Windsurfing: The Physiology
of Athletic Performance
and Training
Vasileios Andrianopoulos and Ioannis Vogiatzis
27.1 Introduction
Windsurfing (also called boardsailing) is a sur-
face water sport which combines components of
surfing and sailing. The sport has full Olympic
status and various international federations in
promotion, while the IWA (the International
Windsurfing Association) is the organization that
unifies the sport. Sailboard characteristics vary
with length ranging from 2.5 to 4 m (8–12.5 feet),
width ranging from 46 to 93 cm (18–37 inches),
and weight between 7 and 18 kg (15–40 pounds)
(Fig. 27.1), while a sailboard can reach speeds of
over 65 kph (40 mph) and ride waves [1].
The principle of windsurfing is simple; wind-
surfers stand on the board, with the feet roughly
shoulder width apart and hold the rig with the
hands for controlling the board. However, com-
petitive windsurfing can be very demanding in
physical condition as windsurfers have to execute
several maneuvers with a variety of techniques
which require a good physical condition.
V. Andrianopoulos
Department of Research and Education, CIRO,
Centre of Expertize for Chronic Organ Failure,
Horn, Netherlands
I. Vogiatzis (*)
Faculty of Physical education and Sports Sciences,
Department of Aquatic Sports, National and
Kapodistrian University of Athens,
41 Ethnikis Antistasis Str, Dafni, Athens 172 37,
Greece
e-mail: gianvog@phed.uoa.gr
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017
F. Feletti (ed.), Extreme Sports Medicine, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-28265-7_27
27
Until the early 1990s, Olympic class wind-
surfing was considered as a sport with moder-
ately intense physical activity [2]. Since
November 1992, the technique of “sail pumping”
maneuver was allowed in all Olympic windsurf-
ing competitions and made the sport much more
physically demanding [3–5]. Sail pumping is an
action in which board sailors move the rig repeat-
edly in order to accelerate the board on the waves
reaching higher speeds and thus being more com-
petitive. During sail pumping, the peak muscular
activity in the arm muscles has been found to be
greatest while a considerable activation has been
detected in shoulder muscles but much less activ-
ity has been recorded for the legs [6]. Particularly,
sail pumping requires successive flexion-exten-
sion movement of the upper and lower limbs dur-
ing the whole race, which usually lasts between
25 and 50 min depending on wind conditions [7].
Athletes’ ability for repeatable sail pumping dur-
ing the race is considered as crucial for the rank-
ing points.
Sail pumping and boardsailing strategies in
the race are influenced substantially by weather
conditions during the whole duration of the race.
Windsurfing in different wind force conditions
(light, moderate, and strong) can demonstrate
different physiological demands and determi-
nants of performance. It becomes apparent that
windsurfers have to follow tailored training pro-
grams to meet the physiological demands of
races under every weather condition.
357
358
Sail board
characteristics
Length
Width
Material
thickness
Width
Fig. 27.1 The main technical characteristics of sailboard
include length, width, and the material of board
27.2 Physiological Responses
in Windsurfing
Windsurfing can be extremely demanding in
terms of metabolic requirements as it combines
surfing and sailing activity [8]. De Vito et al.
were the first who demonstrated in actual sail-
ing condition during Olympic boardsailing
(Mistral board; sail surface 7.4 m2, board
length 3.70 m/width 63 cm) the profound met-
abolic demands entailing high energy and car-
diorespiratory costs [3, 9]. Later, the energy
demand of windsurfing was reassessed by
Castagna et al. [10] who found that windsurf-
ing with NeilPryde board (RS:X; sail surface
9.5 m2; board length 2.86 m/width 93 cm),
which substituted Mistral, has greater energy
demands and requires high levels of aerobic
and anaerobic capacity [10].
V. Andrianopoulos and I. Vogiatzis
The metabolic profile of windsurfing can be
described mainly as aerobic; however, the tactical
and strategic decisions during a race require also
a mixture of explosive-anaerobic force [11].
Specifically, aerobic capacity and fitness
condition has been found to be directly related to
sailors’ reaction speed to wind shifts [12]
particularly at the last stages of competition. The
mean oxygen consumption can be higher than
80 % of VO2max, the average HRmax can be
over the 90 %, and the blood lactate concentration
can correspond to the values recorded during a
maximal treadmill test [3–10]. During the race,
windsurfers often exceed their anaerobic
thresholds at various intervals while the generated
muscle forces can reach an average of 50 % of
the maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) [5,
13, 14]. The intensity of the muscle contractions
and number of simultaneously activated muscles
[15] has been found much higher than in dingy
sailing and during repeatedly tacks maximal
activation of the arm muscles is attained [6].
In windsurfing, the physiological demands
appear to be influenced by the strength of the
winds. In light to moderate winds, sail pumping
has been reported as the main reason for the
demands of high levels of physical endurance [5,
16]. Indeed, the metabolic demands of windsurf-
ing increase greatly (by threefold) when sail
pumping is performed, as the oxygen consump-
tion (VO2max) can even reach 90 % of maximum
oxygen uptake for prolonged periods of time [3,
5]. Furthermore, HR can be greatly increased with
a mean HR ranging between 160 and 180 beats/
min [5, 17, 18] depending on parameters such as
the frequency of sail pumping based on wind
force conditions and/or the types of muscle con-
tractions during the windsurfing race [19]. There
is a linear relationship between HR and exercise
intensity [20]. Subsequent studies including HR
measurements [4, 13] during actual windsurfing
condition confirmed that sail pumping is a very
demanding endurance activity which is closely
depended to the heart’s capacity to increase its
output. Therefore, cardiac output – the product of
heart rate and stroke volume (HR × SV) – has
commonly been identified as one limiting factor
of endurance performance [21].
27 Windsurfing: The Physiology of Athletic Performance and Training
Since the overall demands of aerobic capacity
are high in windsurfing under light to moderate
winds, lactate levels have been found also
increased. Capillary blood lactic acid
accumulation reaches an average of 8–9 mmol/l,
which is much higher than the lactic acid
concentration in dingy sailing [22]. High levels
of blood lactate can be also one of the key reasons
that limit the athletic effort [23] during sail
pumping activity. In contrast, windsurfing under
strong winds, which requires isometric
contraction of the upper limb body muscles, is
characterized by lower lactic acid accumulation
which reaches on average the 3.0–5.0 mmol/l
[24]. Even the relative low lactate levels (i.e.,
3.0–5.0 mmol/l) sustained in isometric
contraction of the upper limb muscles can be
considered of sufficient intensity to induce
muscle fatigue during contractions above
20–30 % of maximum voluntary contraction
(MVC) due to ischemia [25]. Therefore, ischemia
can be considered as an additional limiting factor
of performance in windsurfing under strong wind
conditions.
27.2.1 The Determinants
of Windsurfing Performance
A good physical condition and muscular strength
are generally considered as important
characteristics for increased performance in
Olympic boardsailing. The lower back, shoulder,
and arm muscles have been identified for their
high activation in windsurfing [14]. Upper body
strength and endurance are critical for windsurfers
to maintain control of board and achieve a good
performance in regattas. However, in contrast to
most other sports, wind force conditions have a
crucial role in boardsailing performance as the
wind velocity determines the frequency of sail
pumping during boardsailing and provide a
different pattern of physical effort based on the
wind force conditions.
Sail pumping maneuver is considered
substantially effective when the wind velocity is
up to 15 knots (7 m/s) and requires a good aerobic
capacity. In stronger winds, however, sail
359
pumping loses its efficacy or it becomes so
physically demanding [5]. This is due to the fact
that pumping action is needed to increase the
speed of the surfboard when the wind is not
strong enough, but in high velocity winds, the
technique is not effective. In strong winds, the
nature of boardsailing physical effort is mostly
isometric as the pumping technique is being
replaced by a constant near isometric pulling
power that is needed to control the board against
the strong winds. Therefore, it is reasonable that
the determinants of the performance in
windsurfing are highly influenced by the wind
velocity and the strategy followed during the race
in which the frequency of sail pumping and the
nature of physical effort (aerobic or isometric)
differ.
27.2.2 Studies for the Effect of Light
and Moderate Wind Force
Conditions
In light to moderate winds, board sailors need to
pump the sail repeatedly providing the board
with additional speed. The first study that
investigated the energy demands of sail pumping
compared to non-pumping conditions was
published in 2002 by the group of Vogiatzis et al.
[5]. Physiological responses such as oxygen
consumption (VO2), minute ventilation (VE), and
heart rate (HR) during the sail pumping were
significantly increased compared to sailing
without pumping in both men and women
(Fig. 27.2) [5]. Moreover, all these parameters
with an exemption of HR were significantly
higher in men compared to women; however,
these differences did not remain in non-pumping
conditions between the sexes (Fig. 27.2) [5].
These observations have not substantially
changed since 2006 when a new board (NeilPryde
RS:X; 9.5 m2men and 8.5 m2 women) equipped
with a larger sail was established for Olympic
events.
Boardsailing in light to moderate wind
conditions can be considered as a high-level
aerobic activity when sail pumping maneuvers
are frequently performed. The level of aerobic
360
Fig. 27.2 Data of Vogiatzis et al. [5] demonstrated
different physiological responses in oxygen uptake (VO2),
ventilation (VE), and heart rate (HR) during boardsailing
with sail pumping or without sail pumping in men and
capacity has been measured to range between 70
and 92 % of VO2max similar to most of aerobic
sports such as cycling, running, swimming, etc.
[5, 16]. Moreover, the average HR during race in
light wind conditions has been found to reach
170 beats/min, while average lactate concentra-
tion is approximately 8.5 mmol/l [19, 26].
Previously, differences in the HR increase during
competitive boardsailing in two wind force con-
ditions (light vs. moderate) have been reported
regarding to sail pumping [4]. Guevel et al. [4]
demonstrated that HR was higher in light com-
pared to moderate wind force conditions
(87 ± 4 % vs. 83 ± 5 % HRmax) while blood lac-
tate concentration did not differ between wind
conditions [4]. In general, light and medium wind
Olympic windsurfing performance is highly
dependent on the capacity of the athlete to main-
tain a high cardiac output for long periods of time
with a maximal oxygen uptake of over 75 % [7,
19]. Moreover, high blood lactate accumulation
can also impact negatively the performance of
windsurfers in races with light to moderate wind
force conditions as large amounts of lactic acid in
the muscles can accelerate fatigue. It is reasonable
that cardiac output can be identified as a key
V. Andrianopoulos and I. Vogiatzis
women. Data are means ±SD. Asterisks denote significant
differences between with and without sail pumping
condition. (a) Men, (b) women
factor for the performance of windsurfers under
light and medium wind force conditions. Cardiac
output can become the main limiting factor in
windsurfing under light to moderate wind condi-
tions, as it can explains 70–85 % of the variance
in VO2max [21, 27].
27.2.3 Studies for the Effect
of Strong Wind Force
Conditions
In boardsailing races with moderate to strong
winds (12–15 m/s), the demanding muscular
effort is mainly isometric against the strong wind
conditions, while the applied forces can reach
almost the 500–800 N. A sustained isometric
contraction of the upper limb body muscles is
performed by athletes in an attempt to control the
board under strong winds. Similarly to the hiking
maneuver of sailors, the isometric contraction of
the upper limb body of windsurfers can be con-
sidered of equivalent physiological characteris-
tics. Previously, Vogiatzis et al. [28] observed
low lactate concentration during prolonged hik-
ing maneuver in sailing which could be attributed
27 Windsurfing: The Physiology of Athletic Performance and Training
to the small oxygen and energy deficits as the
muscles’ oxygen accessibility is presumably par-
tially restored during the brief rest intervals [28].
Equivalent results were found for competitive
formula windsurfers as lactate concentration was
significantly lower in strong compared to light
winds conditions (2.9 vs. 8.5 mmol/l) [24]. The
oxygen accessibility of muscles which are
isometrically contracted can be sufficiently
preserved during contraction and thus limiting
the accumulated oxygen deficit and the significant
rise of blood lactic levels [28].
A recent study which investigated the
physiological characteristics of highly ranked
and club sailors during successive hiking bouts
demonstrated the superior central and peripheral
muscle capacities for oxygen transport and
utilization of high-ranked sailors [29]. These
improved physiological characteristics compared
to club sailors may explain the ability of top
sailors for developing greater hiking moments
[29]. According to the isometric nature of
windsurfing under strong winds, windsurfers’
performance in strong weather conditions may
also depend on their ability to transport and
utilize the oxygen in the isometrically contracting
upper limb body muscles. Indeed, this ability
may counterbalance the onset of muscle fatigue
which can be mainly triggered by ischemia due to
prolonged isometric contraction in windsurfing
in strong wind force conditions. Therefore,
central cardiovascular and local muscle metabolic
adaptations that facilitate the oxygen transport
and utilization of the windsurfers’ upper limb
body muscles may suggest the greater oxidative
capacity (capillary network, mitochondrial
volume, enzyme activity) on the part of high-
ranked windsurfers.
27.3 Windsurfing Training
Windsurfer recommendations are often made on
how best to physically and dietary prepare for the
race. The use of periodization in training has
been recommended [30]. Training should involve
the shoulder girdle, as boardsailing requires
sustained isometric action of the pectoralis major,
361
deltoid, and scapular stabilizers [31]. Specifically,
a completed training program for windsurfers
should include the following three different types
of physical training: (a) highly intense interval
training with work and rest periods that closely
resemble the pumping and relaxation periods, (b)
moderately intense continuous training aimed at
improving cardiovascular fitness and local
muscle oxidative capacity, and (c) strength
training to improve anaerobic power and capacity
and to prepare the muscles for the explosive
movements at the start and finish of a race and for
getting around the marks [5, 32, 33].
In the first type of physical training, the train-
ing stimulus should range from 75 to 85 % of
HRmax followed by short recovery periods
between bouts of exercise. Training intensity for
improving physical performance capacity should
be around 75–85 % of HRmax corresponding to
160–170 beats/min with an active recovery ranged
from 150 to 160 beats/min before the beginning
of the next pumping or rowing bout. Pumping fre-
quency should be set slightly higher from the
exercise intensity which reaches the lactate
threshold in order to minimize muscle lactate pro-
duction [23]. Following the progression principle
of training, the number and length of exercise
periods should be increased while the training
intervals for recovery should be shortened. The
beneficial effects from this kind of interval train-
ing program will provide aerobic and anaerobic
improvements and also will increase the athletes’
tolerance to lactic acid accumulation and the lac-
tic acid removal process [33].
The objective of the second type of training is
the cardiovascular improvement. Cardiac output,
the ability of the heart to transport large amounts
of oxygenated blood to the muscles and the
ability of the muscles to generate large amounts
of energy in the presence of oxygen, can be
improved by the implementation of a training
program minimizing the production of lactic acid
which induces muscle fatigue. Cardiac output is
enhanced by (1) greater preload, (2) increased
heart rate, (3) increased myocardial contractility,
and (4) reduced afterload during exercise [27].
Training sessions have a usual duration of
60–90 min with warm-up/recovery and exercises
362
intensity is on 60–75 % of HRmax corresponding
to 140–150 beats/min. The form of exercise can
include running, cycling, and simulated rowing
(if it is applicable) [33].
The aims of the third type of training focus on
the improvement of anaerobic power and capac-
ity using training intensities over the 90 % of
HRmax [33]. Improvements on maximal pull
velocity are recommended [34]. Training at high
intensity until exhaustion or training at a rela-
tively constant effort but highly increasing the
intensity at various intervals can improve the
anaerobic profile of windsurfers. Recently, the
maximal voluntary co-contraction have been sug-
gested as an efficient training method for increas-
ing the size and strength of antagonistic muscle
pairs [35], and it could be incorporated in the
training modalities of windsurfers. Due to very
high intensity of anaerobic training, intervals are
suggested with high intensity pumping periods of
10–40 s followed by 30–60 s of active recovery.
Training bouts of six to ten repetitions with active
recovery intervals twice the duration of work are
recommended. The training frequency should be
limited to two or three training sessions per week
of this type of training [33].
27.4 Windsurfing Nutrition
and Hydration
A diet rich in carbohydrates should be followed
before and during training and racing days to
maintain optimum glycogen level. Moreover,
evidence has revealed that the predominant
energy fuel during sail pumping is glycogen [5].
Overall findings suggest the need for dietary
counseling in windsurfers, as glycogen depletion
is crucial in windsurfing due to the fact that it can
lead to insufficient energy for technical move-
ments during sailing and thus direct affect nega-
tively the outcome of the race [36]. A dietary
program for increasing muscle glycogen content
by diet rich in carbohydrates a few days prior to
the competition has been highly recommended
for endurance athletes [37, 38], but it can also be
applied to windsurfers. During a race athletes
need to ingest fluids (isotonic solutions) in order
V. Andrianopoulos and I. Vogiatzis
to replenish fluid, glucose, and minerals at the
appropriate amount and rate. It is generally rec-
ommended that the pre-race meal should be low
in fat and contain high amount of carbohydrates
while it should be consumed at least 3 h before
the start of the race. Moreover, especially in
increased ambient temperatures, fluid replenish-
ment should be taken every 15 min and should
correspond to 1/4 of a liter. The alter races meal
should be received within 1 h after the end of the
competition. Due to the fact that glycogen re-
synthesis is related to carbohydrate intake, it is
recommended the increase of daily carbohydrate
intake to 70 % of total calories (approximately
8–10 g/kg for 3500 cal) or even higher in order to
prevent the depletion of glycogen stores during
successive days of competition [33].
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