PIA Training Centre (PTC) Module 2 – PHYSICS

Category “B2” Basic Sub Module 2.3 – Thermodynamics

MODULE 2
Sub Module 2.3

THERMODYNAMICS

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Contents

HEAT AND TEMPERATURE ------------------------------------------------------- 1

MEASURING TEMPERATURE ----------------------------------------------------- 5
HEAT TRANSFER -------------------------------------------------------------------- 9
HEAT CAPACITY --------------------------------------------------------------------11
THERMAL EXPANSION------------------------------------------------------------13
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES ------------------------------------------------15
HEAT CYCLES ------------------------------------------------------------------------26
LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS --------------------------------------------------28

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2.3.1 – HEAT AND TEMPERATURE
Heat
Heat is a form of energy which is transferred from one body to
another body at a lower temperature, by virtue of the
temperature difference between the bodies.
For example, when a body ‘A’ at a certain temperature, say
20oC, is brought into contact with a body ‘B’ at a lower
temperature, say 18oC, then there will be a transfer of heat from
‘A’ to ‘B’ until the temperature of the both are equal, as shown in
the figure 2.58.
Heat is energy in transit. The transfer of energy as heat,
however, occurs at the molecular level as a result of a
temperature difference. The symbol Q is used to denote heat.
The amount of heat transferred depends upon the path and not
simply on the initial and final conditions of the system.
Also, it is important to distinguish between heat added to a
system from its surroundings and heat removed from a system
to its surroundings. A positive value for heat indicates that heat
is added to the system by its surroundings. This is in contrast to
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work that is positive when energy is transferred from the system
and negative when transferred to the system. Everyone is
familiar with the physical phenomena that when a substance is
heated, its temperature increases, and when it is cooled, its
temperature decreases. The heat added to or removed from a
substance to produce a change in its temperature is called
sensible heat. The units of heat are often defined in terms of the
changes in temperature it produces.
Another type of heat is called latent heat. Latent heat is the
amount of heat added to or removed from a substance to
produce a change in phase. When latent heat is added, no
temperature change occurs. There are two types of latent heat.
The first is the latent heat of fusion. This is the amount of heat
added or removed to change phase between solid and liquid.
The second type of latent heat is the latent heat of
vaporization. This is the amount of heat added or removed to
change phase between liquid and vapour. The latent heat of
vaporization is sometimes called the latent heat of
condensation.
When a given amount of heat is added to different substances,
their temperatures increase by different amounts. The ratio of
the heat (Q) added to or removed from a substance to the
change in temperature (ΔT) produced is called the heat
capacity (Cp) of the substance. The heat capacity of a
substance per unit mass is called the specific heat (Cp) of the
substance. The subscript p indicates that the heat capacity and
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specific heat apply when the heat is added or removed at
constant pressure.

Fig. 2.58

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Category “B2” Basic Sub Module 2.3 – Thermodynamics

Temperature
There are formulas that allow us the conversion among the
temperature scales. These are:
Temperature is a measure of degree of hotness or coldness of
a body.
o
F = 1.8 × oC + 32

When a beaker of cold water is placed over a flame, the water

gradually becomes hot. The water is said to develop a certain K = oC + 273.15
degree of hotness. This degree of hotness is termed as
temperature. Thus, a hot body is at a higher temperature than
one which is cold. Temperature rises or falls as the body gets Figure 2.59 shows comparison between the basic temperature
hotter or cooler respectively. scales.

The absolute minimum temperature of any object in the

universe is -273.15oC. This is called absolute zero. In
engineering it is often necessary to use temperatures in the
Kelvin scale, which uses absolute zero as its base point.
Absolute zero = -273.15oC = 0 K. (Kelvin temperatures are
written without a symbol for degrees.)

The Celsius scale of temperature uses the freezing point of

water (0oC) and the boiling point of water at standard pressure
(100oC) as its defining points.

The Fahrenheit scale depicts the freezing point of water as 32

o
F and the boiling point as 212 oF (0oC = 32 oF; 100C = 212
o
F).
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Fig. 2.59

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2.3.2 – MEASURING TEMPERATURE

calibrated to read temperature, as shown in the figure 2.60.

Thermometers are devices that measure temperature.

Thermocouple

A practical thermometer must have a thermometric property,

which varies smoothly with temperature. Accurate measurement A temperature difference across the junctions results in a small
of the thermometric property is usually required, so the voltage which is measured on the voltmeter. The voltage
thermometer must be sensitive to small changes of depends on the types of metals used but is typically about 20
temperature. microvolt per degree Celsius.

In some situations a thermometer must respond quickly to Figure 2.61 shows a typical thermocouple.
changes of temperature, and it may be necessary to read the
thermometer with remotely placed measuring equipment. For
example, the temperature inside a nuclear reactor is read from Thermistor
instruments in one building connected to the temperature probe
in the reactor in a different building.
The electrical conductivity of materials varies with temperature.
A thermistor is an electronic component where the change in
There are various types of thermometer used for measuring resistance with temperature is used to measure temperature.
temperature.

A typical thermistor is shown in the figure 2.62.

Gas Pressure Thermometer

The pressure of a fixed mass of gas in a fixed volume

dependson its temperature. A pressure gauge could be

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Fig. 2.60

Fig. 2.62

Fig. 2.61
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Mercury-in-glass Thermometer
So, what would be the most suitable instrument for measuring
temperatures in a gas turbine aircraft engine?
The commonest type of thermometer is the mercury in glass
thermometer. The change in the volume of mercury, due to
change in temperature, results in a proportional change in Firstly, the instrument needs to produce an electrical signal so
length of the mercury column. This is measured on a scale that the information can be fed into the aircraft’s electronic
marked in units of temperature, as shown in the figure 2.63. systems. Secondly, the instrument has to be capable of working
across a wide range of temperatures. For these reasons
thermocouples are used.
Since the freezing point of mercury is about -39C, and the
boiling point +357C at standard pressure, this thermometer is
not used for temperatures much above 300C or below -30C.
For temperatures below -39C, thermometers containing alcohol
may be used.

Pyrometer

Pyrometer (figure 2.64) is used to measure very high

temperatures.

For example, pyrometers are used to measure the temperature

inside a furnace. The thermal radiation from the furnace is
compared in terms of color with the thermal radiation from a
lamp filament in the pyrometer. Very hot objects emit light as
well as infrared radiation, and the color changes with increased
temperature.

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Fig. 2.63

Fig. 2.64

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2.3.3 – HEAT TRANSFER

rising) to stay in the air longer.

Heat tends to move from a hot place to a cold place. This

phenomenon is known as heat transfer. “Free” convection occurs when a fluid moves only because of
the heating effect itself. “Forced” convection occurs when a fluid
is driven by separate means such as a pump or fan. Air flowing
through a car’s radiator is heated by forced convection.
There are three modes of heat transfer; conduction, convection,
and radiation.
Radiation
Conduction
Warm objects radiate infra red radiation. This is part of the
electromagnetic spectrum (see later). Infra red radiation is
Conduction is the heat transfer through a material by the
invisible and it is the only way for heat to travel through a
vibrations of its particles. Some materials are very good thermal
vacuum. Thermal imaging cameras detect different wavelengths
conductors (for example silver and copper), while others are
of radiation to make a visible image.
poor thermal conductors (asbestos, wood, ceramic materials). A
material which is used to inhibit the flow of heat is called an
insulator.
Figure 2.65 shows all modes of heat transfer.

Convection

Convection currents arise in fluids. In convection, the particles

carry the energy which is to be transferred. If a region in a fluid
becomes warmer it expands. This makes it less dense than the
neighbouring fluid so it rises through the body of the fluid.
Glider pilots use “thermals” (convection currents of warm air
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Fig. 2.65

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2.3.4 – HEAT CAPACITY

Specific Heat Capacity

When a body is supplied with heat energy one of two things
may happen: the temperature of the body increases ; or the
state of the body changes from solid to liquid (melting) or from The property of a material that determines the rise in
liquid to gas (vaporisation). temperature is called the specific heat capacity. It is the
amount of heat energy that is required to raise the temperature
through 1 degree Celsius (or Kelvin).
The graph G-2.1 shows different phases of water with respect to
the temperature.
∆Q = m × C × ∆T

Water in solid form is known as ice. As the temperature of ice

increases as heat energy is supplied to it, the melting point of where: ∆Q = heat energy supplied
ice i.e. 0oC is reached. Once ice starts to melt, the heat energy
supplied to it changes it from a solid to a liquid. When it is all in m = mass
the liquid state, any more energy supplied to it again causes its
temperature to rise. Eventually the water reaches its boiling C = specific heat capacity
point. At the boiling point, energy supplied causes it to change
state into a gas i.e vapour. Bonds between the liquid particles ΔT = change in temperature
are broken. This happens at constant temperature. Energy
supplied to gas causes its temperature to rise.
The heat capacity of a body is the product of its mass and the
specific heat capacity of its material. The units of heat capacity
As we’ve seen, if a body is supplied with energy its temperature are JK-1.
may rise. This rise in temperature depends on the amount of
energy supplied, the mass of the body and its material. This
type of heat is sometimes called sensible heat because we can
detect it with our sense of touch.

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G – 2.1

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ΔT = change in temperature
2.3.5 – THERMAL EXPANSION The expansion of areas (“superficial expansion”) is calculated
from the formula:
β=2α
Property of a substance which changes uniformly with the where ‘β’ is the coefficient of superficial expansion.
change of temperate is called thermometric property.
The expansion of volumes (“cubical expansion”) is calculated
from the formula:
Examples
γ=3α
1. Volumes of liquids in a vessel where ‘γ’ is the coefficient of cubical expansion.
2. Volume of a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure
3. Pressure of fixed mass of gas at constant volume Heat of combustion
4. Electrical resistance of metal

When a fuel is burned thermal energy is released. The amount

In general, solids liquids and gases expand when heated.
The property of a material that quantifies this is called its
coefficient of linear expansion.
of heat energy released when 1 kg of a fuel is burnt is given by
its heat of combustion (or energy of combustion). The old term
for this is calorific value. The table T-2.5 shows the heats of
combustion of some fuels.

Problem 2.5
∆L = Lo × α × ∆T

An aircraft fuel tank is holding 500 litres of kerosene at 25oC.

What will be the volume of the fuel at -30oC.
where: ∆L = Change in length

Lo = Original length

α = Coefficient of linear expansion

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benzene 40.33

methanol 15.63

diesel oil 43.0

paraffin (kerosene) 43.5

petrol (gasoline) 43.0

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2.3.6 – THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
Thermodynamics
It is the science of relationship between heat, work and the
properties of system. It is concerned with the means necessary
to convert heat energy from available sources such as fossil
fuels into mechanical work.
A heat engine is the name given to a system which by
operating in a cyclic manner produces net work from a supply of
heat.
A system may be defined as a collection of matter within
prescribed and identifiable boundaries, as shown in the figure
2.66. The boundaries of a system are not necessarily inflexible.
For instance, the fluid in the cylinder of a reciprocating engine
during the expansion stroke may be defined as a system whose
boundaries are the cylinder walls and the piston crown. As the
piston moves, the boundaries of the system move. This type of
system is called a closed system. Whereas, an open system
is one in which there is a transfer of mass across the
boundaries. The fluid in a turbine at any instant may be defined
as an open system.A fluid has many properties that can be
measured, such as temperature, pressure and density. In a
thermodynamic process heat or work is transferred between a
fluid and its surroundings. For example, a mass of gas
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(the “working fluid”) may be trapped in a cylinder (the
“environment”). If a piston compresses the gas, we can say that
the environment has done work on the gas and some of the
properties of the gas will change.
Engines and some other devices operate on thermodynamic
cycles. In a cycle the working fluid repetitively undergoes a
number of different processes.
If we were to measure the properties of air before it enters a gas
turbine and again at the exhaust we would expect most
properties to have changed substantially. These differences
might tell us something about the power the engine is
producing.
According to the first law of thermodynamics, energy is
conserved. In other words, energy cannot be created or
destroyed, only changed from one form into another. In
thermodynamics we are always looking to balance three things:
the internal energy of the working fluid (this is its heat energy,
and depends on its temperature); the heat transfer to or from
the working fluid; and the work done on or by the working fluid.
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Fig. 2.65

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Kinetic theory of gases

The kinetic theory of gases relates the macroscopic properties
of a gas (pressure, density, temperature etc.) to the microscopic
behaviour of its particles (speed, mass, kinetic energy etc.).
Certain assumptions are made about gas molecules. These
assumptions lead to a model of a perfect (idealised) gas that
helps us to understand the behaviour of real gases like air. The
assumptions include:
Perfect gas
A “perfect” gas is one that behaves in an idealised way. For
example, if a perfect gas is cooled at constant pressure, its
volume is proportional to its absolute temperature. For many
purposes air and other common gases can be regarded as a
perfect gases. Vapours such as steam cannot.

There are no bonds between gas molecules. The only force For a fixed mass of perfect gas:
exerted by one gas molecule on another occurs when two
molecules collide.
pV = mRT

The molecules are so tiny in comparison with the space

occupied by the gas that we can ignore the volume of the Where: p = pressure (Pa)
molecules.
V = volume (m3)
m = mass (kg)
Collisions between molecules are so short-lived that we can R = gas constant (287 Jkg-1K-1 for air)
assume that the molecules spend their entire time moving at
constant velocity. T = temperature (K)

Even in a small volume of gas there is very large number of Note that temperatures MUST be written in the Kelvin scale.
molecules. Even in a very short period of time a great many Likewise, all other quantities should be written in SI units.
collisions occur between molecules.

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Notes:

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Problem 2.6
Constant volume process

Estimate the mass of air in the room.

The volume of a gas held in a rigid container does not change
significantly. If the gas is heated or cooled its pressure will
Problem 2.7 increase or decrease. This is also known as an isometric, iso-
volumetric or isochoric process.

A mass of air (R = 287Jkg-1K-1) is contained within a cylinder

and has the following initial conditions: Sometimes a process may be usefully approximated as
constant volume, even if we know it isn’t. For example, in a
volume V1 = 9 litres piston engine the piston is on the move all the time and so the
temperature T1 = 20C volume of the gas is changing continuously. However, the
piston is moving relatively slowly at the top and bottom of its
pressure P1 = 103 kPa stroke and the processes taking place at that time are
sapproximately constant volume.

Determine the mass of air. The air is heated until it reaches a

temperature of 60C. It expands to a volume of 10 litres. What The P-v diagram for a constant volume heating process is
is the new pressure? shown in the figure 2.66.

Thermodynamic Processes As there is no change in the volume, the net work done in a
constant volume process is equal to zero.

Although the general gas equation can be applied to any gas

process, there are a number of special cases.

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Fig. 2.66

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Constant pressure process
The figure 2.67 shows the P-v diagram for a constant pressure
process. This is also known as an isobaric process.
In this case the gas has been heated. It might be useful to think
of the gas as being trapped in a cylinder by a moveable piston.
When the gas is heated its molecules gain kinetic energy. This
will tend to increase the pressure inside the cylinder. However,
if the piston is frictionless it will move to increase the volume of
the gas. This in turn will cause the pressure in the cylinder to fall
until it is equalised with the atmospheric pressure.
This is sometimes called “Charles’ Law”.
Work may be done in a constant pressure process.
In a constant pressure heating process, is work done ON or BY
the gas?
When the gas is heated its molecules gain kinetic energy. They
move around more quickly causing incremental increases in the
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pressure. This moves the piston until the pressure inside the
cylinder balances the atmospheric pressure outside. Since the
piston has been moved by the gas, work has been done BY the
gas on the environment.
Constant temperature
If we pump up a bicycle’s tyre fairly vigorously we often feel the
pump getting warm. However, if we do this very slowly the
temperature stays more or less constant. Such a process is
called an isothermal process. The P-v diagram below shows an
isothermal expansion:
Since the temperature is constant, the general gas equation
becomes:
This is sometimes called “Boyle’s Law”.
The P-v diagram below in the figure 2.68 shows the same gas
compressed (or expanded) at different temperatures. The lines
are called isotherms.
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Fig. 2.67
Fig. 2.68

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Adiabatic

In an adiabatic process, no heat is transferred between the Thus, the comparison of all the discussed thermodynamic
working fluid and its surroundings. process can be seen in a single P-v diagram in the figure 2.70.

It is important not to confuse adiabatic and isothermal

processes. For example, suppose gas is trapped in a cylinder
by a piston. Work may be transferred to the gas by moving the
piston to compress the gas. The temperature of the gas will rise
and, if the piston and cylinder are perfectly insulated, no heat
will be transferred to the surroundings. This is an adiabatic
process.

On the other hand, perhaps the piston is moved slowly and the
piston and cylinder are very good conductors of heat, allowing
thermal equilibrium to be maintained between and the gas and
its surroundings. They will then remain at the same
temperature. The interaction between the working fluid and its
environment is different. This is an isothermal process.

Adiabatic processes have similar P-v diagrams to isothermal

processes. The figure 2.69 shows the P-v diagram of an
adiabatic compression.

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Fig. 2.69
Fig. 2.70

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2.3.7 – HEAT CYCLES

3 to 4 The air expands adiabatically in the turbine.
Engines, heat pumps and other thermodynamic machines
invariably work in thermodynamic cycles. The hot air in the exhaust cools and is drawn
4 to 1
back into the engine.

This means that the working fluid undergoes a series of

property changes before returning to its original conditions. The
cycle is repeated endlessly and useful work or heat transfer Other thermodynamic cycles include:
takes place.

Carnot cycle: theoretical only – the most efficient.

The block diagram of a gas turbine with its ideal cycle P-v and
T-s diagrams is shown below in the figure 2.71. This is the Otto cycle: used in 4 stroke petrol engines.
Joule cycle, also known as the Brayton cycle.
Diesel cycle: compression-ignition

Stirling cycle: invented by a Scottish minister, used in some

Process description submarines.

Fresh air is compressed adiabatically (no heat

1 to 2
transfer).

Fuel and air are mixed and burnt at constant

2 to 3
pressure in the combustion chamber.

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Fig. 2.71

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2.3.8 – LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

Third Law: This law states that if all thermal motion of
molecules (kinetic energy) could be removed, a state called
absolute zero would occur. Absolute zero results in temperature
Thermodynamics studies the behaviour of energy flow in natural
of 0 K or -273.15ºC.
systems. From this study a number of physical laws have been
established. The laws of thermodynamics describe some of
the fundamental truths of thermodynamics observed in our
universe. The universe will attain absolute zero when all energy and
matter is randomly distributed across space. The current
temperature of empty space in the universe is about 2.7
Kelvins.
Zeroth Law: If two systems are each in thermal equilibrium i.e.
at the same temperature, with a third systems then they are in
thermal equilibrium with each other. In other words there is no
heat energy flow.

First Law: The first law is often called the Law of Conservation
of Energy. This law suggests that energy can be transferred
from one system to another; however it cannot be created nor
destroyed. Therefore the total amount of energy available in the
universe is constant.

Second Law: Heat can never pass spontaneously from a

colder to a hotter body. As a result of this fact, natural
processes that involve energy transfer must have one direction,
and all natural processes are irreversible.

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Notes:

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