatisms) or (b) for reflexive action (autonomism). It is assumed that the individual has

possibilities for action from the generalizations of experiences which are manifested in trust or

mistrust, low/ high self-concept of competences, control orientations, subjective knowledge, and

value orientations. Lerner and Busch-Rossnagel (1981) emphasized that within an action-theory

approach to human development, the process of political socialization as the development of action

orientations (i.e. expectancies and valences as well as their generalization) in person-situation

interactions plays a role in political attitudes and political action structures.

In the study of Daniel Rubenson entitled “Participation and Politics: Social Capital, Civic

Voluntarism, and Institutional Context,” the Civil Voluntarism Model of Political Participation of

Verba, Schlozman, and Brady explains that in order for citizens to take part in political matters,

they need a certain level of motivation-that is, they must want to participate. Also, they need the

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capacity to be active so that they must be able to participate. People who are both capable and

motivated of participation are more likely to become vigilant and active if they are part of

recruitment networks where requests for participation take place. Verba, Schlozman, and Brady

analyzed how these three factors-resources for participation, engagement in politics, and

mechanisms for recruitment-lead to political participation in what they refer to as the Civic

Voluntarism Model. The researchers claim that both motivation and capacity for active

involvement in politics have their roots in non-political settings. Early in life, individuals develop

these personalities through the influence of family and school. In adult life, the job, non-political

voluntary organizations, and the church confer opportunities for developing ‘politically relevant

resources’ and these institutions also contribute to their psychological engagement with politics.

Political system, as a vast transformation process, converts the inputs of demands and

stance into outputs toward decisions and actions. That’s why, this study pertains on how strong

expansion of government activities and gradual disappearance of the borderline between political

and non-political activities defines political participations. To make it clear, if politics cannot be

delimited from other processes, every citizens’ activity can be labelled as political participation in

which it enables the political system to guarantee its continuity from generation to generation.

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Conceptual Framework

Evaluating Political
Understanding Motives Identifying Modes
Participation

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework of the Study

The above diagram shows the objective and purpose of this research in selecting

intergenerational actors in the Adamson University through understanding various motives

political participation and identifying the modes of political engagement in political activities

within the society. Through this, the impact of political participation would be seen.

Analysis and evaluation concerning the abstract ideas and reasons behind political

participation would be necessary in order for the researchers to look into the fundamental impact

and range of their political involvement. Consequently, the data which will be collected by the

researchers will be considered as the guideline and source in determining and selecting

intergenerational participants or actors that would outline and classify the modes of political

engagement pertinent with the political activities.

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Significance of the Study

This study would be significant to the community. This would enhance and promote

national issues and events not only to the level of civic engagement but also of political awareness

with the exposure of the political reality of Filipino citizens across generations from Adamson

University.

This would be beneficial to students. This could be used as reference and have necessary

information pertinent to problems for their respective studies.

As for further researches, this could be valuable for future researchers to bring relevant

data with accuracy and clarity.

It could also help the school in giving lectures to have better understanding of political

systems and also to impart consciousness to the institute.

Aside from these, the concept of political participation could help particularly the national

government in establishing obligations and responsibilities effectively to serve and promote the

interests of the people.

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Scopes and Delimitations

The study is guided by several scopes and delimitations. The study consists of methods

which will be used in acquiring facts and data from the members and students of the Adamson

University, conducting a survey based upon their generations categorically from January 1, 1946

to December 31, 2010 regardless of their social status. This would determine the types of action

of the national government that prompted political participation of individuals and define the

factors and modes of participation during their prime. This would allow also to identify and to

know historical events which intensified the level of their political participation. Moreover,

interview questions will be given to a group of political scientists and experts as resource persons

of this study. Preciseness in the constitutional provisions regarding the rights of people is strictly

necessary.

For the study’s delimitations, it defines political and historical events happened and are

happening in the Philippines. The researchers covered the study on the assessment of political

participation of the respective particular generation. It does not focus on the study of the political

participation of silent generation (1925 – 1945) and alpha (2011- present). It means that this study

is only applicable for generations based upon their age and level of reasonableness to grasp

historical and political events in the Philippines. Furthermore, political neutrality would be a factor

affecting the results of the study since there will be a reluctance to participate. It takes caution to

the respondents with voting as their only mode of participation because it may alter the results of

the research.

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Definition of Terms

To impart a thorough understanding of the discussion and interpretations of results and

findings in this study, the following list of terms are hereby introduced, described, and employed

within the context of this study:

Baby Boomers. It is used as a descriptive term for a person who was born between 1945

and 1964.

Conventional. It is considered as the formal way of participating in politics, and the

expected political activities that an ideal citizen must perform.

Generation X. It is the term used to describe a person who was born between 1965-1979.

Generation Z. This is a generation of people who was born between 1995-2010.

Illegal Participation. This is considered to be a part of political participation wherein

participants tend to break the law.

Millennial. This generation is also known as Generation Y or Gen Y, these are people who

are born between 1980 and 1994.

Mode. A way or process in which something happens or is experienced, expressed or done.

Motive. A reason for doing something that causes movement or action.

Multicultural. Of, relating to, or representing several different cultures or cultural

elements.

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 Political Awareness. This is the understanding about current political issues evolving in

the society by having an access in media and an interest in politics as well as through education

with accurate political information as the best indicator over all.

Political Behavior. A portion of human behavior that involves politics and power.

Political Climate. The aggregate mood or opinions of a population about current political

issues that affect said population in some way.

Political Issues. It refers to controversies debated within political system.

Political Participation. An action or activity taken by a citizen to influence the outcome of

a political issue.

Political Socialization. The process by which an individual learn her own definitions of

who they are and how they should respond in the political and economic institutions in which they

live.

Politics. The art or science of governing a political entity such as nation, administration,

and including its control over internal and external affairs.

Suffrage. The right of an individual to participate in the political decision-making process

by voting in an election.

Unconventional. This refers to the informal activities that are legal but often considered

inappropriate when political participation is involved.

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 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

In order to gain a better understanding of political participation across generations, this

chapter covers a study of political participation which is strongly connected with age alongside

with socioeconomic, historical aspects, attitudinal factors, and other means and modes of

engagement. With the ever-changing society, there is also a growth of the available forms of

participation which placed various conceptualization of political engagement. Further, this chapter

explains a thorough understanding about the level of citizen participation in political matters. Some

of the literature addressed the nature and roots of participation within the society. The degree to

which people get involved in political process differs not only from person to person but also from

state to state. The following literatures contain information related to this study.

Generations

Traditionally, a generation has been defined as the ‘average interval of time between the

birth of parents and the birth of their offspring (McCrindle, 2009). These following generations

were chosen due to the historical significance. The study of these generations provide a better

understanding of the citizens and how the social and political climate of their time along with the

factors of technological growth and innovation. The duration and classification of generations were

in accordance with the research of the Australian firm McCrindle Research (McCrindle, 2009).

The generation of people born during 1946 to 1964 denotes the Baby Boomers. People born during

1965 to 1979 are known as the Generation X. People born during 1980 to 1994 are popularly

known as the Millennials or Generation Y. People born during 1995-2010 are known as Generation

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Z (McCrindle, 2012). Generational experts William and Strauss believe that generational personas

create a new era during their time of dominance which tend to last about 20-22 years (Strauss &

Howe, 1992). The age ranges between generations vary since the traditional life stages have

reached the point where they are no longer limited by a certain timeframe. In the Gen Z context,

the typical child gains access to technology and the internet faster, especially compared to children

of the preceding generations. Generational traits and characteristics are usually seen as fads, but

history proves otherwise. People of various ages live through the same events, but the age of which

one is exposed to political, technological, and social shifts, further affect the psyche and actions of

the human being through time.

Generational Historical Backgrounds

Baby Boomers

This generation grew up in a time where every country was rebuilding from the rubble of

the Second World War. The income and means of livelihood were reduced significantly. The

percentage of livestock and agricultural products were halved during the war, and some facilities

left unrepaired. The total picture, then, was dismal and discouraging. The problems that confronted

the government and the men at its helm were of such nature as to challenge the statesmanship of

the President, on the one hand, and the spirit of abnegation and cooperation of the people on the

other (Agoncillo, 1990). Filipinos. Even though they faced a post-war economic crisis, Baby

Boomers make up for the seven out of 15 richest Filipinos. The financial values of this generation

has proven that traditional methods of working hard and spending less. The 50’s marked the

emergence of a new technology dominating the Filipino airwaves. DZBB became the first radio

broadcast network in the Philippines. Bob Stewart popularly known as Uncle Bob, an American

and a former war correspondent, transmitted from a small room in Calvo Building, Escolta. Along
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with Uncle Bob’s journalism skills, DZBB pioneered the reporting on national events, Senate and

Congress reports, and breaking news reports. The emergence of radio broadcasting trumps the

slower speed of the newspaper, thus allowing for the faster dissipation of news. During the 50s,

Ramon Magsaysay was elected as a President, thus emerged a brand of “Tao” highlighting the

common man in the political climate. Magsaysay opened the Malacañang to the public, visited

barrios, and ordered the construction of roads in far flung areas to connect them with the city

centers. He was much loved until his death in a plane crash, which left the presidency to his Vice

President, Carlos P. Garcia. The 50s was also a time of struggle against communism. The HUK or

Hukbalahap were considered insurgents who formerly fought against the Japanese, and refused to

stop the armed rebellion. They were a group of farmers and peasants, united against the idea of

encomiendas, and fought for land reform across the country (Moore, 1971.) The Huk and the

government began its armed conflict after the death of Juan Feleo, a peasant leader, and a high

ranking member of the Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas (Kerkvliet, 1970). Luis Taruc lead the

peasants in both the attacks against landlords, and also talks with the government. The Huk

movement slowly declined mid 50s, and only until the 60s came a more prominent communist

party in the CPP-NDF-NPA. The 60s saw the emergence of television broadcasting which brought

visuals and revolutionized news casting in the country. Diosdado Macapagal’s government was

best known for policies strengthening the country's relations with the Asian countries.

Generation X

The Generation X’s Era was marked only by a single president-turned dictator Ferdinand

Marcos. The late 60s saw the emergence of CPP-NDF-NPA coalition. The First Quarter Storm

marked one of the first major protest against the government. Local student uprisings along with

labor unions and civic groups pushed against the US-Philippine imperialist relations, the
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government's failure to address economic issues, looming threats of a dictatorship, and a non-

partisan constitutional convention. These protests often turned violent, and caused injury to both

sides. These were just omens of the impending violence (Llanes, 2012). The bombing on Plaza

Miranda and a fake assassination attempt on then-Defense Minister Enrile supposedly pushed

President Marcos to signing Proclamation 1081. The Martial Law Referendum unanimously voted

for the continuation of Martial Law, and the ratification of the 1973 constitution. The interim

Philippine Assembly was closed down, and in a famous photo, senators pose beside the locked

gates after the proclamation. TV, radio stations, and news outlets were closed down and were

subsequently controlled by the government. The Constabulary and MetroCom enforced strict

curfews, and arrests of political dissenters were carried out. From Benigno Aquino to Lino Brocka,

the government spared no purveyor of dissent. “White Elephant” projects produced millions and

millions in kickback for the President. While the economy slowly toils into ruins, the First Lady,

Imelda, use public funds in order to build controversial projects such as the Manila Film Center.

Corruption was widespread during these years. The “progress” of the government is debt-driven

and it results to debt that citizens have to pay for until 2025 (Robles, 2016).

Generation Y (Millennials)

The early 80’s meant the lifting of the martial law, and a political crisis due to the

assassination of Benigno Aquino on the tarmac of Manila International Airport (which now bears

his name as NAIA). The funeral parade was a show of force against the Marcoses, who dodged

allegations of perpetrating the murder. The political climate now veers towards the calls for Marcos

to step down. A snap election was called for by Ferdinand Marcos in 1986 against the opposition

candidate, Corazon Aquino, in order to extend his term, and further cement his authority over the

country. The election was plagued with allegations of cheating, replacement of ballot boxes, and
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such. The canvassers walked out in anguish over the “dagdag bawas” and frauds. Although Aquino

lost via the COMELEC count, she commanded a million vote lead in the NAMFREL count. With

increasing clamor and support of the church, Jaime Cardinal Sin, and other opposition leaders

called for the people to flood the streets. Enrile and Ramos, two of Marcos’ top men, broke away

from the government, and brought coup plotters with them. On February 25, Marcos held an

inauguration in the Malacañang premises, while Corazon Aquino held an inauguration at Club

Filipino, San Juan. By the afternoon, the loyalist soldiers stationed in Camp Crame and Camp

Aguinaldo were greatly outnumbered by the supporters. Marcos requested for safe passage along

with his family and close staff. Americans sent a rescue helicopter and brought them to Clark Air

base, where a plane was waiting for them. The Marcos family fled to Hawaii, and people raided

the Malacañang palace where displays of extravagance were in contrast with their living

conditions. The Generation Y enjoyed the aftermath of People Power, and the Martial Law. They

were given much more freedoms than the previous generation. Aquino’s presidency however, was

not all good. The administration had to handle dozens of coup attempts, with Honasan’s RAM as

the most notable. The magic of the People Power revolution died down as the Mendiola Massacre

of 13 peasants overshadowed the climate. The same issues such as economic instability, failure to

provide stable electricity, and proper land reform.

Mid 90’s saw the emergence of the internet, which is the fastest way of communication to

date. The FVR administration was famously known for the period of economic boom before the

Asian Financial Crisis, the peace agreements with the MNLF and the CPP, and the Philippines

2000 program.

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Generation Z

Generation Z saw a presidency close to the masses, but marred with controversy. President

Estrada’s winning margin was the biggest ever in the history of Philippine politics. Estrada

prioritized low cost housing projects and the fight against MILF insurgents. He was unseated on

January 19, 2001, after the protests of the people dubbed as EDSA 2. He was currently facing trial

for his involvement with jueteng, or illegal gambling. He was sent to jail for plunder, and was

released by Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo via Presidential Pardon. Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo

continued Erap’s remaining term. Estrada only held office for 31 months. GMA’s rise to

presidency brought about a similar pattern of public trust, high approval ratings, and then followed

by controversy. The “Hello Garci”scandal was the most prominent. A wiretap voice recording of

GMA and Virgilio Garcillano about rigging of electoral votes was released, sparking massive

outrage and eventually, an apology. Her presidency focused on economic survival, due to the

aftermath of the Asian Financial Crisis, and the subsequent 2008 global recession. Her

involvement in the ZTE deal left her in a bad mark, along with husband FG Mike Arroyo. This

was the time where the use of the internet was much more widespread. The news outlets were

easily accessible, and fast. The availability of information was much more evident. Books, videos,

and other material was passed around easily. The rise of forums and message boards also paved

the way for discourse to reach global scale. The emergence of social media sites provided a wider

platform for political discourse. The media takes a role as a transmitters and senders of political

messages (McNair, 2010). Based on COMELEC data, the Generation Z has also established its

enthusiasm based on the youth voter turnouts since 2010. Since the emergence of the automated

voting system, the voter turnouts have been on the rise. 2016 marks the highest number of turnout

with 81%. 2.2 million Registrants were counted during only the first month of registration for the

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2019 elections. With a huge number of applicants, political participation is expected to increase in

the further years.

Nature of Political Participation

Political participation is a manner that gives influence to policies, decisions, and actions of

government, including its allocation of resources and an aspect directed towards the achievement

of a shared goal (Barner-Barry & Rosenwein, 1985; Milbrath, 1965; Verba, Nie & Kim, 1980;

Washburn, 1982). Journalist James Fallows declared that “when a country with extreme

geographic, tribal, and social-class differences, like the Philippines has only a weak offsetting

sense of national unity, its public life…becomes(s) the war of every man against every man.”

People take part in political life driven by their motivations for becoming involved in order to

increase the quality and quantity of their political engagement. In addition, political engagement

has at least three more characteristics that distinguish from other types of human activities.

Political participation requires collaboration with others having similar interests in order to gain

collective power in influencing political system. When groups of similarly minded people take

public action, they find politics having conflicts with interests and ideologies. Merelman (1985)

reasoned that “Political participants almost always engage in conflict with other persons in the

society.” Finally, political engagement is voluntary since it is a rational choice as for payoff is

higher for nonparticipation than for participation unless citizens find relevance in political

engagement, they would reject participation.

Description of Political Socialization

Political socialization is a learning process of an individual for various political attitudes,

values and patterns of actions stemming from his or her environment. The role of political

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socialization and concern for the citizen's development of political learning can be traced back to

the beginning of the study of politics. The study of political socialization was the field of political

philosophers and thinkers who analyzed and argued for an ideal political system through

manipulation of the educational system. In history, the Greek philosopher Plato, in his Republic,

emphasized the young into good citizens through state-run directed programs (Annas, 1981).

Aristotle also argued the importance of legislation to assure that generations received the education

necessary to justify their roles as citizens (Barker, 1958). Rousseau, in his Social Contract, claimed

that the only possible way the "general will" could be derived would be through citizens

accomplished to accept the same values (Gildin, 1983). Political theorists such as Thomas

Jefferson, Alexis de Tocqueville, Karl Marx, and John Dewey stressed some form of education

and civic training as prerequisites to citizen participation in their ideal political systems (cited in

Greenstein, 1965; Jaros, 1973; Weissberg, 1974; Winter & Bellows, 1977).

Political Participation in Philippine History

Based upon the history of the Philippines, political participation turns into writing novels

which criticized political leaders as in the situation of Dr. Jose P. Rizal, secret insurgency

movement by revolutionary leaders such as Bonifacio, Jacinto, and Aguinaldo. Velasco (2001)

stressed that guerrilla fighting during American regime also showed Filipinos’ behaviors against

political leaders in the country. During President Marcos’ dictatorship, youth activists made anti-

dictatorship movement and street demonstrations and later on to People Power of 1986 which

ousted him in public office. Similarly, People Power II led to the downfall of President Estrada.

Today, based upon the argument of Schofer & Fourcade-Gourinchas (2001) as cited in Xinzhi

Zhang and Wan-Ying Lin (2014), participation already prolonged from older practices of face-to-

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face activities to virtual means on the internet which provide people a wider range in joining

politically-related discussions informing the public regarding political issues in the country.

Granted by the Constitution

As blessings of democracy, there are provisions in the 1987 Philippine Constitution which

permits the citizens to participate on matters influencing our political sphere. For instance, under

Article III, Section 4, it is stated that no law shall be passed abridging the freedom of speech, of

expression, or of the press, or the right of the people peaceably to assemble and petition the

government for redress of grievances. Also, under Article III, Section 18, paragraph I, it is stated

that no person shall be detained solely by reason of his political beliefs and aspirations.

Political Behavior and Its Modes

According to the study of Kinder (1998), the modes of behavior referred to as a well-

defined and established form of participation. An action or political range represented the forms

of political behavior citizens had been socialized to engage in and as such also evolved with the

changing economic-political and social circumstances. Other specific modes of political

engagement to the effects of unique socio-cultural-political environments involve (a) voting and

being informed; (b) conventional participation-campaign-related actions, engaging in political

discussions and joining/being involved in interest groups or political organizations; (c) contacting

activities-getting in touch with local or national officials about problems that affected the person

and writing letters to newspaper editors; (d) unconventional participation such as joining

demonstrations or protest march, refusing to obey unjust laws, engaging in civil disobedience; and

(e) a factor described as passive activities that included attending parades and having love and

loyalty for one's country. Some of the factors that determine political participation are cultural,

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economic, political, religious and educational backgrounds of individuals. Falade (2014) further

stated that the level of political awareness, social trust, sophisticated political reasoning, and the

measure of confidence in the political process, determine the extent to which the citizens

participate in the political system.

Political Culture

The Philippines is geographically fermented and ethnically diverse country wherein

personal values, cultural beliefs, political stance, ethnicity, family, linguistic, and regional loyalties

have traditionally influenced politics. The country’s history has also been marked by a weak sense

of national identity and unity. Researchers of political socialization suggest that developmental

theory is designed to account for the acquisition of individual characteristics such as personality

features, moral orientations, and emotional attachments. Politics is characterized also by a high

degree of particularism and highly personalize based upon kinship, reciprocity, and patron-client

ties. The personalized nature of politics, which tolerates favoritism and nepotism, has also resulted

in skepticism about fairness of government institutions and law. The Philippines has a powerful

tradition of nationalism and an equally long-standing tradition of electoral politics.

Typology of Participation

Participation is a process and is also a desirable end-goal (UNDP, 1993). Political

participation can adjust from passive to proactive (see Table 1). It is a method of progress in

various contexts, from single events to long-term initiatives, from planning, project

implementation and program administration, to policy-making. Consequently, modes of political

participation could be divided along at least two different dimensions namely the mechanisms

through which citizens can exert influence in voting as an exit-based for political influence and

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representing, testing, and illegal protesting as voice-based mechanism and another mode is dealing

with channels of expression through representational and extra-representational channel.

Table 1. Typology of Participation

Typology Brief Description

Passive Participation People participate by being told what is going to happen or has

already happened.

Participation in People participate by answering questions but information shared

Information belongs to external professionals.

Giving Participation People participate by being consulted, and external agents listen

by Consultation to views. Such consultative process does not concede any share in

decision-making; professionals are under no obligation to take on

board people’s views.

Participation for People participate by providing resources such as labor in return

Material Benefits for material incentives. People have no stake in prolonging

activities when incentives end.

Functional People participate by forming groups to meet predetermined

Participation objectives related to a project or development initiative.

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 Participation is usually not at the start of the planning or project

cycle, but rather after major decisions had been made.

Participation is dependent on external initiators or facilitators, but

may become self-dependent.

Interactive People participate in joint analysis, which leads to action plans or

Participation new local institutions or strengthening of existing ones. These

groups take control/ownership over local decisions, so people have

a stake in maintaining structures or processes.

Self-mobilization People participate by taking initiatives independent of external

institutions to change systems. Such self-initiated mobilization

may or may not challenge existing inequitable distributions of

wealth or power.

Source: Pretty et al., 1995

Influences to Political Participation

The impacts to political engagement could be categorized into two kinds of variables

namely social structural demographic and attitudinal. Age, civil status, education, socioeconomic

status, sex, race, locale or type of community, and membership in organizations or political parties

were examples of social structural-demographic variables considered. Attitudinal variables

commonly studied were political efficacy, political interest, and political trust across countries or

groups of people (Bahry & Silver, 1990; Finkel, 1985; Hirano, 2001; Leighley, 1991; Milbrath,

22
1965; Pettersen & Rose, 1996; Seligson, 1980; Theiss-Morse, 1993; Verba et al., 198). Socio-

economic status had been found that income has positively connected for organizational

involvement and political discussion. In terms of age as argued by Milbrath (1965), earlier studies

showed general participation levels increasing with age but gradually declining when people

reached 60 years. In the Philippines, emerging from a history of dictatorship, people power

revolutions to an established and flourishing democracy, and other variables influence political

participation. The place of residence plays a significant role for rural residents prompting political

decision-making thru connecting local government representatives, voting and expressing their

opinion written in newspapers while urban residents have the influence of public opinion by

joining demonstrations and signing petitions.

Declining Respect for Traditional Politics

Historically speaking, under the Marcos regime, the destruction of traditional checks and

balances in Philippine politics and political institutions, creation of new institutions to give the

appearance of democracy, and restriction most other forms of political participation such as student

demonstrations and labor strikes, and controlled and manipulated the media were the trends in

Philippine politics. The awakening of student activism in the 1960s mirrored what was happening

in other countries around the world. The students, many of whom from middle class and upper

middle class families, developed ties with workers and farmers groups in order to participate, and

learn from, the struggles of the “people’s organizations.” This new and more sophisticated activism

fueled recurring anti-government and anti-American demonstrations in Manila beginning in the

mid-1960s. The students’ views were reflected in and encouraged by the anti-establishment

orientation of some of Manila’s largest and most influential newspapers which were owned by

leading members of the elite including Manila Times (owned by the influential Roces family),
23
Manila Chronicle (owned by the wealthy Lopezes), and the Free Press (owned by the Locsin

family) regarding political process, government, and economic status.

Networking Sites and Media Usage

Throughout the years, the arrival of social networking sites and media made an impact to

the political participation in the Philippines which enhanced Filipino’s understanding as to how

political participation has changed over time especially in some of the depressed communities in

the country. Rouillard (1999) pointed out that sources of knowledge in the community such as

colleges and universities played a crucial role in educating their constituents on the significance of

their political participation. The wide-ranging use of social networking sites and electronic media

made politically-related information more accessible and, in return, promoted activism which

allow the important relation between education, news media use, political expression, and civic

and political engagement. It can be used for information exchange and instrumental uses, social

networking use, recreational and entertainment use, and SNS-based political activities. Generally

speaking, internet in the process of democratic participation enables better quality information, a

more direct communication between citizens and their administration, and a more transparent

administration in understanding public policies. To enlighten the citizens, there are forms of media

such as television and radio which allows the people to engage themselves in a debate or

informative discussion so that they can weigh the pros and cons of a particular issue.

Politics and the Public

According to Burgess, Hartley, and Burns (2012), politics is simply defined as the activities

of governments concerning the political relations between countries. At the dawn of twenty-first

century, politics was characterized by an interesting tension. Obviously, media plays an important

24
role in a democratic country since it helps the citizens to better understand the socio-political and

economic issues. People’s opinion vary, and there stand depends on their perception about a

particular topic. The media are recognized as a societal or political institution that influences

consistently. It serves four essential purposes and these are the following: holding government

officials accountable to the people; exposing issued that need attention and people’s participation;

educating citizens so that they can formulate decisions; and it connects people despite of their

differences. People are really dependent upon knowledge given by the press, radio, and television

that were limited, the deliverance of truthful and credible news are important so that they can be

inform fully about a certain topic. Lastly, broadcasters were national broadcasters operating within

politically bounded spaces; in this issue, news can be bias and inadequate. In sum, good citizens

may be those who vote, protest, boycott, run for office, join political parties, join civic

organizations, commit acts of civil obedience, circulate email petitions, write influential blogs, and

attend neighborhood council meetings.

Role of Religion in Political Participation

Religion is an essential avenue of socialization for many people. There are religious

communities where people gather to learn and worship. From ceremonial rites which reinforce the

family units and gender roles, also, this institution foster a shared set of socialized beliefs and

values that are passed on through society.

Family Ties and Political Participation

According to study, if the family is all that matters for an individual, he/she will not fully take

part in policy-making and he/she will not consider himself/herself as a tool for a societal change.

The transmission of beliefs and values regarding the family relies on the relationship between

25
parents and their children; parents teach children values about trusting the family only or trusting

others more generally for instance. Also, men with strong family ties are constantly less interested

in politics and also less likely to join to any form of political activity whether it is from discussing

politics to provide voluntary work or to the most active forms of political participation, such as

rally, strikes or signing a petition.

Voices of the Filipino Youth

In the Philippines, youth pertains to those persons with ages ranging from 15 to 30 years

old, which the government considers as a “critical period in a person’s growth and development

from the onset of adolescence towards the peak of mature, self-reliant and responsible adulthood”.

Their participation can take various types such as voting in general elections, joining political

parties and events, participation in youth organizations or issue-based NGOs or volunteering,

participation in debates on youth or community issues, opinion shaping through written press or

youth radio, participating in online discussion for a writing or following blogs, and seeking

information and learning about democracy such as participating in simulations of political

processes, attending training or learning at school, engaging in youth organizations (EACEA,

2013). Forbig (2005) asserted that youth as a significant sector of society specifically in politics

makes government satisfy their specific needs as a sector and enables them to be co-author of

transformation and further evolution of democracy and its institutions. That’s why, youth councils

serve as platforms for the young to implement socio-civic and community development activities

that directly benefit their sector. COMELEC data from the 2010-2016 elections show a steady

increase of first time voters, therefore proving the capacity of the youth to exercise their voting

rights.

26
Interest to Engage in Politics and Public Sphere

Campbell, Gurin, and Miller (1954) as cited in Schulz, W. (2005) emphasized that political

interest can also be evident in their political participation. It is due to the fact that the more they

manifest interest in politics, the more they likely to be engaged in political activities. Political

participation can be fortified when an individual is more politically active, trustful, and aware that

all efforts of shifting matters become part of making political policies to be considered and

recognized. In the context of this study, political participation is not selective of occupation,

income, civil status, and location of residence. Regardless of people’s demographic profile,

participation in politics is common in a democratic country where almost are entitled to express

themselves as long as within the realm of their rights. Political efficacy can bring deviations in

political contexts since individuals have a direct relationship with political participation. Further,

the higher the level of political efficacy, the greater the assurance of a democratic system to persist

when people give emphasis to their rights, freedom to be involved, and engagement in any political

issues.

To sum it up, political participation enables citizens to express their views and concerns to

government and officials and exert pressure on them to act on these concerns. Lamprianou (2013)

claimed that it involves political engagement and public involvement in decision making. Political

participation relates to individual or collective action that supports or opposes state structures,

authorities, and/or decisions regarding allocation of public goods. Conge (1988) contended that

political participation can be, violent or non-violent and can be of any intensity at national or local

level and can be expressed in verbal or written forms.

27
Related Studies

The succeeding paragraphs illustrate different studies of foreign and local researchers

and/or analysts related to the study which can provide substantial information to develop the

readers view towards it.

In a study entitled, “Correlates of Political Participation,” conducted by John Wayne V.

Jacinto, it was found out that those who have political trust in the selected government institutions,

somewhat interested in politics, agree to have political efficacy, and disagree to have political

participation. In the context of this study, political participation is a choice and it is not selective

of age, occupation, income, civil status, and location of residence. Regardless of one’s

demographic profile, participation in politics is so common especially in this democratic country,

wherein almost everyone has a say and entitled to express his/her wanted reforms and sentiments

as long as it’s within the ambit of his/her rights. Being politically trustful and interested have

moderate tendency of dictating one’s political participation. Political efficacy can go with the

extent of political participation. Likewise, exposure to SNS for obtaining politically-based

information can drive along with political participation.

Meanwhile, the study of Evangeline P. Sucgang, “Typology and Correlates of Political

Participation among Filipinos,” established the types of political participation among Filipino

citizens including some of its attitudinal and social structural-demographic correlates. The

researcher used a data from the National Survey on Filipino Citizenship, 17 political participation

items were subjected to an explanatory factor analysis. There were two types of political

engagement surfaced namely, political participation as proactive involvement in the public arena

and political participation as way of public’s problem solving. Multiple regression analyses to

determine possible correlates revealed the presence of two-way interaction effects for both types

28
of political engagement. Facts gathered from interviews with 20 respondents capitulated 11 other

forms of participation that are reflective of the evolving nature of political engagement as it is

influenced by the Philippine socio-cultural and political history.

According to the study of Christiane Meyers, “Intergenerational differences in social and

political participation in Western Europe”, it was able to emphasize that there are two competing

theories which have led to enormous protests of some European countries—these are grievance

theory and civic voluntarism model. Also, the author provided a data to show the differences and

similarities of political participation in younger and older generation. Though influenced by socio-

economic factors and family background, there is less participation in younger generation and a

shift from more conventional participation and social engagement to leisure time management.

Similar percentage of cohort is part of legal and illegal unconventional political participation

cluster.

Levin Fiorelli, “A New Approach to the Study of Political Participation”, this thesis

developed and applied a new theoretical and experiential approach to the study of political

participation. It started with a thorough review of existing theories and evidences from the

determinants of political participation. The theories that have discussed are synthesized using a

dual-process account of participation decisions. The prime proposition of the account is that

individuals engage themselves in sensible deliberation regarding the benefits and costs of

participation in political activities, but this is limited by automatic responses to social

identifications, values, and habits that predispose an individual’s participation. Also, in this

research, a new statistical procedure was developed to better understand the study of political

participation using a series of hypotheses regarding the impact of resources and civic skills on

political participation, wherein the approach was used to measure the impact of awareness when it

29
comes to economic adversity and support for emergency economic policies on political

participation.

Iasonas Lamprianou, “Contemporary Political Participation Research: A Critical

Assessment”, this study aimed to present a selection of contemporary techniques and

methodological tools for examining political participation. An extensive discussion on different

conceptualizations and definitions of political participation is bestowed, raising the issue

pertaining to the distinction between conventional and unconventional political participation and

showed why this distinction is largely insincere and to a certain extent impalpable. In order to

facilitate the discussion about extreme and vicious political participation activities (as they are

described in contemporary research), recurrent references are drawn to perceptions of the ancient

Athenians as regards the roles and civil duties as citizens within their community, showing that

these duties did not necessarily distinguish between different types of participation.

30
Synthesis

The foregoing literature presented may impart concepts pertaining to the attempt and

appeal of people to take part in various political activities and the general reason behind this kind

of engagement. People have this political life driven by their respective motivations, level of

political awareness, social trust, sophisticated political reasoning, and the measure of confidence

in the political process to increase the quality and quantity of their political engagement. Political

participation requires collaboration to gain collective power in influencing political system.

That’s why, the researchers also put an attention to four agents of political socialization

namely the family, the school, the peer group, and the mass media-merit. It pointed out that

political participation depends upon from the kind of government and the nature of societies when

people develop their awareness of their political rights. There are modes, factors and/or

backgrounds which would determine political participation culturally, economically, politically,

religiously, and educationally of individuals concerning the highlights of those historical, political,

and educational scenarios as an instrument for citizen participation.

Moreover, this study focuses about the level, rationale, and ways of citizen participation in

political matters in the Philippine setting. Indeed, there is an endeavor to define not only past events

but also current political, socioeconomic, and educational situations in the Philippines which

could, in some way, help as a mechanism in understanding and strengthening political participation

together with the political awareness of citizens.

31
 CHAPTER III

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

This Chapter of the study pertains to the description of the research method used, research

design, locale of the study, respondents of the study, and methods of data-gathered in the analysis

of the obtained data. It explains the process of the complete project used in collecting the data and

information obtained in primary and secondary sources that were taken into consideration with the

importance and reason for the choice of the topic.

Research Design

According to Polit, et al (2001:178), non-experimental research is a descriptive study to

justify current practices and make judgments or develop theories. A descriptive research refers to

the type of research question, design, and data analysis that will be applied to a given topic

describing events and then organizes, tabulates, depicts, and describes the data collection.

Meanwhile, Burns and Grove (2003:19) described a qualitative approach used to explore and

understand the behaviour, perspectives, experiences, and feelings of people.

The study contains a qualitative descriptive research as a method of collecting, analyzing,

and evaluating data about situations, beliefs, practices, trends, and other social matters with actual

and sufficient interpretation of data in order to select intergenerational actors in the Adamson

University through determining the concepts of and reasons for political participation and

identifying the modes of political engagement in political activities of the society. This study also

entails the assessment that must be carried out, collected, and analyzed with the use of data and

information outcome. It means that this involves a purposeful qualitative sampling which is the

32
most common sampling strategy generating qualifying criteria to be considered for the research

study.

The analysis and interpretation of the responses from the respondents are supported by data

taken from surveys as a form of general feedback and/or sentiments, and most importantly, the

facts given by experts such as sociologists, political scientists, and historians as resource persons.

With the help of chart 3.1, researchers will conduct the survey and will apply it accordingly.

Chart 3.1

Area of Research Intergenerational Political Participation

Research Design Qualitative and Descriptive

Tools used for Collection of Data Primary and Secondary Data

Target Number of Participants Members and Students of the Academe

Research Instruments Questionnaires

City Specification San Marcelino St., Ermita, Manila City

There are several ways of collecting pertinent data which vary considerably in the context

of money cost, time, and other resources of the researchers.

Locale of the Study

Specifically, the researchers chose Adamson University because it houses a variety of

culture, language, social status, and it consists of 15,000 students, and 800 employees. It was

33
established on 1932 by Dr. George Lucas Adamson as a school to train Filipino chemists in soap

making. Currently, Adamson University houses a multitude of students from different provinces

and social backgrounds.

Figure 2. Location Map

This figure presents the campus of Adamson University located in San Marcelino which

would be used as the target area for data collection.

Participants of the Study

The members and students of the educational institution as the respondents of the study,

conducting and preparing survey, based upon their generations categorically from January 1, 1946

to December 31, 2010 in which the researchers will select a sample depending upon the criteria or

particular profile suited on the purpose and interests are considered to be valuable. A researcher-

made questionnaire as part of the survey and interview determines the types of action of the

national government that prompted political participation of individuals. Necessary care will be

34
taken to keep all the information confidential to the extent it is required. Respondents will have an

atmosphere which is entirely free from any pressure or forced questions so that the respondents

will be honest with their true opinions. They will have enough time and assistance to answer the

questionnaire.

Since this study has a purposive sampling method, the researchers generate qualifying

criteria to be considered for the research study. Burns and Grove (2003: 234) defined eligibility

criteria as a list of characteristics that are required for the membership in the target population. The

criteria for inclusion in this study will be:

• Age must be in accord with their respective generations specifically from January 1, 1946

to December 31, 2010;

• A registered voter in the Philippines (if necessary); and

• A member or a student of the academic institution

As for the interview of experts, this study focuses only to the following professions that

can be considered as resource persons to acquire facts and information:

• Political scientists;

• Sociologists;

• Political science professors; and

• Historians

The researchers believed that history, political science, and sociology majors have

important features combined with critical thinking that can greatly help this study. It is due to the

fact that they have been able to grasp how people, ideas, institutions, and nations have changed

over time exploring art, economics, politics, religion, local and global studies, and other aspects of

the human experiences. The level of their political awareness in the political process also determin

35
es their engagement in the political system. In connection with this, their knowledge can help

individuals to understand the political reality of the society, and to help the political system

integrate each new generation.

Analysis and Interpretations of Data

In this study, the analysis of intergenerational details and opinions of the respondents

towards social issues express a non-probability sampling in which the researchers use their in-

depth judgment to select the included subjects in the study based on their knowledge of the

phenomenon.

• Comprehending: The researchers want to learn about what is going on. When

comprehension has been achieved, the researchers have the capacity to prepare a detailed

description of the phenomenon under study.

• Synthesizing: This involves shifting data and putting the pieces together. This will enable

the researchers to make sense of what is typical regarding the phenomenon. The researchers make

general statements regarding the phenomenon and participants.

• Theorizing: This is the systematic sorting out of data. Alternative explanations of the

phenomenon are developed by the researchers to determine their correlation with the data.

More importantly, the information which will be collected must be processed and tabulated

suitably by highlighting all the parameters. For the presentation of the data, tables, charts, and

diagrams will be used. To make sense of the data, the researchers listed the necessary steps:

• Responses during the survey within Adamson University.

• Significant statements concerning their life experiences will be extracted.

36
 • Themes will be used to provide a full description of the experience. Ideas will be

formulated from extracted statements and then will be clustered into themes to provide full

meaning. The participants will be consulted to ensure or confirm the credibility of the description.

• Lastly, infographics will be used to convey the meanings and results of the survey

accordingly.

37
 Ethical Considerations

This study presents the matter of ethical issues associated to human beings. To respond

with any concerns, ethical considerations are addressed in line with the questionnaires and

presentation of consent forms as an awareness for the target participants. It observes the standards

and/or guidelines of the university regarding political issues since it involves politics, and more

specifically, the upcoming 2019 Election. Moreover, the researchers have to consider the Data

Privacy Policy of the Philippines regarding the respondents’ name and age. The researchers need

to bear in mind the extent to which confidentiality can be fully assured in the event of issues. The

dignity and welfare of students will be protected at all times. The research data will remain

confidential throughout the study and the researchers must obtain the students’ permission first. In

this research study, students will be given a discretion not to put their real names on the

questionnaires in order to guarantee anonymity and enhance the possibility that the data is a precise

reflection of their feelings at the time. In addition, to protect the privacy of those involved,

respondents' names will be replaced with pseudonyms throughout the study.

The researchers will seriously take into account how questions will be posed to ensure that

the questions does not harm nor make the respondents uncomfortable. Participants will be briefed

fully regarding the purpose and conduct of the study. It has to make clear that their participation is

voluntary and they can withdraw from the research at any stage without penalty. When all

participants agree that they completely and clearly understand every detail, they will be given a

written consent form to be signed on behalf of their participation in the study. The consent of the

participants will be recorded and notes will be kept. This study has dealt with information about

their experience, participation, and insights in policymaking with its corresponding problems,

therefore, all effort has to be made to assure that no identification is to be revealed to the public.

38
 Furthermore, the information which will be obtained does not involve sensitive questions

which can cause any distraction to the participants, and it does not have the participation of

vulnerable groups. The respondents are recruited based on the qualifications set by the researchers.

Basically, according to the methods of this study, there shall be no risks involved. Thus, the

possible benefits of this study apparently outweigh the risks. Besides, the infographics as the

product of this research project will provide information in regards to their political participation.

It has to be clear that there will be no financial incentives or compensations to be used throughout

data collection. Hence, the impact of involvement of the Adamson community in the conduct of

the study conceptualizes political participation and its different habits which impacts politics in

the Philippine setting.

39
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