Surface Irrigation Introduction

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF IRRIGATION

Definition: Irrigation is the science of artificial application of water to the land, in

accordance with the crop requirements throughout the crop period for full nourishment of
the crops.
It is the Engineering of controlling and harnessing the various natural sources of water,
by construction of dams & reservoirs, canals & head works and finally distributing the
water to agricultural fields.

Water is normally supplied to the plants by nature through the rains. However, the total
rainfall in a particular area may be either insufficient, or ill-timed. In order to get the
maximum yield it is essential to supply the optimum quantity of water and to maintain
correct timing of water. This is possible only through systematic irrigation system by
collecting water during the periods of excess rainfall and releasing it to the crops as when
it is needed. Generally the following are some of the factors that necessitate irrigation.

- inadequate rainfall
- uneven distribution of Rainfall
- increasing the yield of the crops
- growing a number of crops
- insuring against drought.
- growing perennial crops.

Scope of Irrigation Engineering

Irrigation Engineering is not only confined to the application of water to the land for
raising crops. It includes all aspects and problems extending from the watershed to the
agricultural fields. It deals with hydrology, river engineering, design and construction of
dams, weirs, canals and various other hydraulic and irrigation structures. It also deals
with surface and sub surface drainage system, soil reclamation, water-soil-crop
relationships. Other allied sciences such as flood control, hydropower, and inland
navigation are also studied in IRRIGATION Engineering.

Various aspects of Irrigation Engineering is:

1. Water resources and hydrology aspect – to locate various water sources and to
study the hydrology of the region. This includes study of meteorology,
precipitation, stream flow, floods, river engineering, reservoirs and flood control.
The following information are required while designing various irrigation
structures.

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Surface Irrigation Introduction

 The quantity of water that will be available at a reservoir site for storage.
 Maximum discharge at a river site.
 Reservoir capacity that ensures adequate Quantity of water for various
purposes.
 Quantity of ground water which can be economically exploited.
2. Engineering Aspect - involves the development of a source of water for irrigation
and construction of various irrigation structures.
 Dams and water power Engineering
 Diversion and Distribution structures
 Minor irrigation schemes (well, Tank / Pond, inundation Irrigation).
3. Agricultural aspect – Involves irrigation practice and the study of agricultural
characteristics of the land.
4. Management Aspect- deals with successful implementation and efficient
management of engineering aspects and agricultural works.

1.2 BENEFITS & ILL-EFFECTS OF IRRIGATION

There are various direct and indirect advantages of irrigation.

- Increase in food production: Irrigation helps in increasing crop yields through
controlled and timely supply of water to the crop.
- Optimum benefits: optimal utilization of water is made possible by irrigation.
Optimum utilization implies obtaining maximum crop yield with any amount of
water. In other words, yield will be smaller for any quantity lesser than or in
excess of optimum quantity.
- Elimination of mixed cropping in areas where irrigation is not ensured,
generally mixed cropping is adapted. Mixed cropping is growing two or more
crops simultaneously in the same field. If the weather condition is not suitable to
one of the crops it may be suitable for the other; and thus at least some yield is
obtained. Mixed cropping can be adopted when irrigation facilities are not
available, but if irrigation is assured it can be eliminated. Mixed cropping is
generally not acceptable, because different crops require different types of field
preparations and different types of manures, amount of water etc.
- General prosperity: Revenue returns are sometimes quite high and helps in all
round development of the country
- Generation of hydroelectric power: cheaper power generation can be obtained
on objects primarily designed for irrigation alone. Also falls on irrigation channels
can be utilized to generate electricity which may help in industrializing the rural
area and so in solving the problem of fuel shortage.
- Domestic water supply:- irrigation helps in augmenting the town water supply
where water is available with great difficulty. It also provides water for swimming
bathing, cattle drinking etc.
- Facilities of communication: Irrigation channels are generally provided with
embankments and inspection roads. These inspection paths provide a good road
way to the villagers for walking, cycling or even motoring.
- In land navigation

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Surface Irrigation Introduction

Ill-effects of irrigation

Ill-effects of irrigation occur only when the scheme is not properly designed and
implemented. Most of these are due to excess irrigation water application. Some of the
common ill-effects are
1. Water logging
when cultivators apply more water than actually required by the crops, excess
water percolates in to the ground and raises the water table. Water logging occurs
when the water table reaches near the root zones of the crops. The soil pores
become fully saturated and the normal circulation of air in the root zones of the
crop is stopped and the growth of the crops is decreased. Thus crop yield
considerably reduces. When the water table reaches the ground surface, the land
becomes saline.

2. Long term application of pesticides under large scale irrigation system might
have a negative influence on soil microbal activities, on the quality of surface and
sub surface water resources and the survival of the surrounding vegetation.
Irrigation may contribute in various ways to the problem of pollution. One of
these is the seepage in to the ground of the nitrates that has been applied to the
soil as fertilizer. Sometimes up to 50% of the nitrates applied to the soil sink in to
the underground reservoir. The under ground water thus get polluted.

3. Irrigation may result in colder and damper climate causing outbreak of disease
like malaria.
4. Irrigation is complex and expensive in itself. Some times cheaper water is to be
provided at the cost of the government and revenue returns are low.

1.3 IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT IN ETHIOPIA

Ethiopia is the “water tower” of North Eastern Africa. Many rivers arising in Ethiopia are
also the sources of the major water resources in neighboring countries. The country is
endowed with water resources that could easily be tapped and used for irrigation.
Ironically this country is already suffering from food shortage because of the increasing
population and chronic drought occurrence in most part of the eastern and northern part
of the country. There is an annual food deficit to the extent of 0.5 to 1.0 million tones in
the country. During the period from 1984 to 1992 the food aid annually received was
around 0.9 to 1.0 tones (World Bank Report), to meet the demand of the ever growing
population (over 72 million) The need for utilizing these resources is most urgent, in
particular, in areas of the country where the length of the growing period is short and the
precipitation is erratic. In Ethiopia, rainfed agriculture contributes the largest share of the
total production. However, over the past few decades, irrigated agriculture has become
more important.

Prior to the mid-1980s, irrigation in Ethiopia was concentrated on the production of

commercial crops, principally cotton and sugarcane on large state farms. By 1980 it was

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Surface Irrigation Introduction

estimated that 85,000 ha. Mainly in the Awash valley, had been developed under this
form of production. In addition some 65,000 ha of traditional irrigation was estimated to
exist. Predominantly in the highlands and developed on the farmer’s own initiative. These
schemes were typically small runoff river diversion, with low production levels. During
this period government involvement in irrigation concentrated on the state farms and was
channeled through various agencies.

Historical Back Ground

 In 1956 water resource development (WRD) was established within Ministry of

public works, with responsibility for undertaking river basin development studies
and such a study was completed for the Blue Nile basin. However irrigation
development remained concentrated in the Awash valley and in 1962 Awash
valley Authority (AVA) was established.

 In 1971 National Water Resources Commission (NWRC) was established.

 In 1977 Valleys agricultural development authority (VADA) was created to extend

the development of large scale irrigated agriculture beyond the Awash valley and
AVA become part of VADA.

 In 1981 NWRC strengthened to absorb functions of VADA. It comprised four

authorities including water resource development authority (WRDA), which
became responsible for the study, design, and implementation of water resource
development projects including large scale irrigation.

The 1984 drought had a considerable impact on Ethiopia’s development policy, and the
1984 Ten-Year perspective plan allocated top priority to agricultural development with
objective of achieving self sufficiency in food production, establishing a strategic reserve
meeting the raw material requirement of industries and expanding output of exportable
agricultural products to increase foreign exchange earnings.

The Water Sector Development programme of MoWR (2002) organizes irrigation

schemes in Ethiopia under four different ways with sizes ranging from 50 to 85,000 ha

 Traditional small scale schemes: These includes up to 100 ha in area, built and
operated by farmers in local communities. Traditionally, farmers have built small scale
schemes on their own initiative with government technical and material support. They
manage them in their own users’ associations or committees and irrigate areas from 50 to
100 ha with the average ranging from 70 to 90 ha. A total of 1,309 such schemes existed
in 1992 covering an estimated area of 60,000ha.

Water users’ associations have long existed to operate and manage traditional schemes.
They comprise about 200 users who share a main or branch canal and further grouped in
to several teams of 20 to 30 farmers each.

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Surface Irrigation Introduction

 Modern communal schemes: schemes up to 200 ha, built by government agencies

with farmer participation. Modern communal schemes were developed after the
catastrophic drought of the 1973 as a means to improve food security and peasant
livelihoods by providing cash incomes through production and marketing of crops. Such
schemes are capable of irrigating about 30,000ha of land.

These schemes are generally based on run-of - diversion of streams and rivers and may
also involve micro dams for storage. On-farm support from the respective agricultural
departments and maintenance of headworks by water, mines and energy sections as well
as technical support from the authorized irrigation development Bureaus in different
regions is giving supports and trying to strengthen the system.

 Modern private schemes: up to 2000 ha, owned and operated by private investors
individually, in partnership, or as corporations. Medium to large scale irrigation schemes
in Ethiopia are private enterprises. The private estates are the pioneers in the development
of medium and large scale irrigation development projects in the upper Awash during the
1950s and 1960s. During the 1990s some private schemes, mostly in the form of limited
companies re-emerged with the adoption of market based economic policy but have
expanded relatively slowly.

Currently 18 modern private irrigation projects are operating in some form over a total
area of 6000 ha in Oromiya, SNNPR, and Affar regions.

 Public Schemes of over 3,000 ha, owned and operated by public enterprises as estate
farms. They are recently developed irrigation schemes during the late 1970s. Gode West,
Omo Ratti and Alwero- Abobo began late in the 1980s and early in the 1990s but have
not yet been completed. Public involvement towards large scale schemes was withdrawn
due to government changes and most of such schemes with the exception of Fincha
sugare estate have been suspended. Large scale schemes being operated by public
enterprise extend over an area estimated at 61,000 ha. Oromiya and Affar account nearly
87% of all irrigation schemes and about 73% of this is located in Awash valley. The
SNNPR and Somali regions contain 9.9 and 3.3 percent respectively, WSDP (2003).

Source: Negash (2004), GIS Based Irrigation suitability Analysis, p 9-10 (after MoWR
2003 Report)

Irrigation potential: In 1990 a team of consultants working for WAPCOS, a

consultancy group in India, prepared a preliminary water resource development master
plan for Ethiopia. The potential for medium and large scale irrigation projects was
identified as 3.3 Mha. Areas having irrigation potential were identified from 1:50,000 and
1:250,000 topographic maps and 1:1000:000 geomorphologic maps. The study was
carried out almost entirely as a desk exercise with minimal field verification. It should be
noted that the assessment of irrigation potential is to a large degree subjective as it is
dependent on the physical resources of land and water, but also on the economic and
social feasibility of their exploitation.

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Surface Irrigation Introduction

Another study conducted by FAO argues the estimation of the potential irrigable land by
WAPCOS is over estimated. That of the total potential irrigable area identified by
WAPCOS, some 3 Mha of the soils or 90% of that of the total were classified as only
marginally suitable and in some case non-suitable with the technology available. The
main reason for this is the predominance of vertisols and nitosols in the areas identified.
Theses soils are characterized by high clay content, restricted damage and difficult
workability. To avoid water logging under irrigated conditions it is necessary to adopt a
low cropping intensity or to install expensive sub-surface drainage. Either alternative
significantly reduces the economic viability of irrigation. However, such soils are
frequently classified as highly suitable for rice production.

Ethiopia has a rich water resources potential, but water can be very short in many places.
Except for the Awash and the Omo, all the large rivers originating in Ethiopia flow into
neighboring countries. Unlike in the past Ethiopia is now taking genuine steps towards
fostering close ties, joint planning and harmonious relationships among riparian
countries. The irrigation potential of the12 major river basins is given in the Table below.

Rivers Basin area Mean Ground water 1 2

(Km)2 annual 9 3
potentialx10 m potential Net area
Vol.x109m3 gross Under
irrigable irrigation(ha)
area(ha)
Awash 112696 4.60 0.14 205400 69900
Abay(Blue 204000 52.62 1.80 1001550 21010
Nile)
Baro-Akobo 75912 11.81 0.13 600000 350
Rift valley 52739 56.3 0.10 139300 12270
lakes
Omo-Gibe 79000 17.96 0.10 86520 27310
Genale- 17104 5.88 0.03 423300 80
dawa
Wabi- 202697 3.16 0.04 204000 20290
Shebelle
Tekeze 865000 8.20 0.02 189500 1800
Oaden 72121 0.86 - - -
Denakil 62882 0.86 - 3000 -
Aysha 2223 0.22 - - -
Mereb-Gash 5700 0.65 0.05 67560 8000
Total 1127312 112.45 2.59 2920130 161010
Note 1= the data extracted from EARO and 2= the data from CSE

Ethiopia has not developed irrigation to the potential it has, i.e. according to the
availability of physical resources, land and water. At present only a little more than
3% of the irrigable land is currently irrigated both in large and medium scale. The
development of irrigated areas in the country has also been unevenly spread. Over

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Surface Irrigation Introduction

70% of the area developed for irrigation to date is in the Awash river basin. Most of
the development has been in the Awash valley, which is the most accessible basin to
Addis and has the best infrastructure to support irrigation development.

The spells of drought during the last two decades have led to increased interest in
irrigation development. Irrigation is thus expanding in the Wabi-Shebelle and Genale
rivers and in the Ziway-Meki area of the rift valley. There are also a number of
proposals for further irrigation schemes in several of the other basins including the
Omo river, Rift valley lakes and Baro-Akobo. Following the decentralization of
governance, there are now a number of regional initiatives to develop irrigation,
especially at the small and medium scales, building on existing traditional small-scale
irrigation systems, and augmenting them with the diversion of streams and the
construction of earth dams. Irrigation development in Ethiopia, as in other countries,
has a number of ecological implications because of its impact upon river regimes and
downstream flows.

Some of the adverse effects of irrigation development on the environment are: The
development of medium and large scale irrigation projects causes a displacement of
the indigenous population engaged in pastoral modes of life. Clear examples include
the displacement of 60,000 Afar pastoralists from the Amibara irrigation project in the
Middle Awash (Mac Donald, 1990) and unspecified number of kereyou pastoralists
during the establishment of the Metehara sugar plantation in the upper Awash.

With respect to the use of irrigation for crop production in the highlands, the success
has been little. The existence of small scales irrigation by small holders in parts of
Shewa. Tigray Harerege, Gojjam, North omo and few others is known. But the
constraints of small scales of irrigation in the highlands of Ethiopia are physical,
know-how. capacity and climatic ones.

Until last year Ethiopia did not have a coherent water resource policy. Lack of an
irrigation policy precluded the preparation of a strategy for he sub-sector which
would have identified development targets and priorities. The large number of
different agencies involved particularly in medium and large scale irrigation created
considerable difficulties in coordination of activities leading to overlap of
responsibilities and inefficient use of scarce human, financial and physical resources.
Defined institutional responsibilities and allowed rational planning of future
manpower requirements and its development. The sub-sector also suffered from
unnecessary institutional and fragmentation.

OVERALL OBJECTIVE OF THE IRRIGATION POLICY IN ETHIOPIA

The overall objective of the irrigation policy is to develop the huge irrigated
agriculture potential for the production of food crops and raw materials needed for
agro-industries, on efficient and sustainable basis and without degrading the
fertility of the production fields and water resource base.

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Surface Irrigation Introduction

Functions of Irrigation water

The function of soil moisture in plant growth are diversified

1. It adds water to the soil to supply the moisture essential for plant growth

 It acts as a solvent for the nutrients. Water forms the solution of the nutrients and
this solution is absorbed by the roots. Thus water acts as a nutrient carrier.
 The irrigation water supplies moisture which is essential for the life of bacteria
beneficial to the plant growth.
 Irrigation water supplies the moisture which is essential for the chemical action
within the plant, leading to its growth.

2. Some salt present in soil react to produce nourishing food products only in the
presence of water
3. Water cools the soil and the atmosphere and thus makes more favorable
environment for healthy plant growth.
4. Irrigation water, with controlled supplies, washes out or dilutes salts in the soil
5. It reduces the hazard of soil piping.
6. It softens tillage pans

1.4 STANDARDS OF IRRIGATION WATER

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Surface Irrigation Introduction

Every water is not suitable for irrigation. The quality of irrigation water is very much
influenced by the contents of the soil, which is to be irrigated. Particular water may be
harmful for irrigation on a particular soil but the same water may be tolerable or even
useful on some other soil. Irrigation water may be said to be unsatisfactory for its
intended use if it contains:
 Chemicals toxic to plants or the persons using plant as food
 chemicals that react with the soil to produce unsatisfactory moisture
characteristics
 Bacteria injurious to persons or animals eating plants irrigated with water.

There are two main causes of salinity: Salinity caused by the supply of irrigation water
and Salinity caused by the upward movement of water and salts, related to high water
tables and lack of drainage; it is only indirectly related to salts in the irrigation water. The
general solution to these problems is to remove the salts from the soil by providing extra
water, which dissolves the salts and percolates to the saturated zone where it is removed
by drainage. The process is called leaching. This is one of the reasons why irrigation
systems also require drainage systems.

a. Sediment: its effect depends upon the type of irrigated land when fine sediment
from water is deposited on sandy soils the fertility is improved on the other hand
if the sediment has been derived from the eroded areas it may reduce the fertility
or decrease the soil permeability. Sediment water creates troubles in irrigation
canals as it increases their siltation and maintenance costs. In general ground
water or surface water from reservoirs, etc does not have sufficient sediment to
cause any serious problems in irrigation.

b. Total concentration of soluble salts: Salts, when present in excessive quantities,

reduce osmotic activities of the plants and may prevent adequate aeration causing
injuries to plant growth. The effect of salts on plant growth depends largely upon
the total amount of salts in the soil solution. The salinity concentration of the soil
solution (Cs) after the consumptive use (Cu) has been extracted from the soil is
given by
C *Q
Cs= Q  (C  P )
u eff

where Q is quantity of water applied

Cu is consumptive use of water i.e. the total amount of water used up by the
plant for its growth.
Peff is useful rainfall
Cu-Peff is used up irrigation water
C concentration of salt in irrigation water
C*Q is the total salt applied to the soil with Q amount of water.

Concentration of salt is measured in PPM (equivalent to mg/l). Concentration of salt

above 2000 PPM is generally harmful for almost all crops. Salt concentration is
measured by determining electrical conductivity.

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 Surface Irrigation Introduction

Low Conductivity (low salinity) 100-250 micromhos/cm

Medium conductivity 250-750 micromhos/cm
High conductivity 750-2250 micromhos/cm
Very high conductivity >2250 micromhos at 250C

Since a high degree of correlation exists between, EC, the total cations and osmotic
pressure of soil water extract , the following relationship may be employed for the
evaluation of salt concentration.

1. Salt concentration , mg/l or ppm = 640 * EC millimhos/cm

2. Total cation concentration , meq/lit = 10* EC millimhos/cm , when EC is
measured up to the range of 5 millimhos/cm at 250C.
3. Osmotic pressure , in atmospheres = 0.36 *EC millmhos/cm , For soils the
saturation extract could be used for this purposes.
4. ppm/Eq.Wt = meq/lit.
5. meq/lit. to ppm = Sum of the product of the meq. of each ion times its equivalent
weight.

C. Proportion of sodium ions to other cations: small quantities of sodium ions

present in most soils relative to other cations. If its percentage increases it has an
influence on the aggregation of soil grains i.e. it breaks down. The soil becomes less
permeable and of poorer tilth. It starts crusting when dry and its pH increases towards
that of an alkaline soil. High sodium soils are therefore, plastic, sticky when wet, and
are prone to form clogs and they crust on drying.

The proportion of sodium ions present in the soil is generally measured by a

factor called sodium-absorption ratio (SAR) and represents the sodium hazards
of water. SAR is defined as:
Na 
SAR =  Ca    Mg   
 
 2 

Adj. SAR = SAR 1   8.4  pHc   ……Ayers &Westcot , 1976

in which the ionic concentrations are expressed in milliequivalents per litre and pHc is
calculated pH magnitude.

The calculated pHc is given by,

   
pHc =  pK d  pK s   p Ca 2  p HCO3  p ACF  ……………….(1)


Ks = (Ca2+) (CO32-) …………………………………..(2)

Kd =
 H CO

3
2
 …………………………………….(3)

HCO3

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 Surface Irrigation Introduction

and ACF = Activity Coefficient Factor for Ca2+ and HCO3-

The terms in brackets are all in moles/L. HCO3- is used in equation 1 above instead of total
alkalinity because it is the dominant species. K d and Ks are temperature dependent and an
expression applicable to eqn. (1) is:

pKd - pKs = 2.586 – 2.621*10-2 T + 1.01*10-4 T2

where T = solution temperature , OC

The activity coefficient factor is dependent up on solution concentration and is calculated

by:

P(ACF) = 7.790*10-2 + 2.610*10-2 TDS – 5.477*10-4 TDS2 +5.323*10-6 TDS3

Where, TDS = Total dissolved ion concentration, meq/L

Where the concentration of the ions is expressed in equivalent per million (epm), epm is
obtained by dividing the concentration of salt in mg/1 or PPM by its combining weight
(i.e. atomic weight valence).

When is SAR between 0-10 it is low sodium water

10-18 medium ,,
18-26 High ,,
>26 very high ,,
Low sodium water is suitable for irrigation except in crops which are sensitive to sodium
like fruit trees, avocados etc where as medium sodium water is hazardous in fine textured
soils. Very high sodium water is generally not suitable for irrigation. SAR value can be
reduced by adding gypsum (CaSo4).

d. pH :- The pH value of a soil or natural water is a measure of its alkalinity or acidity.

More accurately stated , the pH value is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration in
water. Mathematically this is the logarithm to the base 10 of the reciprocal of the
hydrogen ion concentration of the pure water.

e. Potentially toxic elements: elements like Boron, Selenium, etc may be toxic to plants.
Concentration of Boron exceeding 0.3 PPM may be toxic to certain plants.
>0.5 PPM dangerous to nuts, citrus fruits.
Dates. Beets, asparagus are quite tolerant. Even for the most tolerant crops its
concentration should not exceed 4 PPM . Boron is present in various soaps. Wastewater
containing soap, etc should be used with great care in irrigation.
Guidelines for the interpretation of water quality for irrigation water
(FAO,1976)

Irrigation Water quality Parameters:

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Surface Irrigation Introduction

Irrigation problem Degree of problem

No Increasing Severe
problem problem problem
Salinity <0.75 0.75-3.0 >3.0
(affects water uptake)
Ecw (mmhos/cm)
Permeability (affects water
infiltration and availability)
Ecw (mmhos/cm) >0.5 0.5-0.2 <0.2
Adj.SAR
Montmorilonite Hlite- <6 6-9 >9
vermiculite <8 8-16 >16
Kaolimite-sesquioxides <10 16-24 >24
Specific ion toxicity
(affects sensitive crops)
sodium (adj. SAR) <3 3-9 >9
Chloride(meq/1) <4 4-10 >10
Boron (mg/1) 0.75 0.75-2.0 >12
Miscellaneous effects
(affects susceptible crops)
No3-Nor NH4-N(mg/1) <5 5-30 >30
Hco3(meq/1) <1.5 1.5- 8.5 >8.5
PH
(Normal range 6.5- 8.4)

The following guidelines can be used in assessing the water quality for irrigation.

I. Salinity status: ECw and TDS

II. Infiltration capacity: this can be done by estimating SAR and ECw , salinity
& sodium content.
III.Specific ion Toxicity: Na , Cl, B ,
Other trace elements: Al, As, Be, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu , F ,Fe, Li, Mn, Mo, Ni,
Pb, Se, etc
IV. Miscellaneous effect: Nitrogen NO3 - N , Bicarbonate (HCO3) - for
overhead irrigation

Table: Laboratory determinations needed to evaluate common Irrigation water

quality parameters

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Surface Irrigation Introduction

S.No Water Parameter Symbol Unit usual range in irrigation water

1. SALINITY:
1.1 Salt content
Electrical conductivity ECw dS/m 0-3
Total Dissolved Solids TDS mg/l 0-2000
1.2 Cations &Anions
Calcium Ca++ me/l 0-20
Magnesium Mg++ me/l 0-5
Sodium Na+ me/l 0-40
Carbonate CO3-- me/l 0-0.1
Bicarbonate HCO3- me/l 0-10
Chloride Cl- me/l 0-30
Sulphate SO4-- me/l 0-20
2. NUTRIENTS
Nitrate- Nitrogen NO3 - N mg/l 0-10
Ammonia – Nitrogen NH4 –N mg/l 0-5
Phosphate Phosphorus PO4-P mg/l 0-2
Potassium K+ mg/l 0-2

3. MISCELLANEOUS
Boron B mg/l 0-2
Acid /Basicity pH 1-14 6-8.5
Sodium adsorption ratio SAR me/l 0-15
Li , Fe
Source. FAO Irrigation &Drainage manual No. 29 , Page 1-10

Table: Relative tolerance of selected crops to salinity of irrigation water.

Salt Tolerance
High Medium Low
(8-12 mmhos/cm) (3-8 mmhos/cm) (1-3 mmhos/cm)
FIELD CROPS
Rye, wheat, oats, sorghum, corn, and
Cotton Field beans, peanuts
soybeans
FORAGE CROPS
Sweet clover, dallisgrass, sudan grass, alfalfa, White clover and landino
Bermudagrass
fescue, wheat and oats for hay, vetch clover
VEGETABLE CROPS
Tomatoes, broccoli, cabbage, peppers,
Garden beets, kale, Radishes, celery, and
cauliflower, lettuce, sweet corn, potatoes,
asparagus, and spinach green beans
carrots, onions, peas, squash, and cucumbers
FRUIT CROPS
Pears, apples, oranges,
plums, apricots, and
Figs, grapes, and cantaloupes
peaches

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Surface Irrigation Introduction

Irrigation water Quality Testing

All type of water is not suitable for human beings in the same way it applies for plant life.
Water containing impurities are dangerous for plant growth and are not satisfactory for
irrigation.

The quality of suitable irrigation water is very much influenced by the constituents of the
soil that is to be irrigated. Particular water may be harmful for irrigation on a particular
soil, but the same water may be tolerable or even useful for irrigation on some other soil.

Table : Guidelines for interpreting irrigation water quality tests.

Water Quality Hazard
Constituent
Low Medium High
Electrical Conductivity
0.00-0.75 0.76-3.00 3.01+
(mmhos/cm)
6-12
(potential hazard
with extended use 12+
on light-textured
Sodium Adsorption Ratio soils)
0-6
(SAR)
12-18
(potential hazard
18+
with extended use
on all soils)
Residual Sodium Carbonate
0-1.24 1.25-2.50 2.51+
(RSC)
Chlorides, ppm (root absorption) 0-142 143-355 356+
Chlorides, ppm (foliar absorption) 0-106 107+
Iron, ppm (foliar staining potential)* 0-3.00 3.01+
Bicarbonates, ppm (overhead sprinkler
0-90 91-520 521+
systems, foliar staining)*
pH (corrosivity) 6.5-8.4 5.5-6.4 less than 5.5
* Data applicable to nursery production only.

Interpretation of Test Results

Use the Table above as a guide for interpreting your water test results. You
should make interpretations, as related to specific crop response, after
considering specific plant and soil conditions. Following are the major
constituents of irrigation waters.

Electrical Conductivity -- Electrical conductivity, also called salinity, arises from

weathering of rocks and soils. Saltwater intrusion into water supplies located near coastal
areas also may contribute to electrical conductivity. This usually is expressed in

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Surface Irrigation Introduction

millimhos per centimeter (mmhos/cm) and may be converted into total dissolved-salt
concentration by multiplying mmhos/cm by 640 or 700. The soluble-salt level should
normally be less than about 1.00 mmhos/cm for most irrigation situations.

Calcium and Magnesium -- These elements are results of rock weathering. Calcium
usually is higher than magnesium in groundwaters, but where there is seawater
contamination, magnesium concentrations may be greater than calcium. These elements
are the main ones causing water hardness and the scale-forming properties of waters. As
these elements increase, the tendency for sodium to be toxic decreases.

Sodium -- Sodium arises from rock and soil weathering, seawater intrusion, and sewage
and irrigation waters. Large amounts of sodium, combined with chloride, give water a
salty taste. If the water is for a sprinkler system, and calcium and magnesium are low,
medium to high levels of sodium can defoliate sensitive plants. When the sodium in water
is high relative to calcium and magnesium levels, and precipitation of Ca and Mg
bicarbonates and carbonates is high, a sodium problem could develop on some soils.

The sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) and residual sodium carbonate (RSC) are useful for
evaluating sodium hazard in water applied directly to the soil. In these calculations, the
potential for precipitation of calcium, magnesium bicarbonates, and carbonates is
considered. If these constituents precipitate out of the water, relative amounts of sodium
will increase in the soil solution.

SAR is calculated using sodium, calcium, and magnesium expressed in milliequivalents

per liter (meq/L) and is written as the following:

Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC) is calculated using milliequivalents of calcium,

magnesium, carbonates, and bicarbonates:
RSC = (Carbonates + Bicarbonates) - (Calcium + Magnesium)
Once a high buildup of sodium and salt occurs, water in excess of that needed for
irrigation is necessary to leach these salts below the root zone of the crops. If levels of
sodium are elevated, applying high rates of gypsum on alkaline soils or lime on acid soils
(depending on pH) may eliminate some of the sodium problem. Consult your county
agent or Extension soil testing specialist for more specific recommendations. Salt-tolerant
crops, such as bermudagrass, may be useful in soil stabilization and erosion control. Soils
with a high salt content but low levels of exchangeable (clay-fixed) sodium may require
only leaching.

Chlorides, ppm: Chlorides arise from dissolved rocks, seawater intrusion, and sewage.
The presence of sodium carbonates is suspected if the ratio of sodium to chloride is
greater than 0.648. This constituent is most harmful in overhead sprinkler systems.
Chloride should not be confused with chlorine (Cl2), which indicates the level of
dissolved gaseous chlorine in water.

Iron, ppm: Iron is dissolved from practically all rocks and soils and also may arise from
plumbing, pumps, and tanks. Iron in groundwater quickly oxidizes to a reddish-brown

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Surface Irrigation Introduction

product when exposed to air. Iron at greater than one-third part per million can cause
clogging in drip-irrigation systems and could stain foliage in overhead applications.

Bicarbonates and carbonates, ppm: These constituents most often are associated with
calcium, magnesium, and sodium. White residues on plant foliage usually are because of
high bicarbonate content of water. When calcium and magnesium bicarbonates precipitate
out of irrigation water before use, sodium hazard may be increased.

pH: Low pH in water is caused by acids, acid-generated salts, and dissolved carbon
dioxide. High pH is from carbonates, bicarbonates, hydroxides, phosphates, silicates, and
borates. You should check water samples with less than 5.5 or greater than 8.5 pH to
determine cause of abnormal values. Check water with a pH lower than 6.5 for corrosion
potential on plumbing, pumps, or storage tanks.

Nitrates and Ammonium Nitrogen, ppm: Generally, levels of these constituents should
not be a problem if kept at 5 ppm or lower. Problems can occur at 6 to 30 ppm. At greater
than 30 ppm, severe toxicity is seen in some plants.

1.5 Feasibility studies of irrigation projects

Types of Irrigation projects

Any plan small or large, which ultimately aims at satisfying the paramount need of
adequate water provision for crop production, is an irrigation project.
Based on the scope of the irrigation project, irrigation projects can be classified as:

a) Large scale
b) Medium scale
c) Small scale

Irrigation projects and their development costs

Type of project Command area Development cost*
(ha) U.S dollars/ha
Average cost Range in cost
Large scale >10,000 16,000 5,000-50,000
Medium scale 2,000-10,000 9,000 4,000-15,000
Small scale <2,000 4,000 1,000-6,500

* Source: FAO, 1995.

Note: In Ethiopia, Small scale irrigations are those which have command areas <200 ha,
medium scale 200-3000 ha. And large scale >3000 ha.

With this respect, Ethiopia has a total potentially irrigable area of about 3,637,000 ha.
which is 27.55% of the total cultivable area. From which
o For small scale irrigation 165,000-400,000 ha.

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Surface Irrigation Introduction

o For medium and large scale irrigation 3,300,000 ha.

Stages of investigations in the development of irrigation projects.

Basically, the development of water resources for irrigation requires

the conception, planning, design, construction, and operation of
various facilities to utilize and control water and to maintain water
quality.

 Investigations of the development of irrigation projects need multi-discipilinary

approach. Specialists of different discipilines , such as, Soil and water specialist,
Engineers (Irrigation and civil), Agronomist, Geologist, and Socio-economist required.

 Investigations of water resources development projects are essentially aimed at

collection of basic data and analysis thereof for formulation of an optimum project. The
extent of data to be collected depends on the magnitude of the project and also on the
stage of investigation.

The common procedures adopted in the development of an irrigation project are:

1. Sites are located on the toposheet.

2. The marked sites are inspected (reconnaissance) to decide their feasibility.
3. The feasibility investigations are carried out for one or more of the possible
alternatives and estimates based approximate details are prepared.
4. Detailed investigations are then taken up and technical sanctions are granted.
5. After the technical sanction, agency of execution (i.e., contractor) is fixed and
construction started.

Approaches of data collections:

The following questions should be answered

 What or which data are required?

 How they can be collected?
 Why are they needed?
 Is the cost of their collection worthwhile?

 Necessity for irrigation in the region must be identified prior to implementation of

the detail study. Normally Irrigation will be a necessity if there is inadequacy of rainfall,
uneven distribution of rainfall, etc. On the other hand it will be of a paramount
importance to alleviate food shortage due to population growth.

For instance, in Ethiopia,

In 2050 – population is expected to be 170 mills.

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Surface Irrigation Introduction

 Let 230-kg/person/year food grain needed.

 Need of 400 mills. quintal (which = 3x present)
 Let 200 mills. Quintal produced by rain-fed
(which = 2x present)
Thus 200 mil. quintal should be produced by irrigation
(which needs 80, 000 ha increment per year).

 Availability of adequate water supply

 Topography of the area
 Cultural practices of the tract
 Adequacy of existing irrigation system it any
 Possibility of growing cash crops or other voluble crops after provision of irrigation
water
 Facilities regarding accessibility to the site and transportation of construction
materials.
 Economical justification for implementing the irrigation scheme.

When the idea of an irrigation project is conceived (after reconnaissance survey), the data
to be collected at the feasibility study stage are

1. Physical data :Location, size, phsiography (description of land form which includes
only physical aspects), climate, etc.
2. Hydrological data Precipitation, Evaporation, transpiration, stream flow, sediment,
water quality etc.
3. Agricultural data: Land classification, crop water requirements, types of crops etc
4. Geological data: Rock & Soil types, ground water, minerals, erosion, etc.
5. Cartographic data: Topographic & other maps of the area.
6. Ecological data: Types of vegetation, fish & wild life.
7. Demographic data: Population statistics, data of people etc.
8. Economic data: Means of transportation, market, land taxes, etc.
9. Legal data : Water rights, land ownership administrative pattern, etc
10. Data in existing project: Types of Location of various projects.
11. Data on public opinion : Opinions of different section of the society
12.Flood control data : Records of past flood, extent of damage caused, drainage
requirements etc
Information to be collected includes

Land resources

An evaluation of the suitability of land for alternative kinds of use requires a survey to
define and map the land units together with the collection of descriptive data of land
characteristics and resources.

Land suitability is the fitness of a land-mapping unit for a defined use (in this case
irrigation). Land mapping units represent parts of a study area (ex. for irrigation) which

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Surface Irrigation Introduction

are more or less homogeneous with respect to certain land characteristics i.e. slope,
rainfall, soil texture, soil type, etc).

Land evaluation provides information and recommendations for deciding ‘which crops to
grow where’ and related questions. Land evaluation is the selection of suitable land, and
suitable cropping, irrigation and management alternatives that are physically and
financially practicable and economically viable. The main product of land evaluation
investigations is a land classification that indicates the suitability of various kinds of land
for specific land uses, usually depicted on maps with accompanying reports.

The four basic features of land suitability for irrigated agriculture are

 Irrigable terrain (land forms)

 Potentially fertile soil
 A climate in which the crop can thrive (develop well & be healthy)
 A reliable source of water of consistent quality

The classification of the suitability of a particular land – mapping unit depends on the
extent to which its land qualities satisfy the land use requirements. Definite specification
(for land use requirements) is established for an irrigation project area prior to land
classification.

Land suitability classification

Land suitability sub – classes. Examples

S2w – land moderately suitable (S2) because of lack of available water (w).

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Surface Irrigation Introduction

S2d – land moderately Suitable (S2) because of drainage deficiency (d).

 Land capability maps are used to delineate arable and non-arable lands.

 Land use and Vegetation maps of the catchments area are used to identify the present
land use in terms of cover and function.

Soil survey:

This includes
 Identification of soil types.
 Field observation of infiltration.
 Field observation of hydraulic conductivity.
 Water table depth and fluctuation.
 Workability of the soil.
 Absence or presence of soil salinity.

Soil survey recognizes the relation between terrain or phyisography and soils.

Examples of the minimum grade of a number of land qualities and land suitability ratings
for irrigated rice.

Land qualities Land suitability rating

S1 S2
Soil depth (cm) >60 >30
Soil fertility high low-medium
Soil salinity (ECin mmhos/cm) <4 <8
Rock outcrops (% of ground surface) <2 <25
Net field water requirements (mm/day) <20 <20
Slope (%) <2 <4
Field size medium-large small
Land development costs (US $ /ha) <200 <600
Flooding nil or slight moderate

 Topographic Survey follows the soil survey and so is restricted mainly to the
areas of irrigable soils that have been delineated. Additional areas are included as
necessary for the location of reservoir, dams, head works, canals, buildings, roads, and
hydraulic structures etc.

Water resources

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Surface Irrigation Introduction

Hydrological survey and hydro-geological are undertaken to assess surface and sub-
surface water resources of the catchments respectively. It may be carried out at national
level, river basin level, project development level and at farm level.

Data sources

o Surface water supplies from long – term records of stream flows, by stream gauging
and water quality. If such data is not available, rainfall records for the catchments or
stream flow records of the neighboring rivers used.
o If the above two conditions didn’t exist, stream gauging and metrological stations are
set up as soon as possible on the principle that short – term records are better than none.

o For ground water supplies

- Short – term yield is assessed by drilling and testing trial wells.
- Long – term yield is estimated by a detailed study of the aquifers ( mathematical
models, numerical models which simulates the non-steady state, two-dimensional, ground
water flows are used for such purposes.)

Agricultural and Engineering aspects

 In feasibility study the present state of agriculture and agricultural society is assessed
and the future state, with irrigation, is predicted. I.e. the ‘with’ and ‘without’ conditions of
irrigation.

Present farm practices

 The number of farms of different sizes

 Farming methods in use
 Land areas cultivated and irrigated
 Crop yield per hectare
 Total crop production and costs.
 Labor available for farming operation
 Existing skill in irrigated farming and attitudes to change.
 Assessment on the existing market & transport.
 Presence of noxious weeds

The future state of Agriculture.

This assessment is much more difficult (numerous assumptions inevitably have to be

made)
It should be demonstrated that.

 The soils and the climate are suitable

 The rotation of crops is sound
 The water duties can be provided
 There will be accessible markets capable of absorbing the increased production at

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Surface Irrigation Introduction

economic prices.
 The advising and training facilities will be adequate, etc.

 The Engineering aspect mainly focuses on the development of a source of water for
irrigation and construction of various structures for storage, diversion, conveyance and
application of water.

These includes investigations of

 Site selection and Design of a reservoir & a dam

 Site selection & Design of diversion head – works at point off takes.
 Alignment for canal system (lay outs for canal)
 Alignment for field channels.
 Study of sub–surface conditions that affect the design and construction of a proposed
structures.
 Concentrated on the mechanical properties of the sub soil at foundation levels.
 Construction materials including, soil and sand, rock and aggregate, cement, lime
stone steel, etc.
 Tests should be carried out on the various construction materials.
 Any flood hazard so that provision of flood dyke protection is possible.
 If there is drainage requirements i.e. layouts of sub – surface drains.
 Other factors having bearing effects upon the design of engineering works.

Social and Economical aspects.

The attitude of the people to the introduction of irrigation in that area should be
investigated thoroughly.
The Various items considered in benefit/cost relationships are.:

a) Costs
 Capital cost of the project

- Cost of preliminary and precise survey and investigation.

- Cost of a equitation of land
- Cost of various structures
- Cost of earthwork and lining for canal system. etc.
- Allowance made for foreseen and unforeseen contingencies.
 Interest on Capital
 Depreciation
 Operational and maintenance cost of project

b) Benefits

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Surface Irrigation Introduction

 Agricultural production in the project area before and after taking up the project
(irrigation).
 Cost of cultivation before and after irrigation (cost of inputs viz. Seeds, manure, labor,
irrigation machines and implement etc).
Then.
Net annual benefit due to irrigation.
B. C ratio = Annual Cost of Pr oject .
>1.5 for economically justified project.

Other aspects to be considered

o Organization and management aspects.

o Further expansion potential of the project.
o Environmental Surveys (Environmental Impact Assessment, EIA)

Lecture Notes By Negash W. October 2007 23