A Psycho-Educational Programme Using Audiovisual Media To Prevent Adolescent Substance

Education as Change
ISSN: 1682-3206 (Print) 1947-9417 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/redc20
A psycho-educational programme using audio-

visual media to prevent adolescent substance
abuse
Bruce D Calder & Salome Schulze
To cite this article: Bruce D Calder & Salome Schulze (2015) A psycho-educational programme
using audio-visual media to prevent adolescent substance abuse, Education as Change, 19:1,
36-53, DOI: 10.1080/16823206.2015.1024144
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/16823206.2015.1024144
Published online: 11 Jun 2015.
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Articles
A psycho-educational programme
using audio-visual media to
prevent adolescent substance
abuse
Downloaded by [ECU Libraries] at 17:02 23 March 2016
Bruce D Calder
Department of Psychology of Education
University of South Africa
Salome Schulze
Department of Psychology of Education, University of South Africa
Email: schuls@unisa.ac.za
Abstract
South Africa has been witnessing an escalation in drug use among adolescents.
This, then, was the phenomenon that prompted the main question behind this
research: How can a psycho-educational programme, using an audio-visual
media resource, be implemented in schools to prevent adolescent substance
abuse? Social cognitive theory (SCT) and self-efficacy theory (SET) were used
as a conceptual framework. Relevant principles were implemented to select
the “Above The Influence” (ATI) as a resource for use in the programme, which
was implemented during seven sessions over two months. The participants
were 26 Grade 10 and Grade 11 students. To determine their perceptions of
the programme and how it was implemented, data were gathered by means of
in-person and online focus groups, interviews, written open-ended questions,
observation and follow-up interviews two months after the programme had ended.
According to the participants, the programme improved their knowledge and
awareness about drug-related issues; their family relationships; their awareness
university
of s outh africa
Education as Change DOI: 10.1080/16823206.2015.1024144

Volume 19 | Number 1 | 2015 Print ISSN 1682-3206 | Online 1947-9417
pp. 36–53 © 2015 The University of Johannesburg
36
Calder and Schulze A psycho-educational programme
of the role of constructive peer relationships; and their communication skills. The
adolescents professed enhanced self-efficacy and increased assertiveness.
This should increase their resistance to drugs. Some recommendations are
made for programme implementation in schools.
Keywords: drug use, psycho-educational programme, audio-visual media resource,

knowledge and awareness, resistance
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

South Africa has been witnessing an escalation in drug use among adolescents
(Schuld 2006). A national survey of risk behaviour among students in Grades 8 to
11 showed that the prevalence rates for ever having used a substance were 49.1%
for alcohol, 30.5% for cigarettes and 12.8% for cannabis (Caldwell, Flisher, Smith,
Vergnani & Wegner 2007:1085–1086). A study of Grade 8 and Grade 11 public

high school students in Cape Town reported substance use rates of 31% for alcohol,
27% for cigarettes and 7% for cannabis (Flisher, Parry, Evans, Muller & Lombard
2003:58-65). One study in the Western Cape indicated that 72% of the adolescents
surveyed reported having used alcohol, cigarettes, marijuana, or inhalants by Grade
9 (Patrick, Collins, Smith, Caldwell, Flisher & Wegner 2009). The South African
Community Epidemiology Network on Drug Use (SACENDU) (2011) has also
reported cannabis to be the primary drug of abuse among those under 20 years of
age in KwaZulu-Natal, the Western Cape, the Eastern Cape, Gauteng, and in the
northern and southern regions of South Africa. Alcohol is reported as a secondary
drug of abuse in KwaZulu-Natal and Gauteng.
Substance abuse undermines adolescents’ abilities to participate in important
social, academic and recreational activities. However, the use of alcohol is socially
accepted and there is a worldwide trend towards a decrease in the perception of
cannabis as harmful (Bhatty & Wu 2013). South African schools are therefore faced
with numerous challenges.
School-based prevention programmes have been identified as the most popular
method to address the problem (Calder 2009; Culleton, Van Hout & Foley 2013;
Donald, Lazarus & Lolwana 2000; Flisher et al. 2003; Trudeau, Spoth, Randall,
Mason & Shin 2012). Accordingly, SACENDU (2011) and the National Drug Master
Plan (NDMP) (2006–2011:15) have recommended that prevention programmes
accessible to all young people should be developed by teachers. In this way the
teachers may guide adolescents to responsible adulthood, nurture their mental
welfare and foster harmonious relationships in their lives (Zervogiannis 2003:114).
Some authors have found that prevention programmes that use audio-visual
media can be very effective since interactive media are reshaping the way we
interrelate (Botvin 2010; Pond 2011; Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services
Administration [SAMHSA] on Facebook 2011; SAMHSA 2011a; 2011b; 2011c).
37
Thus, the aim of this research was to investigate how a psycho-educational

programme, using an audio-visual media resource, could be implemented in schools
to prevent adolescent substance abuse.
SACENDU (2011) emphasised that drug prevention programmes should start
at primary school and continue to high school level. Such programmes should be
specific rather than of a general educational nature (Botvin 2010). It has also been
recommended that approaches be based on life skills; that they involve adolescents
in peer groups; that they be interactive rather than didactic; and that they be long
term and intensive (Buckley & White 2007). In addition to these recommendations,
the study considered Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) and Self-efficacy Theory (SET)
as a conceptual framework. These theories are explained in the next section.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Problem behaviour may be prevented by approaches that are in accordance with
SCT, SET, and the concept of triadic reciprocality as explained by Bandura (in
Pajares 2002a; 2002b; Bandura 1986). From this perspective, human functioning is
viewed as the product of a dynamic and reciprocal interplay of personal, behavioural
and environmental influences. How adolescents interpret the results of their own
behaviour informs and alters their actions and their personal qualities and, in turn,
informs and alters subsequent behaviour.
According to Bandura (1986:21), among the types of thoughts that affect action,
none is more pervasive than adolescents’ judgements of their capabilities to deal
effectively with different realities. Authors such as Bandura (2008), Maddux (1995)
and Pajares (2002a; 2002b) emphasise an agentic socio-cognitive perspective,
whereby individuals are seen as self-organising and self-regulating. Adolescents
have certain fundamental capabilities to symbolise, plan alternative strategies
(forethought), learn through vicarious experience and self-reflect.
In this investigation, use was made of Bandura’s conception of self-belief as
a main factor to examine how to prevent adolescent substance abuse. According
to Bandura (1986), individuals’ self-beliefs, for example their self-efficacy (SE),
enable them to exercise control over their thoughts, feelings and actions. There are
six primary sources of SE (Maddux 1995:10–11):
(1) performance experiences – clear success or failure is the most powerful
source of SE information;
(2) vicarious experiences – this relates to observational learning and modelling;
(3) imaginal experiences – people can generate beliefs about personal efficacy by
imagining themselves behaving effectively/ineffectively in future situations;
(4) social persuasion by others;
(5) physiological states that influence SE when people associate aversive
physiological arousal with perceived failure; and
38
(6) emotional states that can be an additional source of information about SE.
In the next section, a number of drug prevention programmes are discussed in the
light of the conceptual framework.
EVIDENCE-BASED PROGRAMMES
Internationally, schools have adopted evidence-based programmes to enhance
students’ emotional and behavioural competencies and thus protect them from drug
abuse. The HealthWise South Africa: Life Skills for Adolescents (HW) programme
was successfully implemented in the subject Life Orientation in Grades 8 and 9
in 56 schools in Cape Town (Caldwell et al. 2012). The programme focused on
knowledge, skill development, shaping peer norms, and encouraging self-reflection.
Such reflection is in line with the agentic socio-cognitive perspective of Bandura
(2008). However, there was no emphasis on the use of audio-visual material.

Using visual material in prevention programmes is in accordance with SCT,
SET and the principle of triadic reciprocality (Pajares 2002a; 2002b), because media
can facilitate reflective dialogue and thus increase adolescents’ SE beliefs about their
own capabilities. This approach to learning was found to be particularly effective
when the visual material used included a model whose attributes were similar to
those of the adolescent, and when accompanied by teachers’ verbal input. Using
visual material in combination with peer group discussions could also stimulate
cognitive skills, including those of problem-solving and critical thinking (Botvin,
Griffin & Nichols 2006).
A number of programmes using audio-visual media have been proven to be
effective in the United States of America (USA) and the United Kingdom (UK). In
the USA, SAMHSA News (2011b) described its digital engagement programme on
four social media channels, Facebook, Flickr, Twitter and YouTube (Pond, 2011:1–6;
SAMHSA on Facebook 2011; SAMHSA 2011b). The digital engagement approach
was in accordance with SCT and SET for stimulating reflection. By using the ‘create
group’ feature, a teacher could form a private group to convene online discussions
with adolescent participants (an approach that was also used in this study). By means
of these discussions, adolescents could be encouraged to abstain from alcohol and
drug abuse, thus providing social persuasion.
Some of these programmes can be costly to purchase and their use is often
restricted outside the USA or the UK. There is also a lack of research on how such
programmes could be affectively adopted and sustained in South African schools
(Caldwell et al. 2012). The programme resource that was eventually selected for this
study was the Above the Influence (ATI) campaign (ATI 2011).
39
THE ATI RESOURCE

The ATI (2011) campaign was created in the USA as an evidence-based programme
resource of repute. It was funded by the Office of National Drug Control Policy
(National Youth Anti-Drug Media Campaign 2011). It did not have a cost attached
to its use, was content accurate, was of a high production quality, and addressed all
forms of drug abuse.
The ATI focused on substances most often abused by adolescents, namely
marijuana, alcohol and prescription drugs. The goal of the ATI was to help adolescents
stand up to negative pressures. It did not instruct them how to live their lives, but
gave them a healthy perspective to support them in making responsible decisions.
Each of the video-clips selected was a television advertisement that addressed the
question of what it meant to live ‘above the influence’ of drugs, thus stimulating
reflection and discussion. US adolescents who were exposed to the ATI campaign
were less likely to begin use of marijuana compared with those not exposed to the
campaign (National Youth Anti-Drug Media Campaign 2011).
In addition to the above, the selection of the ATI (2011) resource was based on
nine principles for suitable programmes, identified in the literature (in Calder 2012;
David, Rao & Robertson 2003; McBride 2005; National Criminal Justice Reference
Service [NCJRS] 2011; National Youth Anti-Drug Media Campaign 2011; NDMP
2006–2011). According to the principles, a suitable programme/resource needed to:
●● enhance protective factors and reduce risk factors within a population defined
by age, sex, race, geography and institution (principle 1)
●● address all forms of drug abuse, including the use of legal drugs (principle 2)
●● address the type of drug abuse problem in the local community (principle 3)
●● be tailored to address risks specific to audience characteristics, such as age,
gender, and ethnicity (principle 4)
●● improve family relationships (principle 5)
●● increase skills related to studying, communication, peer relationships, SE,
assertiveness and drug resistance (principle 6)
●● retain core elements of the original research-based intervention programme
(principle 7)
●● employ interactive techniques (principle 8)
●● reach populations in multiple settings that include schools (principle 9)
It was argued that it would be suitable on the basis of principles 2, 3, 4, 7, 8 and 9;

and that it could be evaluated by means of SCT and SET for the extent to which it
satisfied principles 1, 5 and 6. Therefore, video-clips from the ATI campaign were
used in the psycho-educational programme of this research together with an online
focus group to prompt discussions. Three examples of video-clip material that
participants were exposed to are provided in Table 1.
40
Table 1: Examples of video-clip material that participants were exposed to

Title and URL Content
Bronx, NY I Mary Mitchell Center and Adolescents from youth organisations in the
Kips Bay Boys and Girls (http://www. Bronx share their thoughts on the day-to-day
youtube.com/watch?v=_-h--u5vq-A ) negative influences they encountered and the
role models that inspired them to rise above
it all.
Milwaukee, WI | Boys and Girls Adolescents from the Milwaukee Boys and
Club (http://www.youtube.com/ Girls Club won’t let drugs and alcohol make
watch?v=kRv24lJ14pc ). them lose sight of their dreams of what
they want to become (for example, fashion
designers or basketball stars).
Portland, OR | Oregon Partnership Adolescents from the Oregon Partnership
(http://www.youtube.com/ share where they find their inner strength to

watch?v=hvF9CprE8wg ). overcome peer pressure when others close to
them fall into the trap of drugs and alcohol.
After exposing adolescents to the video-clips in Table 1, facilitators (typically

researchers or teachers) convene online focus groups with them or post messages
on bulletin boards. The facilitators then respond to the adolescents’ questions and
answers in accordance with instructions given in the psycho-educational resource.
Figure 1 depicts the elements of incorporating audio-visual and social media
into a proposed psycho-educational programme for adolescent substance abuse.
Refer to criteria Select audio-visual

for evaluation of media, for example:
audio-visual National Youth Anti-Drug
Media Campaign ATI
Step
video clips
1
Step
Psycho-educational 2
SCT & SET
programme
Step Step
4 Group facilitation based on
3
ATI
Behavioural health
Online focus
and social media
groups convened
selected
or bulletin board
messages posted
Figure 1 Elements of incorporating audio-visual and social media into a proposed

Figure 1 Elements of incorporating audio-visual and social media into a
psycho-educational programme to prevent adolescent substance abuse
proposed psycho-educational programme to prevent adolescent
substance abuse
In accordance with Figure 1, the ATI resource was implemented within a psycho-educational
programme with adolescents, as explained below.
41
The psycho-educational programme

In accordance with Figure 1, the ATI resource was implemented within a psycho-
educational programme with adolescents, as explained below.
THE PSYCHO-EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMME

One of the researchers implemented the programme with a group of adolescent
students as research participants (as explained in the research design section). The
programme consisted of seven sessions over a period of two months as follows.
Session 1
A 20 minute DVD using the ATI resource with video material and flash video adverts
was screened. After having watched the DVD, the adolescents completed five open-
ended questions on a typed form that were part of the resource. The questions asked
included what the main message was that they got from the DVD; what they had
learnt from the activity; what some of the positive or negative influences depicted
in the DVD were; and what caused adolescents to fall under the influence of drugs.
A classroom discussion, facilitated by the researcher, followed. The questions
posed to stimulate discussion focused on what happens to adolescents when they fall
under the influence of alcohol or drugs.
Sessions 2 and 3
These sessions consisted of ‘Open their eyes to influence’ individual interview
discussions with the adolescents, using a set of questions similar to those used in
session one. Additional questions, drawn from an ATI interview guide (for an in-
person focus group), were added along with further questions formulated from
the literature review such as: ‘If you are going to a party, to what extent would
you prepare plans of action, so that, if you get into a difficult situation, you can
have a suitable response?’ Extra questions considered relevant to SCT/SET were
derived from the literature. Thus, the adolescents were asked questions designed to
reveal their abilities to symbolise, to plan (forethought), to learn through vicarious
experience, to self-regulate and to self-reflect.
Sessions 4, 5 and 6
These were online sessions. The researcher facilitated discussions in online chat
sessions with adolescents on Facebook by sharing news updates generated from an
ATI Facebook group. The news updates were followed by questions to facilitate
the discussions asynchronously or synchronously, depending on the circumstances.
Examples of questions include: ‘What was the biggest lesson you learned from a
negative experience in 2011? Is there such a thing as positive peer pressure? Who
42
has helped shape who you are, and how have they done so? What important lessons
have friends helped you learn this year?’
Session 7
In the last session, the adolescents completed open-ended questions in writing.
Themes that had emerged from sessions one to six served as prompts to explore the
experiences of the participants. For example, participants were asked how helpful
the DVD (ATI) had been to them and to explain their views. Similar questions had
already been posed during individual interviews (sessions 2 and 3) and during the
ATI online Facebook sessions (sessions 4 to 6).
To evaluate the programme content and the method of presentation, the following
research design and methods of data collection were used.
RESEARCH DESIGN AND DATA COLLECTION

An interpretive approach was viewed as being suitable to explore the multiple socially
constructed realities of the participants of the programme (McMillan & Schumacher
2010). The 26 Grade 10 and Grade 11 adolescent students who were purposefully
selected for programme participation were from high schools in Pietermaritzburg.
These participants were at-risk students or had mild substance abuse problems
according to the principals of the schools concerned. The researcher who acted as
facilitator of the programme was a trained teacher, although not employed as one at
the time of the study.
Data were collected using a case study approach (McMillan & Schumacher
2010:344–346). This allowed for the in-depth analysis of a bounded system – in this
instance, the programme that was implemented. The exploration and description of
the case took place through in-depth data collection methods that included in-person
and online focus groups, individual interviews, written open-ended questions,
observation notes and follow-up interviews two months after the programme had
ended. Working hypotheses were formed during the investigation to identify patterns.
To ensure trustworthiness of the data, recordings of all the interviews were made
and these were transcribed verbatim. More than one method of data collection was
used (as noted) and two researchers interpreted the data. A considerable amount of time
was spent in direct interaction and data collection for a more complete understanding
of the participants’ views of the programme (McMillan & Schumacher 2010). We
endeavoured to counter biases in this research by maintaining an awareness of how
we were placed in relation to the adolescents and their life-worlds.
We adhered to all ethical principles. These principles included informed consent
by all relevant parties, assurances of confidentiality and anonymity, and respect for
participants’ privacy. Credibility, sincerity and openness were essential in enlisting
43
the participants’ co-operation and resolving any resistance. All disclosures of

information were voluntary. Participants were advised that they could withdraw at
any time if they chose to. We also endeavoured to promote a sense of caring and
fairness in our thinking and actions. In consideration of the aims of the study, we did
not anticipate any harm to participants (McMillan & Schumacher 2010:339–345).
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

The findings are evaluated in the light of the principles that were listed, the conceptual
framework and the views of the students. These findings are presented next.
Improved knowledge and awareness

Educating adolescents on the harmful effects of illicit substances is vital and can
reduce their use (Bhatty & Wu 2013; Culleton et al. 2013). A similarity to the HW
programme (Caldwell et al. 2012) was that the adolescents in this research indicated
that the programme had enhanced their knowledge about drugs. Thus, protective
factors were taken to have been improved (principle 1). Among other things, the
students had learnt vicariously from models in the DVD to avoid heavy drinking and
smoking. Examples include:
I think it’s good to watch the video … learning from other people’s mistakes and seeing how
these teenagers in the video did things that didn’t amount to any good. Also, to learn from
their mistakes so that in life you won’t make the same mistakes (Participant 5, male).
It [the DVD] was very educational and taught us that we mustn’t drink and smoke and that
life is all about learning (Participant 22, female).
Improved family relationships

Previous studies have indicated the important role that family cohesion can play in
preventing adolescent substance use (for example, Chun, Devall & Sandau-beckler
2013; Trudeau et al. 2012). The adolescents in this research indicated that the
programme had enhanced their appreciation of family relationships. This result is in
line with principle 5 for effective programmes. For example:
My role model would be my mother, because of her inspiration, her confidence, and teaching
me how to do good, and teaching me to follow God’s way. She has helped me a lot in life
as well. I am also influenced positively at church, because most people there at church will
always be by your side. At church, I feel cared about, I feel loved. So, those are my positive
influences (Participant 17, male).
44
According to principle 6, effective approaches to prevention include developing

relevant skills to be resistant to drugs. The following sections illustrate how
programme participation improved these skills.
Constructive peer relationships

Earlier research indicated the central role played by negative peer influence in drug
use (Caldwell et al. 2012; Chun et al. 2013). In this research, peers in the ATI video
resource were acting as positive role models to help strengthen the participating
students’ SE. Interview data indicated how the adolescents learnt to choose
constructive friendships and handle negative peer pressure. Two examples are:
If my father is addicted to alcohol that’s not a very good role model ... I’ll think of myself
as worthless, I won’t have any support system. This also adds to the peer pressure. If I have
such a low self-esteem and I don’t have any support system, when my friends tell me, “okay
let’s go drinking tonight”, or whatever, because I don’t know how to stand up for myself,
I don’t have anybody who can do that for me or anything like, then I’ll probably do it just
because I want to belong. I want to feel loved and I think that those peers maybe could give
me that. But then if I know that I don’t want to be like that, then I’ll choose to do something
different, I’ll choose to do something better with my life (Participant 14, female).
The main message I got from this video is that in life you get good and bad friends. You need
to make a choice as to how you are going to live with them (Participant 1, female).
All the participants indicated that, as a result of the programme, they had tried to
associate with peers who did not drink and who were not involved in taking drugs.
They indicated that some friends, but not all, were positive role models. Thus, the
adolescents concluded that they should be their own role models and should set good
examples for others to follow.
Enhanced communication skills

According to principle 6, prevention resources should enhance communication
skills. To this end, interactive techniques were used (principle 8). These included
peer discussions about role models in accordance with SCT and SET and aimed
at allowing the participants to learn about drug abuse (Center for the Application
of Prevention Technologies [CAPTUS] 2011; in David, Rao & Robertson 2003;
McBride 2005; National Youth Anti-Drug Campaign 2011; NCJRS 2011). In this
research, the adolescents were able to ask questions and learn vicariously by observing
role models in the DVD, as well as learn by their interactive participation during the
interviews and in focus groups. According to observation notes, it was clear that the
practising of various activities during the implementation of the programme had
enhanced the students’ communication skills and understanding. The interview data
45
in the following sections also illustrate the adolescents’ communication regarding

issues related to substance abuse.
Enhanced SE
The participants’ SE was increased by their experiences of exploring the influence
of role-modelling, social persuasions, emotions and choice of behaviour, either with
direct reference to what they had seen in the DVD resource, or by processes of self-
reflection on, and self-evaluation of, their life experiences. Interviews indicated that
the students had gained greater self-confidence and increased SE allowing them to
respond appropriately in various situations. For example:
It [the programme] can definitely help people, especially teenagers that are going through
this [substance abuse]. It can encourage them and make them better with what they are
doing, and that there are people who can help them. It can improve us and make us better
people and we can learn from our mistakes, and it motivates us to do the right thing in life
(Participant 22, female).
The participants saw in the DVD resource why some adolescents had started drinking
and what they were going through. The participants’ SE increased as a result of their
being encouraged to explore the influence of social persuasions in their lives. The
topic of social persuasions was introduced to facilitate and coach the adolescents
to be more self-reflective on their choice of behaviour, a key aspect of Bandura’s
(2008) agentic perspective.
The participants’ SE also increased due to their exploring the influence of
emotions in their lives. The topic of physical well-being and healthy emotions was
introduced to coach the adolescents to be more self-reflective on their emotional
experiences. The ensuing programme discussions facilitated understanding of the
role of authentic mastery experience in increasing their SE. The topic of free will and
agency was introduced in order to allow the adolescents to explore their perceptions,
and to reflect on their setting of goals for the future, and their behavioural choices.
Earlier research has revealed the importance of goal setting and SE in enabling
adolescents to conform to positive social norms (Carroll, Gordon, Haynes &
Houghton 2013).
Increased assertiveness
Resistance skills training is an important aspect of any prevention programme
(Culleton et al. 2013). SET also indicates that, in terms of its agentic perspective,
intentionality, forethought and self-reflectiveness are essential properties of human
agency and the exercise of free will (Bandura 2008:87–88). Similar to the HW
programme (Caldwell et al. 2012), this programme aimed to increase the adolescents’
assertiveness skills. The following quotes illustrate the programme’s success in this
regard:
46
The programme made us much more assertive because now we can understand and we see
things happening because on the video it showed us and we’ve learned from the video from
what we’ve seen (Participant 2, female).
It made me think a lot about life [self-reflectiveness] and things that we take for granted, and
if I had to take anything for granted, I wouldn’t go there now [forethought]. Watching the
movie, I would like to change my life. I wouldn’t do the bad things [intentionality]. If I did
anything bad I would like change for the better [choice] (Participant 22, female).
The relevance of the particular questions provided in the programme, and how
in-depth learning was facilitated, are considered key to its effectiveness (Calder
2012). For example, according to Bandura (1997), adolescents who had difficulty in
controlling their drinking behaviour could develop self-regulative skills and rehearse
flexible plans of action to deal with risky situations in their natural environment.
When the adolescents were probed in this regard, one student stated:
I would tell the host of the party that I don’t drink alcohol, so if they want me at that party,
they should have juice or something …. They would have to understand that, you know, it’s
important for me to be at that party, maybe it’s a very close friend. I’d probably have to go
but I’d have to explain that, ok, I’m not going to drink, you’ll have to respect my decision
This is in line with similar programmes that have used the acronym REAL to train
adolescents to refuse, explain, avoid and leave in culturally appropriate ways (Kulis,
Dustman, Brown & Martinez 2013).
Examples of other questions related to SCT/SET and posed to the adolescents
to provide assertiveness training included: ‘How confident are you in coping with
specific situations such as peer pressure to smoke, to drink alcohol or to take drugs?
What do you visualise as the positive consequences of sobriety? What do you
visualise as the negative consequences of drinking? How do you set goals and create
motivating incentives with whatever you do? To what extent has the programme
helped you with social skills training and assertiveness?’ Thus, the discussions gave
the adolescents the opportunity to reflect and to rehearse assertiveness strategies.
Having such strategies available could help them to manage difficult situations in
future.
Increased resistance to drugs

All the knowledge gained discussed so far should increase adolescents’ resistance
to drugs, as shown by the Caldwell et al. (2012) study involving South African
adolescents. Caring relationships and strong standards against substance abuse in
families and schools are important in prevention. By setting a good example of
resistance against drug use, peers and parents acting in the DVD video resource
were positive role models for adolescents. Interview comments by the participants
47
indicated that their viewing of the DVD resource had helped them through
observational learning. For example:
An interesting video, it got my full attention. It had me thinking what was going to happen
next and that alcohol and drugs are not worth it, and joining the wrong company can cause
pressure (Participant 11, female).
According to DiClemente, Fairhurst and Piotrowski (1995), abstinence SE involves

adolescents’ confidence in their ability to abstain from the addictive behaviour in the
various situations that are triggers to perform that behaviour. Bandura (1997:360)
emphasised that the development of personal efficacy was likely to foster sobriety,
stimulate pleasant emotions and develop a positive self-awareness. Interviews
indicated that the participants’ anti-drug attitudes were decisively more evident and
that they had developed an increased sense of abstinence SE after the programme.
This is in line with principle 2 that states that programmes should address all forms
of drug abuse and enforce resistance against them. One student stated:
It [the DVD] gave us new reasons why we shouldn’t use drugs and taught us more about
the dangers that we didn’t know. The children speaking about their experiences and what
happened to them, what they’ve been through opened our eyes to see that we don’t want that
to happen to us (Participant 2, female).
Programme presentation
The students who participated in the online sessions evidently enjoyed this learning
experience. Thus, this approach could be recommended, provided that the educational
technology to enable the use of digital communication to best effect is available. The
following comments reported well on this dimension of the programme:
There were a lot of discussions and topics that were talked about, as people had a lot of
different views and opinions which helped me understand to choose a better life and group
of friends. The programme was very well organised and well prepared and should be done
more often. No alterations necessary (Participant 14, female).
The responses we got from people on our Facebook group were very interesting. People also
gave great advice as to how to conduct yourself during the holidays (Participant 23, female).
However, there were some difficulties with a few of the students’ participation in the
chat-room sessions. These obstacles were related to limited availability of internet
facilities at home and the fact that the students could not participate anonymously in
chat-room sessions. The following comment illustrates this:
Some students do not have Internet at home. And, I think people respond differently because
there are different types of communication. People may be good with verbal communication,
or written or electronic communication or just simply being anonymous … not wanting to be
known but they want to be heard (Participant 14, female).
48
Regarding the interviews and focus group discussions, the following brief comments
by the participants suggested that they had enjoyed the interactive interviews that
followed the DVD presentations. For example:
The interview was good and changed my life story. The focus groups were quite interesting
… more focused and based on everything which takes place in our country. It brought a great
understanding to every individual and to understand more about influence (Participant 1,
female).
The classroom discussion was very focused … many students did not participate, but those
who took part in the activity did very well (Participant 10, female).
Adolescents’ recommendations for improvement

Research has identified the quality of programmes and how programmes are delivered
as key to their effectiveness. Feedback from participants can be used effectively to
improve programmes and make them culturally relevant (Okamoto, Helm, McClain
& Dinson 2012). In this study, some students suggested that the situations depicted
in the DVD media should have more of a storyline to them and that adolescents who
had had to deal with difficult issues themselves should be used as role models. For
example:
You should have actors and make up a story like something probably happens to this girl,
her parents neglected her, and that’s how she got into drugs and how she went through rehab.
If you see a story like that … It should be a whole story like a movie …. You know what ...
I’ve been there, I’ve been in their shoes, and I can tell you it’s not easy, but there is a way
out (Participant 11, female).
Use of indigenous language sub-titles within the DVD resource could also improve
the resource for some students. Interview data indicated that some students favoured
this idea as an aid to understanding. For example:
I think it could [be helpful] because there are people who don’t understand English well.
When they know it’s their language, they are going to want to watch it. If it’s just in English,
then they are going to say that it’s only catering for the whites and the Indians, what about
us (Participant 22, female)?
The adolescents’ comments emphasised the role of teachers in making the programme
work effectively. One participant mentioned:
Sometimes teachers will be harsh with the students – we need someone polite. I think
teachers should participate in the programme so that they can learn drug abusers need love
(Participant 7, male).
49
In line with others who see Life Orientation as the relevant subject in which to
implement such prevention programmes (Caldwell et al. 2012), the participants
also suggested that the programme could be incorporated into this subject. Life
Orientation curricula mandate the acquiring of knowledge of the self to make
informed decisions, and of skills to respond effectively to challenges (Department of
Basic Education 2011). Integration of prevention programmes into subject curricula
would also enable interactive and reinforcing classroom discussions to occur on a
regular basis. This pinpoints teachers as key role-players. An adolescent stated:
I think it’s relevant for Life Orientation. I think we should discuss substance use on a deeper
level. But in some schools, teachers are not that reliable. You go to a teacher with confidence
and you tell them something and then you hear that it’s being discussed in the staffroom
Teachers should also be trained to add more practical activities to the programme
and perhaps liaise with other schools.
CONCLUSION
The aim of this research was to investigate how a psycho-educational programme,
using an audio-visual media resource, can be implemented in schools to prevent
adolescent substance abuse. The researchers answered the question by implementing
a programme using suitable audio-visual resources in seven sessions over two
months with twenty-six Grade 10 and 11 students, and determining their perceptions
of the programme.
According to the students, the programme improved their knowledge and
awareness about drugs and drug-related issues, their family relationships, their
awareness of the role of constructive peer relationships, and their communication
skills. The adolescents professed to having enhanced SE, increased assertiveness and
their improved resistance to drugs. Thus, the programme enhanced the knowledge
and skills that adolescents require to abstain from alcohol and drug abuse. The
programme stimulated the adolescents’ self-reflection, self-regulation and learning
from vicarious experience.
A number of recommendations can be made. Life Orientation teachers need
to be trained how to implement similar programmes in schools since the quality of
their delivery will determine the programme’s success in enhancing the collective
efficacy of the students. (It is again noted that the researcher who implemented the
programme was not a teacher.) Long-term implementation of programmes is needed
and the effects of this need to be investigated in longitudinal studies.
The study contributed towards new knowledge in the identification of the nine
principles for the selection of resources. It illustrated how a programme could be
implemented, evaluated and improved on by facilitators, for example teachers.
Implementing the ATI resource in the programme was a first for South Africa in
50
the area of substance abuse prevention, especially in terms of using the conceptual
framework of SCT/SET and the principles for effective programmes. If such
programmes could be incorporated into school curricula and could be suitably
presented, they may well contribute towards the mental welfare and harmonious
relationships of adolescents.
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Education as Change

ISSN: 1682-3206 (Print) 1947-9417 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/redc20

A psycho-educational programme using audio-

Bruce D Calder & Salome Schulze

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/16823206.2015.1024144

Published online: 11 Jun 2015.

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Download by: [ECU Libraries] Date: 23 March 2016, At: 17:02

Education as Change DOI: 10.1080/16823206.2015.1024144

Keywords: drug use, psycho-educational programme, audio-visual media resource,

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

Vergnani & Wegner 2007:1085–1086). A study of Grade 8 and Grade 11 public

Thus, the aim of this research was to investigate how a psycho-educational

(2008). However, there was no emphasis on the use of audio-visual material.

THE ATI RESOURCE

It was argued that it would be suitable on the basis of principles 2, 3, 4, 7, 8 and 9;

Table 1: Examples of video-clip material that participants were exposed to

(http://www.youtube.com/ share where they find their inner strength to

After exposing adolescents to the video-clips in Table 1, facilitators (typically

Refer to criteria Select audio-visual

Figure 1 Elements of incorporating audio-visual and social media into a proposed

The psycho-educational programme

THE PSYCHO-EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMME

RESEARCH DESIGN AND DATA COLLECTION

the participants’ co-operation and resolving any resistance. All disclosures of

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

Improved knowledge and awareness

Improved family relationships

According to principle 6, effective approaches to prevention include developing

Constructive peer relationships

Enhanced communication skills

in the following sections also illustrate the adolescents’ communication regarding

Increased resistance to drugs

According to DiClemente, Fairhurst and Piotrowski (1995), abstinence SE involves

Adolescents’ recommendations for improvement

research, and application, 109–141. New York: Plenum Press.

Unpublished D.Ed. thesis, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa.

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