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•
Cystic Kidney Diseases •
4th leading cause of ESRD
No race/gender favored
A Case‐Based Approach •
•
>3,000,000 worldwide
Cysts
― Kidneys
―Liver
Mitchell Rosner, MD ―Pancreas
―Spleen
Mark Perazella, MD ―Brain
• Begin in utero
BRCU 2017 • Develop in tubules
• Separate from tubules
• Isolated sacs
ADPKD Pathogenesis Cystic Phenotype
• In 85%‐90% of cases, ADPKD results from a mutation in the PKD1 gene, Wild-type Polycystic
PC1/PC2
and the other 10%‐15% of cases are accounted for by mutations in PKD2.
• PKD1 and PKD2 encode for polycystin‐1 and polycystin‐2 proteins
(polycystin signaling complex) which regulate different signals including
3’,5’‐cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), mammalian target of
rapamycin (mTOR) and epidermal growth factor receptor pathways.
• Abnormal activation of these signals causes an increased cell proliferation
which is an important component of this disease.
• Cyst enlargement is thought to result from increased fluid secretion; and
abnormal cell replication by the epithelium lining the cyst. • Well differentiated • De-differentiated
• Polarized • Polarization defects
• The processes underlying the decline in renal function include disruption • Normal cell-cell/matrix interactions • ↑ integrin-α2β1, ↓ E-cadherin
of glomerular filtration and urine concentrating mechanisms, coupled with • Low rate of division and apoptosis • High rate of division and apoptosis
• Branching tubules in collagen gels • Cysts in collagen gel
compression of adjacent nephrons in the cortex, medulla and papilla. Cyst‐ • Reabsorptive • Secretory phenotype
derived chemokines, cytokines and growth factors cause fibrosis that is • Planar polarity • Loss of planar polarity
similar to development of other progressive ESRD
Torres Nat Clin Neph 2:40, 2006
Case #1 Question #1
• A 30 year‐old male is known to have a family • The patient wants to know whether he has
history of ADPKD on his paternal side with ADPKD.
multiple family members with ESRD at ages 59‐ • Which of the following is true?
72. Recently, a renal ultrasound performed for a. Molecular genotyping is required to answer his
symptoms of flank pain and hematuria revealed 3 question
cysts on the right kidney and 2 cysts on the left b. The number of cysts at this time is too few to
kidney. make a determination
• The patient is otherwise healthy, takes no c. The patient most likely has ADPKD
medications and has a normal physical d. An MRI is required before conclusively
examination. answering his question
Increased Detection Rate of Simple Renal Cysts with
Current Ultrasound Diagnostic Criteria MR Imaging
for ADPKD
% of the general population
demonstrating any simple cyst by MRI
Family History No Family History
80
< 40 years: 5 cysts distributed 70
3 cysts bilaterally bilaterally with a 60
40‐60 years: consistent phenotype 50
40 18‐29 years
4 cysts bilaterally Revised Pei 30 30‐44 years
Criteria 2009 45‐59 years
20
60 years:
10
8 cysts bilaterally 0
0 1 cyst 2 3 ‐4 5‐10 > 10
cysts cysts cysts cysts cysts
High PPV but not effective at excluding diagnosis of ADPKD in
young patients and those with mild disease (PKD2 mutations
Genotyping for ADPKD Genotyping: Examples
Recommendations: Other scenarios: • In a 20‐year‐old with no cysts detected by CT or MRI and with PKD1‐like
disease in the family: ADPKD is unlikely and molecular testing is not
1. Potential kidney donor 1. Negative family history necessary
from affected family ‐Atypical presentation • In a 20‐year‐old with no cysts detected by ultrasonography and with PKD2‐
‐Extrarenal manifestations like disease in the family: ADPKD is still a possibility and molecular testing
with cyst numbers is appropriate
below diagnostic atypical for ADPKD • In a 30‐year‐old with one cyst detected by CT or MRI and PKD1‐like
threshold ‐Prognostic information disease in family: ADPKD is not likely but molecular testing may provide
2. Early‐onset ADPKD reassurance
2. Young individuals < 25, • In a 40‐year‐old with three cysts detected by CT or MRI and PKD2‐like
‐Identify variants disease in family: ADPKD is a possibility and molecular testing is
in whom no cysts are associated with severe appropriate
detected by US, CT, MRI disease • In a 40‐year‐old with no renal cysts detected by CT or MRI and PKD2‐like
and family disease is 3. For those wanting definitive disease in family: ADPKD is unlikely and molecular testing is not necessary
mild diagnosis • In a 60‐year‐old with two renal cysts detected by CT or MRI and PKD1‐like
disease in family: ADPKD is unlikely and molecular testing is not necessary
Harris PC and Rossetti S. Nat Rev Nephrol 2010
Genotyping PKD Genes and Transcripts
3kb
1 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 46
23 12 1314 34 35
method. 1996
PKD2 gene
PKD2gene 70 kb gene, 3 kb transcript
• However: 1kb
1 23 4 5 6 7 8 9101112 13 14 15 PKD2transcript > 75 mutations
Missense: 11%
– High degree of allelic heterogeneity in PKD1 and 2
– No single mutation accounts for more than 2% of
affected families 2002
472 kb gene, 13 kb transcript
– Diagnostic screening of a new family requires PKHD1 gene
PKHD1 transcript
Other Pitfalls in Genotyping Question #2
• 9% of patients with no mutation in PKD1 or 2 • The patient is interested in understanding what
features of ADPKD predict progression to ESRD
• Usually have milder disease and may have • Which of the following is true?
negative family history a. Total kidney volume and its change over time is the
best predictor
• May have uncharacterized intronic or b. Age at which the patient’s relatives developed ESRD is
promoter mutations the best predictor
c. The number of renal complications due to ADPKD is
• May have mutations in the many other genes the best predictor
associated with renal cystogenesis: d. There are no features that reliably predict progression
to ESRD
– HNF1β, PRKCSH, SEC63, GANAB or PKHD1
Harris PC and Rossetti S. Nat Rev Nephrol 2010
103:c173, 2006; 5Tokiwa Clin Exp Neph March 2011; 6Meijer CJASN 5:1091, 2010; MEDIATE THEIR RISK THROUGH KIDNEY VOLUME
Cumulative Survival of Increased Kidney Volume is Due
to Increased Cyst Volume
PKD1 vs PKD2
Total Kidney Volume Total Cyst Volume
Kidney growth is highly variable and
each individual has their own growth curve
Measurement variability= Inter-observer 2.1%, Intra-observer 2.4%, Day-to-Day 2.4%
Grantham, NEJM CRISP 2006; Chapman Kidney Int 64; 1035–1045, 2003
Patterns of Individual Kidney Growth in 241 Patients
With ADPKD
Lifetime model illustrating dynamic change in TKV from birth and
how TKV can be used to judge prognosis
Question #3
• This patient is now 45 years of age and has
now developed stage 3 CKD. He calls with
complaints of right flank pain and fevers
associated with mild nausea.
• On examination, he has a temperature of 38
degrees C and moderate right flank
tenderness
• Urinalysis reveals numerous white blood cells
Question #3 Cyst Infections in ADPKD
• Which of the following is the next step in • Estimated that 30‐50% of patients with ADPKD may
experience a kidney infection
management of this patient? • Determining that an infection is present vs. other etiologies
of flank pain (hemorrhage, nephrolithiasis, expanding cysts)
A. PET scan to determine site of infection is challenging
B. Ultrasound with aspiration and culture of any • Urine cultures may be negative as the cyst are not
contiguous with the tubules
dominant cyst • Criteria for likely diagnosis of infection: fever, flank pain and
elevated CRP
C. Empirical antibiotics with ciprofloxacin • Fluoroquinolones provide the most favorable treatment
D. Empirical antibiotics with cefuroxime outcomes and more prolonged course are needed
• PET scans useful in unclear cases
• Cyst aspiration may be required for cure
Cyst Development
and Enlargement
Vasculature
Function
Age
Urinary
Concentrating Defects
Signs & Hypertension
Symptoms
Dull Pain & Discomfort
By age 30, over 50% have at least Proteinuria
one complication
NIH CRISP Studies; Rahbari-Oskoui, ASN
Renal Week, 2010.
Renal Events in ADPKD Result Extra‐renal Manifestations of
in Significant Pain ADPKD: Liver Cystic Disease
Cyst Infection Nephrolithiasis
- 20 Y Female - 35 Y Male
- Acute left - Acute left
flank pain flank pain
- eGFR 106
Left KV 890 ml Left KV 920 ml
Cyst Hemorrhage Nephrectomy for Pain
- 32 Y male - 52 Y Male
- Acute - Chronic pain
onset left - Kidney
flank pain Weight: 21.5
- eGFR 80 kg
Left KV 1170 ml
KV= Single Kidney Volume; Normal Single Kidney Volume ~ 150 ml; Normal Weight of 1 kidney ~ 0.15 kg
Wide Range of Severity of Hepatic
Cysts Massive Polycystic Liver Disease
• Most often in women (>90%)
• Familial aggregation is not apparent
• Renal involvement is often relatively spared
• Estrogen exposure not clearly a risk factor
for this form of PLD
• Ascites, portal hypertension and varices,
hepatic venous obstruction, liver cyst
infection
Features of Intracranial Aneurysms in
Question #4 ADPKD individuals
• The patient has read about the risk of intracranial • More often in the anterior circulation (84%)
aneurysms in those with ADPKD. He has no family
history of ICA but wants to know about screening • Mutations in the PKD1 gene tend to be closer to the
5’ end of the gene in families with ICA
• Which of the following would you tell him? • Repeat screening in negative individuals is low (2.4%
over 10 years) but tends to occur in those with
A. Screening is not indicated existing ICA (10%)
B. Screening should occur in all patients at the time of
diagnosis • Change in size of existing ICA is slow and uncommon
C. Screening should be performed with intracranial with 8/65 showing an increase in diameter over 243
angiography patient years of less than 0.5 mm
D. Screening can be performed with magnetic resonance
angiography
Screening for ICA
• Very controversial and no consensus
• Aggressive: Screening all patients with ADPCKD by
noncontrast 3T TOF MRA at the time of initial diagnosis
with follow‐up scans at intervals of, at most, 10 years
and as short as 2 years, depending on patient‐specific
risk factors, including the following: family history of IA
or SAH, prior SAH, neurologic symptoms, hypertension,
smoking, alcohol abuse, high‐risk professions (such as
pilots), or those undergoing major elective surgery.
• Conservative: screening patients with both ADPKD and
a family history of IA or SAH, a prior aneurysm rupture,
high‐risk occupations, undergoing major elective
surgery, or having a “warning headache” or severe
anxiety regarding the issue.
Rozenfeld MN et al. Am J Neurorad 2014
Review of Therapies for ADPKD Vasopressin 2 Receptor Antagonist
• mTOR inhibitors: smaller TKV but no change • Multicenter RCT in 1445 patients
in rate of decline in GFR and high incidence of • Age < 50 years; eGFR > 60 ml/min and TKV > 750
ml
side effects • Effective in slowing TKV increase and fall in GFR
• Somatostatin analogues: slower increase in • Prolongs median age at ESRD onset by 6.5 yrs
TKV, higher rate of cholelithiasis • Increases life expectancy by 26 yrs
• Other therapies in development: bosutinib, • Cost effectiveness has not been demonstrated
triptolide • Significant side effects: polyuria, nocturia,
elevated LFTs
• Future trials ongoing
He Q, et al. Am J Med Sci 2012
Hogan MC et al, J Am Soc Nephrol 2010 Torres VE, et al. N Engl J Med 2012
Question #5 Two Clinical Trials: HALT A and B
• The patient is now 45 years old and his blood
pressure on the current visit in 154/90 mmHg. Study A
• His eGFR is 58 ml/min. 15‐49 years and healthy
• Which of the following would be the agent of
choice to treat his hypertension? baseline eGFR > 60 mls/min
a. Amlodipine
b. Hydrochlorothiazide
c. Lisinopril Study B:
d. Carvedilol 18‐65 years
e. Lisinopril and telmisartan baseline eGFR > 25 and < 60 mls/min
Hypotheses Primary and Secondary Endpoints
Primary
Study A: Low (95‐110/60‐75 mmHg) versus Study A: Percent change in TKV
standard (120‐130/70‐80 mmHg) BP control will Study B: Time to death, ESRD or 50% reduction in eGFR
reduce the rate of disease progression measured
by change in TKV. Secondary
• Slope of eGFR
• Urine albumin and aldosterone excretion
Study A and B: Dual blockade of the RAAS with • LVMI, RBF and RVR (Study A only)
ACE‐I and ARB will reduce the rate of disease • Frequency of all‐cause and cardiovascular hospitalizations
progression as compared to ACE‐I therapy alone. • QOL, pain, PKD related symptoms
Low
-3.1 ml/min/4 mo
Low
Standard
-3.1 ml/min/4 mo
+0.5 ml/min/4 mo
Standa
Ln(TKV) ml
p<0.001
+0.5 ml/min/4 mo
p<0.001
• Addition of an ARB, although safe under the
conditions of HALT‐PKD, does not confer
Lisinopril/Telmisartan = 5.9% per year
additional benefit.
Lisinopril/Placebo = 6.2% per year op
Conclusions: HALT Studies Case #2
Low blood pressure treatment in young healthy • A 24 year‐old woman presents with right flank
pain, hematuria and anemia. Renal ultrasound
hypertensive ADPKD patients with RAAS revealed 3 cysts in the right kidney and 3 cysts in
blockade is the left kidney. CT scan is performed and reveals
Well tolerated and Safe cysts in both kidneys along with a 5 cm mass with
And results in a hemorrhage in the right kidney.
• On exam, the patient has bilateral facial,
14.2% slower rate of TKV growth over 5 years
erythematous skin lesions, hypopigmented skin
lesions on her legs, and sub‐ungual fingernail
lesions.
Question #1 Question #2
• Which of the following is the diagnosis in this • The 5 cm mass seen on CT scan is identified as an
angiomyolipoma.
patient?
a. Autosomal recessive medullary cystic kidney • In addition to packed RBC transfusion, which of the
disease following is the best option for therapy?
b. Tuberous sclerosis complex a. Administer DD‐AVP and observe the patients’
course
c. Von Hippel‐Lindau disease b. Consult a urologist for partial nephrectomy
d. Bardet‐Biedel syndrome c. Consult a urologist for total (radical) nephrectomy
d. Consult interventional radiology for embolization
therapy
Tuberous Sclerosis Complex Tuberous Sclerosis Complex
• Hereditary tumor syndrome
• Benign tumors in kidneys and several other organs • TSC 1: localized on chromosome 9
brain, lungs, skin, and heart • TSC 2: localized on chromosome 16
– Neurologic involvement • Respectively code for Hamartin and tuberin
• Seizures
– Kidneys involvement • The H‐T complex inhibits mTOR (mammalian target of
• Angiomyolipoma (80%), cysts (50%) rapamycin) a kinase that regulates protein synthesis,
– Pulmonary involvement cellular metabolism, differentiation, growth and
• Lymphangioleiomyomatosis proliferation
• Autosomal dominant. Incidence 1: 6000 • The H‐T complex prevents unregulated cell growth and
– 2 genes: TSC1, TSC2 proliferation
– Spontaneous heterozygous mutation reported in up to 80%
Eckardt et al. KDIGO KI, 2015; Cramer et al. Advances in CKD, 2015; Eckardt et al. KDIGO KI, 2015; Cramer et al. Advances in CKD, 2015;
Kim et al. Abdominal Radiology, 2016 Kim et al. Abdominal Radiology, 2016
Tuberous Sclerosis Complex Tuberous Sclerosis Complex
Suspected diagnosis:
‐ 1 major feature
or
‐ 2 minor features
Definite diagnosis:
‐ 2 major features
or
‐ 1 major plus > 2 minor
features
Cramer et al. Advances in CKD, 2015
Tuberous Sclerosis Complex Tuberous Sclerosis Complex
Kidney manifestations:
‐ Multiple Cysts noted in 47%; Micro‐ or macro‐cysts; more
common with TSC2 mutations (gene is next to PKD1)
‐ Multiple bilateral angiomyolipomas (vascular/muscle/fat)
observed in 49%‐80% of cases. Can behave locally invasive
Angiofibromas
Ungual Fibromas
Ash Leaf Mark Cramer et al. Advances in CKD, 2015
Tuberous Sclerosis Complex Tuberous Sclerosis Complex
Angiomyolipoma Angiomyolipoma Management
Diagnosis and Surveillance • Surveillance:
• CT scan demonstrating fat within the mass (Hounsfield units) – CT/MRI every 1‐3 years
- Intra‐ and peri‐renal hemorrhage may be seen – Annual eGFR measurement
• MRI preferred diagnostic method for fat poor angiomyolipoma
• Treatment:
- Difficult to differentiate from malignant disease (oncocytomas, renal cell
carcinoma, etc) – No intervention if asymptomatic (< 3 cm)
– Asymptomatic but growing lesion (> 3 cm)
• 1st treatment option is an mTOR inhibitor
– Hemorrhagic/painful complications
• 1st treatment option is embolization followed by steroids
• 2nd treatment option would be kidney sparing resection
Case #3 Question #1
• Which of the following would you tell this patient
• A 33 year‐old woman with known von Hippel‐ with VHL?
Lindau (VHL) syndrome undergoes imaging
surveillance for renal cell carcinoma. In addition a. Sirolimus has been used successfully to reduce
renal cell carcinoma development
to surveillance, the patient wants to know if
b. VEGF inhibition therapy reduces the development
there are other measures that can be of renal cell carcinoma
undertaken to prevent the development of renal c. Partial or total nephrectomy are the only options
cell carcinoma. for renal cell carcinoma
d. Percutaneous ablation with radio‐ or cryotherapy
are options to treat renal cell carcinoma
Von Hippel‐Lindau Syndrome Von Hippel‐Lindau Syndrome
• Autosomal dominant cystic disease
• Incidence 1:35 000 births
• 6000‐7000 affected in the USA
• VHL is a tumor suppressor gene on chromosome 3
• Mutation leads to inactivation of the gene.
• There is upregulation of HIF promoting activation
of VEGF, PDGF, TGF∝
– Uncontrolled cell growth with neoplastic transformation
– VEGF overexpression in malignant cells results in
neoangiogenesis with hypervascular tumors
Kim et al, Abdominal Radiology, 2016; Katabathina et al, Radiographics.rsna.org, 2010 Kim et al, Abdominal Radiology, 2016; Katabathina et al, Radiographics.rsna.org, 2010
Von Hippel‐Lindau Syndrome Von Hippel‐Lindau Syndrome
Clinical Manifestations Clinical Diagnostic Criteria
• Clinical manifestations: Danish VHL Coordination group in 2013
– Multiple cysts in both kidneys and pancreas
– Benign and malignant tumors in several organs (retinal
hemangioma, cerebellar hemangioblastoma)
– Neuroendocrine tumors, pheochromocytoma (7‐20%)
– Lifetime risk of RCC is > 70%; occurs at young age (mean
age 35 years old)
• Diagnosis:
– 1 characteristic tumor + positive family history or
identification of mutated gene
– 2 characteristic tumors in the absence of family history
Kim et al, Abdominal Radiology 2016
Katabathina et al, Radiographics.rsna.org, 2010
Von Hippel‐Lindau Syndrome
Management
• Supportive care with standard measures for CKD
• Gout: allopurinol/febuxostat, dietary modifications
• Blood pressure control
• Yearly imaging studies (CT scan or MRI)
• Medical management
– mTOR therapy?
– VEGF antagonists: ongoing investigation
• Nephrectomy (total vs. partial) for RCC
– Partial preferred when possible to preserve nephron mass
Jilg CA, et al. Familial Cancer, 2012