Seminar On

FOUNDATIONS AND FOUNDATION IN WEAK SOIL

By
Name- Priyanka Kumari
Roll no – 1603037

Department of Civil Engineering

National Institute Of Technology Patna
 PREFACE

I have made this report file on the topic FOUNDATION IN WEAK SOIL; I have tried my best to
elucidate all the relevant detail to the topic to be included in the report. While in the beginning I
have tried to give a general view about this topic.

My efforts and wholehearted co-corporation of my mates have ended on a

successful note. I express my sincere gratitude to S.S. Choudhary sir, for assisting me throughout
the preparation of this topic. I thank him for providing me the reinforcement, confidence and most
importantly the track for the topic whenever I needed it.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank respected Dr. S.S. Choudhary sir for giving me such a wonderful opportunity
to expand my knowledge for my own branch and giving me guidelines to present a seminar report.
It helped me a lot to realize of what we study for. Secondly, I would like to thank my parents who
patiently helped me as i went through my work and helped to modify and eliminate some of the
irrelevant or un-necessary stuffs. Thirdly, I would like to thank my friends who helped me to make
my work more organized and well stacked till the end. Next, I would thank Microsoft for
developing such a wonderful tool like MS Word. It helped my work a lot to remain error-free. Last
but clearly not the least, I would thank The Almighty for giving me strength to complete my report
on time.
 Contents

1. Chapter.1

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Background History

2 .Chapter.2

2.1 Purpose of Foundation

2.2 Requirements of a good Foundation

3. Chapter.3

3.1 Classification of Foundation

3.2 Shallow Foundation

3.2.1 Isolated footing

3.2.2 Combined footing

3.2.3 Raft or Mat footing

3.2.4 Strip footing

3.3 Deep Foundation

3.3.1 Pile Foundation

3.3.2 Precast Piles

3.3.3 Cast in Situ Piles

4. Chapter .4

4.1 Shallow Foundation in compressible soil

4.2 Deep Foundation in compressible soil

5. Conclusion
 Chapter 1
1.1 Introduction

Foundation is an important part of the structure which transfers the load of the structure to
the foundation soil. The foundation distributes the load over a large area. So that pressure
on the soil does not envolve allowable bearing capacity and restricts the settlement of the
structure within the permissible limits. Foundation increases the stability of the structure.
The settlement of the structure should be as uniform as possible and it should be within the
tolerable limits.
In simple words, Consider 1m3 of concrete weight i.e., 2400 Kgs to 2600 Kgs depending on
mix. Think for a two storeyed building how much concrete needed? How much quantity of
bars needed to construct a building. Foundation is to be strong enough to bear that all
loads without any settlement, So for spreading the vertical load to large area footings are
constructed .Commonly the selection of foundation type for a given structure is controlled
by number of factors for example size of development process, limitations, type of soil etc.
Among these factors types of soil play significant role.

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1.2History of Foundation

Constructing foundations is one of the oldest of human activities. Foundations provide support for structures
by transferring their load to layers of soil or rock beneath them. Over 12,000 years ago, neolithic inhabitants
of Switzerland built houses on long, wooden piles that were driven into the soft beds of shallow lakes,
keeping people high up above dangerous animals and hostile neighbours. A few thousand years later, the
Babylonians raised their monuments on mats made from reed, and the ancient Egyptians supported the
pyramids on stone blocks which rested on the bedrock. It was in ancient Rome that foundation engineering
really leapt forwards, with rules created and concrete used. In the first of a series of posts that chart the
history of modern building elements in the UK, we look at how foundation engineering has changed over the
past century or so.

Byelaws for healthy buildings

The Public Health Act, introduced in 1875, was the first legislation that required byelaws to be set by the
authorities. These byelaws were focussed on the development of new streets, ensuring the structural
stability of houses, preventing fires, providing adequate and efficient drainage, and ensuring air space
around buildings.
In 1878, the Building Act provided more detail regarding house foundations and wall types. For foundations,
the byelaws stated that walls should have stepped footings (twice the width of the wall) and that nine inch
(225mm) thick concrete should be placed under the footings unless the building sat on gravel or rock sub-
soil (‘solid ground’). At that time, Portland cement was seen as making the best concrete, with hydraulic lime
as ‘the next best thing’. Common (hydrated) lime was seen as inferior.
It is not known how many authorities adopted these byelaws outside London – many produced their own,
less onerous rules. This meant that the nature and quality of foundations varied somewhat (concrete
foundation, brick footings, rubble/flagstone) with depths varying according to circumstances and, in general,
shallower than modern foundations.
Raft vs strip foundations

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Raft foundations are created from reinforced concrete slabs of uniform thickness, covering a wide area.
They spread the load over the whole area of the foundation, in effect ‘floating’ on the ground. In the 1920s
and 1930s, this type of foundation was common, with brick footings also permitted.
In the late 1940s and throughout the 1950s, most new houses were built on strip foundations, although raft
foundations remained popular. Strip foundations are particularly suited to light structural
Chapter 2

2.1 Purpose of Foundation

The design and the construction of a well-performing foundation must possess some basic
requirements that must not be ignored. They are:

• The design and the construction of the foundation is done such that it can sustain as well as
transmit the dead and the imposed loads to the soil. This transfer has to be carried out without
resulting in any form of settlement that can result in any form of stability issues for the structure.
• Differential settlements can be avoided by having a rigid base for the foundation. These issues are
more pronounced in areas where the superimposed loads are not uniform in nature.
• Based on the soil and area it is recommended to have a deeper foundation so that it can guard any
form of damage or distress. These are mainly caused due to the problem of shrinkage and swelling
because of temperature changes.
• The location of the foundation chosen must be an area that is not affected or influenced by future
works or factors.

2.2 Requirements of a good foundation

The design and the construction of a well-performing foundation must possess some basic
requirements that must not be ignored. They are:

• The design and the construction of the foundation is done such that it can sustain as well as
transmit the dead and the imposed loads to the soil. This transfer has to be carried out without
resulting in any form of settlement that can result in any form of stability issues for the structure.
• Differential settlements can be avoided by having a rigid base for the foundation. These issues are
more pronounced in areas where the superimposed loads are not uniform in nature.
• Based on the soil and area it is recommended to have a deeper foundation so that it can guard any
form of damage or distress. These are mainly caused due to the problem of shrinkage and swelling
because of temperature changes.
• The location of the foundation chosen must be an area that is not affected or influenced by future
works or factors.

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 Chapter.3

3.1 Classification of Foundation

3.2 Shallow Foundation

3.2.1Isolated Footing

Footings which are provided under each column independently are called as Isolated
footings. They are usually square, rectangular or circular in section. Footing is laid on PCC.
Before laying PCC, termite control liquid is sprayed on top face of PCC to restrict the
termites to damage the footing. Isolated footings are provided where the soil bearing
capacity is generally high and it comprises of a thick slab which may be flat or stepped or
sloped. This type of footings are most economical when compared with the other kind of
footings.

Advantages of Isolated Footing:-

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 1. Economical when columns are placed at longer distances.
2. Workmen with little or no knowledge can easily construct.
3. Ease of Constructability:- Excavation, Form-work, Reinforcement placement and
placing of Concrete is at ease.

i) Flat or Pad or Plain footing:-

These kind of footings are generally square or rectangular or circular in shape which are
provided under each column independently. Flat or Pad footing is one of the Shallow
Foundations. It is circular, square or rectangular slab of uniform thickness.

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ii) Stepped footing:-
These types of footings are constructed in olden days now they are outdated. As from the
name its resembling that, footings are stacked upon one another as steps. Three concrete
cross sections are stacked upon each other and forms as a steps. This type of footings are
also called as a Step foundation. Stepped footing is used generally in residential buildings.

(iii)Sloped Footing:-
Sloped footings are trapezoidal footings. They are designed and constructed with great care
to see that the top slope of 45 degree is maintained from all sides. When compared the
trapezoidal footing with the flat footing, the usage of concrete is less. Thus, it reduces the
cost of footing in concrete as well as reinforcement.

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(iv) Shoe or eccentric footing –
Shoe footing is the half cut-out from the original footing and it has a shape of shoe. They
are constructed on property boundary, where there is no provision of setback area. It is
constructed at the corner of the plot when the exterior column is close to the boundary or
property line and hence there is no scope to project footing much beyond the column face.
Column is provided or loaded at the edges of shoe footing. Shoe footings are constructed
when the soil bearing capacity is 24KN/m2

3.2.2 Combined footing:-

A footing which has more than one column is called as combined footing. This kind of
footing is adopted when there is a limited space. Due to lack of space we cannot cast

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individual footing, Therefore footings are combined in one footing. They are classified into
two types based on their shape:

A footing which has more than one column is called as combined footing. This kind of
footing is adopted when there is a limited space. Due to lack of space we cannot cast
individual footing, Therefore footings are combined in one footing. They are classified into
two types based on their shape:

Rectangular and Trapezoidal Combined Footing

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3.2.3Raft Or Mat Footing:-
When the column loads are heavy or when the safe bearing capacity of soil is very low, the
required footing area become very large. As mentioned this footing is in shallow foundation.
So in order to spread the load over large area with less depth then we have to increase the
footing area. If we increase footing area the footings are overlapped each other, instead of
providing each footing on each column all columns are placed in common footing. A raft
foundation is a solid reinforced concrete slab covering entire area beneath the structure and
supporting all the columns. Such foundation due to its own rigidity minimizes differential
settlements.
It is provided in a places like seashore area, coastal area area where the water table is very
high and soil bearing capacity is very weak.

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When number of column in more than one row, provided with a combined footing, the footing
is called mat or raft foundation.

How to decide which footing is to be adopted Isolated footing or Raft footing:-

1. If the bearing capacity of the soil is very good and the super structural load is very
small the use of isolated foundation is recommended.
2. If the bearing capacity of the soil is very low, like less than 100 kpa ( this isn’t an exact
number but it could be used as a boundary)
3. If the super structural load to be transferred to the foundation is very high that the area
of the isolated footing to be used is more than half the area covered by the
building (this is recommended by Joseph E Bowles)
4. When we provide elevator in the building a separate raft may be provided on the
elevator shaft.
5. When the soil contains lenses ( or weak zones ) that should be bridged then raft might
be used.
Raft footing does not have neck column, they start directly from the ground surface but
reinforcement of neck column starts from Raft.

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3.2.4Strip Foundation

Strip foundation is also called as Wall footing. As name itself showcasing that, it is a strip
type footing which follows the path of Superstructure Wall. This type of footing is
constructed for Load bearing walls. It is a continuous strip of concrete that serves to spread
the weight of a load-bearing wall across an area of soil. The strip footing foundation width
is decided by considering bearing capacity of soil. Greater the bearing capacity of soil lesser
is the width of the Strip footing.

Advantages of Strip Footing:

1. It doesn’t require expensive tools to construct.
2. Easy to build
3. Not required skilled labour to construct.
Disadvantages of Strip footing:
1. Less durable when compared with other types of footings
2. This type of footing is not suitable for specific types of soils
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3.3Deep Foundation
If the depth of a foundation is greater than its width, the foundation laid is known as deep
foundation. In deep foundation, the depth to width ratio is usually greater than 4 to 5. Deep
foundations as compare to Shallow foundations distribute the load of the super structure
vertically rather than laterally. Deep foundations are provided when the expected loads from
superstructure cannot be supported on shallow foundations.

3.3.1Pile Foundation:-

A pile is a long vertical load transferring member made of timber, steel or concrete. In pile
foundations, a number of piles are driven in the base of the structure.
They are constructed where excessive settlement is to be eliminated and where the load is
to be transferred through soft soil stratum, where the Soil bearing capacity is sufficient.
These types of footings are provided when the Soil bearing capacity of soil is very weak and
the Ground water table (level) is high. These types of the footings are generally designed
on sea shore areas, bridges to construct pillars, etc.
The main objective of providing piles under the footing is to prevent structure from
settlement. If we don’t provide pile under the footing, then the building will have settlement.
Piles are hammered in to the ground till hard strata (in compressible) layer of earth is found.
Pile foundations are divided into two types they are:-
1. Pre cast Piles.
2. Cast-in-situ piles

3.3.1Precast Piles:

Precast piles are casted at factory and transported to the site. This kind of piles are
readymade and used where there is less place to cast pile. Precast piles are not economical
and requires more money to transport piles to the site.
The Pre-cast concrete piles are usually reinforced or Pre-stressed concrete piles. These
piles occupies more space for casting and storage, and takes more time to set and
cure. The precast concrete piles are generally used for a maximum design load of about
800 KN except for large Pre-stressed piles. The length of precast concrete piles varies from
4.5 m to 30m. The Pre-stressed concrete piles as compared to Pre-cast and reinforced
concrete piles are lesser in weight & easy to handle having high load carrying capacity and
are extremely durable.

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3.3.2 Cast-in-situ piles.
The piles which are casted on site. And don’t require any transportation is called cast-in-
situ piles. The cast-In-situ concrete piles are casted in position inside the ground and need
not to be reinforced in ordinary cases. These piles are not subjected to handling or driving
stresses. The cast- in-situ concrete piles are generally used for a maximum design load of
750 KN

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 Chapter 4

Foundation in weak soil

A .Clays/Silts/Peats
These types of soil deposits are often found near the mouths of rivers, along the perimeters of
bays, and beneath swamps or lagoons. Soil deposits with high organic content are often found in
these low lying types of locations and can be especially troublesome. Since land features in
which these troublesome soils are typically found are low lying, they are prone to flooding.
Hence before buildings or roadways can be constructed on such soil deposits, the grade level
must be raised by adding compacted fill. However, adding significant amounts of compacted fill
puts significant loads on the soil which can cause significant settlements.

As an example, the New Jersey Meadowlands complex was constructed in the 1980’s on
marshlands of the Hackensack River in central New Jersey, just a few miles west of midtown
Manhattan (NYC). Settlements observed in the soft soil due to placement of fill were:
• 0.25m during placement of the fill;
• 0.12m during the construction phase; and
• 0.10m over the ten following years.

B. Loose Saturated Sands

Loose saturated sand deposits that are located in seismically active regions are prone to
liquefaction and settlements during strong ground motion. A classic example occurred in the
1964 Niigata Earthquake in Japan. In this case, many buildings situated on loose saturated sand
deposits settled more than 1m during the earthquake, and others (in particular an apartment
building) tipped over on their sides. (Apartment buildings are not hydrodynamically stable
structures, and when the soil liquefies, they will “capsize.”

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4.1Deep Foundations in compressible soil

One option is to support structures on deep

foundations (piles or caissons) which penetrate
through the weak/ compressible soils. Even when
deep foundations are employed, however, it is still
generally necessary to import fill to raise the grade
level above the flooding level. Thus deep
foundations must be used in combination with fill
placed on the weak/ compressible soils. This is a
delicate situation which the geotechnical engineer
must recognize. (Fig. 1)

The potential difficulty is that after the deep Figure 1. Deep foundations through
foundations are constructed, the weak/ layer(s) of compressible soil.
compressible soil with fill placed upon it will
continue to undergo significant settlement. As the
soil settles, it tends to pull down on the deep
foundations through “negative skin friction” or
“downdrag.” This can lead to significant settlement
of the deep foundations, and the possibility of
significant differential settlements. If pile caps are
used this can result in some piles being pulled out
of the cap. If this potential problem is anticipated,
numerous steps can be taken to avoid it.

a) The piles (if used) can be coated with a lubricating agent to reduce friction with the soil. (This would
not work with pier or caisson foundations).
b) Piles can be driven in large diameter predrilled shafts, but this assumes that the soil will not cave in.
c) Large diameter low displacement pipe piles can be driven through the weak/ compressible soils. The
interior soil plug can then be removed and smaller diameter end bearing piles driven inside of the open
pipe piles into the lower strata. This isolates the interior piles from the settling soil.
d) Wait until soils have consolidated before constructing the deep foundations.

4.2 Shallow Foundations in compressible soil

If shallow foundations are constructed on fills over
weak/compressible soils, the primary problem will
be large settlements. This problem can be
mitigated by preloading the weak/ compressible
deposit before construction.
Due to the low permeability of the clay deposits,
however, this could take many years. To speed this
process up, sand drains are commonly used.
Alternatively, one can build settlement tolerant
structures to accommodate potentially large
settlements. An example of a settlement tolerant
building on fill overlying a weak/ compressible
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deposit is the U.S. Airways Terminal1 built at the
LaGuardia Airport in New York City during the
1980s (Figure 2). To raise the grade level
above that of Flushing Bay, this structure
was built on 9m of incinerated refuse fill
which overlies a 24m deposit of soft
organic clay in Flushing Bay. During
construction, the soft clay deposit settled
approximately 2m due to the 9m of fill,
and an additional 0.45m of settlement was
expected to have occurred by 1999. The
building was designed to accommodate
Fig. 2. Schematic of U.S. Airways terminal
constructed on shallow foundations bearing on
highly compressible soil layers

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 Conclusion

Collapsible soils are those that appear to be strong and stable in their natural (dry) state, but
which rapidly consolidate under wetting, generating large and often unexpected settlements.
This can yield disastrous consequences for structures unwittingly built on such deposits. Such
soils are often termed “collapsible” or “metastable” and the process of their collapsing is
often called any of “hydro-consolidation”, “hydro- compression”, or “hydro-collapse.” As
Iowans, you should be particularly well aware of this problem, since Iowa (along with
Nebraska, Illinois, Colorado, and Missouri) has extensive deposits of “loess” which is
recognized as potentially collapsible. Collapsible soil deposits share two main features: (i)
they are loose, cemented deposits; and (ii) they are naturally quite dry. Loess soils consist
primarily of silt sized particles loosely arranged in a cemented honeycombed structure (Fig.
3). The loose structure is held together by small amounts of water softening or water soluble
cementing agents such as clay minerals and CaCO . The introduction of water dissolves or
3

softens the bonds between the silt particles and allows them to take a denser packing under
any type of compressive loading.Since collapsible soil deposits are necessarily “loose”, they
are generally created by deposition mechanisms that yield loose deposits. For example,
alluvial (water deposited) and colluvial (gravity deposited) soils are usually deposited loosely
and in a saturated state. As the water eventually drains from these soils, the last amounts of
moisture are drawn by capillarity to the contact points between grains. As the water
evaporates, minerals are left behind at the soil contact points, cementing them together.
Collapsible colluvial and alluvial soil dep Since collapsible soil deposits are necessarily
“loose”, they are generally created by deposition mechanisms that yield loose deposits. For
example, alluvial (water deposited) and colluvial (gravity deposited) soils are usually
deposited loosely and in a saturated state. As the water eventually drains from these soils, the
last amounts of moisture are drawn by capillarity to the contact points between grains. As the
water evaporates, minerals are left behind at the soil contact points, cementing them together.
Collapsible colluvial and alluvial soil deposits ar Since collapsible soil deposits are
necessarily “loose”, they are generally created by deposition mechanisms that yield loose
deposits. For example, alluvial (water deposited) and colluvial (gravity deposited) soils are
usually deposited loosely and in a saturated state. As the water eventually drains from these
soils, the last amounts of moisture are drawn by capillarity to the contact points between
grains. As the water evaporates, minerals are left behind at the soil contact points, cementing
them together.

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.
References

Web References
www.google.com
www.wikipedia.com
www.studymafia.org
www.pptplanet.com
www.pdfclass.com

Theory Refrences

1. Muckel, GB (editor) . Understanding Soil Risks and Hazards: Using Soil Survey to Identify Areas
With Risks and Hazards to Human Life and Property A report by the United States Department of
Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service and National Soil Survey Center, Lincoln,
Nebraska (2004). Available online at: ftp://ftp‐fc.sc.egov.usda.gov/NSSC/Soil_Risks/risk_low_res.pdf
2. Lawton EC, Fragaszy RJ, and Hetherington MD. "Review of Wetting-Induced Collapse in
Compacted Soil," Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, 118-9 (1992) 1376-94.
3. Coduto, DP (2005) Foundation Design: Principles and Practices 2nd Ed. Prentice‐Hall (1999).

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