Lecture 4:

Capacity and Level of Service

(LoS) of
Freeways Basic Segments
Prof. Responsável: Filipe Moura

Engenharia de Tráfego Rodoviário Lecture 4 - Basic Freeway segments 1

 CAPACITY AND LEVEL OF SERVICE (LOS)

• CAPACITY The maximum sustainable flow rate at which vehicles or persons reasonably can
be expected to traverse a point or uniform segment of a lane or roadway during a specified
time period under given roadway, geometric, traffic, environmental, and control conditions;
usually expressed as vehicles per hour, passenger cars per hour, or persons per hour.

• On ideal conditions in one freeway = 2400 veh/h/ln

• LEVEL OF SERVICE A qualitative measure describing operational conditions within a traffic
stream, based on service measures such as speed and travel time, freedom to maneuver,
traffic interruptions, comfort, and convenience.

• Speed restrictions associated with LOS

LOS A - Rare LOS D - Sistematic

LOS B - Sporadic LOS E - Permanent
LOS C - Frequent LOS F – Discontinuous flow

Engenharia de Tráfego Rodoviário Lecture 4 - Basic Freeway segments 2

 vp
D=
s

Level of Service (LOS) – from A to F

 Factors influencing Capacity and LOS

• The concepts of Level of service and Capacity are in general applicable to

all transport modes, including pedestrians
• For different types of facilities there are different procedures and
methodologies for calculating Capacity and indicators of LOS
• In road traffic, the variables (perceived by drivers) which are the most
closely related with level of service are:
– Density
– Percentage of time spent following

Engenharia de Tráfego Rodoviário Lecture 4 - Basic Freeway segments 4

 Freeway definition

Source: A1, North Yorkshire, UK

(www.freefoto.com)
A freeway could be defined as:
“A multilane, divided highway with a minimum of two lanes for the
exclusive use of traffic in each direction and full control of access without
traffic interruption”
Engenharia de Tráfego Rodoviário Lecture 4 - Basic Freeway segments 5
 2-Lane Highway definition

Source: http://www.caption-this.com/carpassing.jpg
A 2-lane highway could be defined as:
“A roadway with a two-lane cross section, one lane for each direction of
flow, on which passing maneuvers must be made in the opposing lane.”
Engenharia de Tráfego Rodoviário Lecture 4 - Basic Freeway segments 6
 Freeway segments
There are three different types of freeway segments:
• Basic freeway segments – traffic conditions are not affected by vehicles entering or leaving the
freeway
• Ramps – freeway segments with exit or entering ramps
• Weaving segments – freeway segments where the crossing of two or more traffic streams
traveling in the same direction occurs
(Ramps)

(Basic segment)

(Ramp Off) (Ramp On)

(Weaving)

(Basic segment)
(Basic segment)

(Ramp On) (Ramp Off)

Engenharia de Tráfego Rodoviário Lecture 4 - Basic Freeway segments 7

 Access Ramps in one Freeway

Engenharia de Tráfego Rodoviário Lecture 4 - Basic Freeway segments 8

 Main concepts for Basic Freeway
segments (I)
• Capacity:
– Defined for each direction and measured for 15 minutes period. It is expressed in private car (equivalent units) per
hour and lane.
• “Speed-flow-density” relationship
– Depends on prevailing traffic and roadway conditions
• Base case of capacity calculation assumes the following ideal conditions :
– Minimum lane widths of 3.6 m;
– Minimum right-shoulder lateral clearance between the edge of the travel lane and the nearest obstacle or object that
influences traffic behavior of 1.8 m;
– Minimum median left-shoulder lateral clearance of 0.6 m;
– Traffic stream composed entirely of passenger cars;
– Five or more lanes for one direction (in urban areas only);
– Interchange distance of 3 km or greater (interchange density in HCM);
– Level terrain, with grades no greater than 2 percent; and
– A driver population composed principally of regular users of the facility.
• These base conditions represent a high operating level, with a free-flow speed (FFS) of 110 km/h or greater.

Engenharia de Tráfego Rodoviário Lecture 4 - Basic Freeway segments 9

 Lateral clearance effect

Base conditions with

respect to lane width
and lateral clearance

Influence of lane width and

lateral clearance on lateral
placement of vehicles

Engenharia de Tráfego Rodoviário Lecture 4 - Basic Freeway segments 10

 Main concepts for Basic Freeway
segments (II)
Capacity in a freeway segment:
• With ideal geometrical and traffic conditions
Ø Could reach 2400 pc/h/lane @ FFS=120km/h; D = 20 v/km (45m distance)
• Diminishing FFS induces a reduction of capacity
Ø Could reach 2250 pc/h/lane @ FFS = 90 km/h; D = 25 v/km (35m distance)
Free Flow Speed (FFS): Free-flow speed is the term
S
Speed
used to describe the
• Theoretically, speed when density is null; FFS average speed that a
motorist would travel if
• In reality, it is the average speed when there were no congestion
or other adverse conditions
density is very low (in practice the vehicles
(such as bad weather).
don’t influence each other speeds)

• FFS depends on the physical

characteristics of the infrastructure 0 Kj
Dj Density
Densidade
Engenharia de Tráfego Rodoviário Lecture 4 - Basic Freeway segments 11
 Level of Service (LoS) (I)
Level of Service in a Freeway segment:
• The measure used to provide an estimate of level of service is density. This is the parameter that
reflects the influences between vehicles
• Density can be obtained by the following equation :

vp
D=
s
Where
• D is density [veh/km]
• Vp is the flow in private car equivalent units [pcu/h]
• S is average speed [km/h]

Engenharia de Tráfego Rodoviário Lecture 4 - Basic Freeway segments 12

 Level of Service (LOS) (II)

Source: (TRB, 2000)

Engenharia de Tráfego Rodoviário Lecture 4 - Basic Freeway segments 13
 Density- Flow relationship
Relation Density – Flow in a freeway segment

Source: (TRB, 2000, Exhibit 13.3)

Engenharia de Tráfego Rodoviário Lecture 4 - Basic Freeway segments 14
 LOS criteria for basic freeway segments

Engenharia de Tráfego Rodoviário Lecture 4 - Basic Freeway segments 15

 Determine Level of Service (I)

1. Calculate free flow speed (FFS), from which the speed flow curve
(SFC) is deduced
2. Estimate flow rate and speed either using the SFC curve (or by
analytical calculation)
3. Compute density using flow rate and speed
4. Determine LOS from values of density

Engenharia de Tráfego Rodoviário Lecture 4 - Basic Freeway segments 16

 Determine Level of Service (II)
Physical attributes of the freeway segment Traffic attributes

Lane Lateral Interchange Number Road grade and % of trucks Driver

PHF
Width clearance density of Lanes type of terrain and buses population

fLW fLC fID Et Pt

(pg.23.5) (pg.23.6) (pg.23.7) (pg.23.10) (pg.23.11)

fN fHV fP
N
(pg.23.6) (pg.23.8) (pg.23.11)

v
FFS = BFFS − f LW − f LC − f N − f ID vP =
PHF × N × f HV × f P

S D LOS
(pg.23.4) (pg.23.12) (pg.23.3)
€
Engenharia de Tráfego Rodoviário
€
Lecture 4 - Basic Freeway segments 17
 1st Step – compute the Free Flow Speed
(FFS)
• FFS could be estimated through on site observations providing that the flow is less than 1300
pc/h/lane (otherwise drivers will start imposing constraints on each other).

• When it is not possible to measure FFS on site, it can be computed through adjustments on
Base-Free Flow Speed (BFFS).

• When there is no other information on the BFFS of the freeway segment you are analyzing, you
should consider 120 km/h in rural (inter-urban) freeways and 100 km/h in urban or
suburban freeways.

FFS = BFFS - fLW – fLC – fN - fID

where:
fLW = adjustment factor for lane width
fLC = adjustment factor for lateral clearance (right shoulder lateral clearance)
fN = adjustment factor for number of lanes
fID = adjustment factor for interchange density (at least one on-ramp over 10km)

Engenharia de Tráfego Rodoviário Lecture 4 - Basic Freeway segments 18

 required to select an appropriate BFFS as a starting point.
Adjustment for Lane Width
Lane width (fLW)
The base condition for lane width is 3.6 m or greater. When the average lane width
ghway Capacity Manualacross
2000all lanes is less than 3.6 m, the base free-flow speed (e.g., 120 km/h) is reduced.
Lateral clearance (fLC)
Adjustments to reflect the effect of narrower average lane width are given in Exhibit
23-4.
the traveled lane. When the right-shoulder lateral clearance is less than 1.8 m, the BFFS
is reduced. AdjustmentsEXHIBIT 23-4.theADJUSTMENTS
to reflect FOR LANE
effect of narrower WIDTH
right-shoulder lateral clearance
Lane Width
are given in Exhibit 23-5.(m)No adjustments are available
Reductiontoinreflect
Free-Flow
theSpeed,
effect (km/h)
fLWof median
lateral clearance less3.6than 0.6 m. Lateral clearance less than 0.6 0.0 m on either the right or
left side of a freeway3.5is considered rare. Considerable judgment1.0 must be used in
determining whether 3.4objects or barriers along the right side of a 2.1 freeway present a true
obstruction. Such obstructions
3.3 may be continuous, such as retaining 3.1 walls, concrete
3.2 or may be noncontinuous, such as light supports
barriers, or guardrails, 5.6 or bridge
abutments. In some3.1cases, drivers may become accustomed to certain 8.1 types of
obstructions, in which3.0 case their influence on traffic flow may be 10.6negligible.
ustment for lateral
rance reflects only
right-shoulder width EXHIBIT 23-5. ADJUSTMENTS FOR RIGHT-SHOULDER LATERAL CLEARANCE
Reduction in Free-Flow Speed, fLC (km/h)
Adjustment for Lateral Clearance Lanes in One Direction
Base lateral clearance 2is 1.8 m or greater3on the right side and
Right-Shoulder ≥ 5 on the
4 0.6 m or greater
Lateral
median Clearance
or left(m)
side, measured from the edge of the paved shoulder to the nearest edge of
≥ 1.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
1.5 1.0 0.7 23-50.3 0.2 Chapter 23 - Basic Freeway Segments
1.2 1.9 1.3 0.7 0.4 Methodology
0.9 2.9 1.9 1.0 0.6
0.6 3.9 2.6 1.3 0.8
0.3 4.8 3.2 1.6 1.1
0.0 5.8 3.9 1.9 1.3

Engenharia de Adjustment
Tráfego Rodoviário
for Number of Lanes Lecture 4 - Basic Freeway segments 19
ustment for number of
es (not applicable to
Freeway segments with five or more lanes (in one direction) are considered as having
 Adjustment for Number of Lanes
t for number of Freeway segments with five or more lanes (in one direction) are considered as having
applicable to
ay segments) Number of Lanes (fN)
base conditions with respect to number of lanes. When fewer lanes are present, the BFFS
is reduced. Exhibit 23-6 provides adjustments to reflect the effect of number of lanes on
Interchange Density (fID)
BFFS. In determining number of lanes, only mainline lanes, both basic and auxiliary,
should be considered. HOV lanes should not be included.

EXHIBIT 23-6. ADJUSTMENTS FOR NUMBER OF L ANES

Number of Lanes (One Direction) Reduction in Free-Flow Speed, fN (km/h)
≥5 0.0
Highway Capacity Manu
4 2.4
3 4.8
2
considered should include 7.3
typical interchanges with arterials or highways and major
Note: For all rural freeway segments,
freeway-to-freeway fN is 0.0.
interchanges.

The adjustments EXHIBIT 23-7. 23-6

in Exhibit ADJUSTMENTS
are basedFOR INTERCHANGE
exclusively on Ddata
ENSITY
collected on urban and
Interchanges
suburban freeways andperdo
Kilometer
not reflect conditions onReduction in Free-Flowwhich
rural freeways, fID (km/h) carry
Speed, typically
≤ 0.3
two lanes in each direction. In using Equation 23-1 to estimate the 0.0 FFS of a rural freeway
segment, the value of 0.4the adjustment for number of lanes, fN, should 1.1 be 0.0.
0.5 2.1
Adjustment for Interchange
0.6 Density 3.9
egment is used 0.7 5.0 or 3.3-km
ne interchange The base interchange density is 0.3 interchanges per kilometer,
interchange spacing.0.8Base free-flow speed is reduced when interchange
6.0 density becomes
greater. Adjustments0.9to reflect the effect of interchange density 8.1
are provided in Exhibit
1.0
23-7. Interchange density is determined over a 10-km segment of 9.2freeway (5 km
1.1
upstream and 5 km downstream) in which the freeway segment10.2is located. An
1.2 as having at least one on-ramp. Therefore,
interchange is defined 12.1interchanges that have
only off-ramps would not be considered in determining interchange density. Interchanges
Engenharia de Tráfego Rodoviário Lecture 4 - Basic Freeway segments 20

3 - Basic Freeway Segments

DETERMINING 23-6
FLOW RATE
 2nd Step - Estimation of flow rate (Vp)
The computation of Vp reflects the peak 15 min period in the peak hour. It is expressed in pc/h/ln.
It is influenced by:
• fHV - Traffic composition (determined by the % of heavy vehicles in the traffic flow)
• fP - Type of drivers (determined by the % of commuters) It is
calculated for
ONE LANE
V equivalent!
vp =
PHF × N × f HV × f p
With V = total hourly traffic volume (vehicles/hour)
PHF = Peak Hour factor
Ø typically between 0,8 and 0,95 in urban areas and lower for interurban freeways
N = number of lanes per direction
fHV = heavy vehicles adjustment factor
fp = driver population factor
Engenharia de Tráfego Rodoviário Lecture 4 - Basic Freeway segments 21
 Heavy vehicle adjustment (fHV)

• Heavy vehicles are mainly composed by trucks, buses and Recreational Vehicles (RV’s)
• Trucks are the majority of such vehicles in a traffic flow and as such the most important aspect
to take into consideration.

1
f HV =
1 + PT ( ET − 1) + PR ( ER − 1)
ü PT is the percentage of trucks/buses in the traffic flow
ü PR the percentage of recreational vehicles (caravans);
ü ET and ER are conversion factors to obtain passenger-car equivalents, which
vary according to different orographic conditions

Engenharia de Tráfego Rodoviário Lecture 4 - Basic Freeway segments 22

 Grades in extended freeway segments (I)

• The effect of HV depends on the grades of the freeway segment and is reflected in the pc-
equivalents in this methodology. Three types of segments are considered:
– Extended freeway segments
– Upgrades and
– Downgrades
• It is often appropriate to consider an extended length of freeway containing a number of
upgrades, downgrades, and level segments as a single uniform segment.
– This is done where no one grade is long enough or steep enough to have a significant
effect on the operation of the overall segment.
– Extended freeway segments could de classified as:
• Level terrain
• Rolling terrain
• Mountainous terrain
• However, if i < 3% and L ≥ 1.0 km or i ≥ 3% and L < 0.5 km then the segment must be
analyzed separately because of its significant effect on traffic flow.

Engenharia de Tráfego Rodoviário Lecture 4 - Basic Freeway segments 23

 but that does not cause heavy vehicles to operate at crawl speeds for any significant
length of time or at frequent intervals.
Grades in extended freeway segments (II) Appendix
Crawl speed is the maximum sustained speed that trucks can maintain on an
performan
extended upgrade of a given percent. If any grade is long enough, trucks will be forced to
decelerate to the crawl speed, which they will then be able to maintain for extended
distances. Appendix A contains truck performance curves illustrating crawl speed and
• Level Terrain
length of grade.
Ø is any combination of grades and horizontal or vertical alignment that permits heavy
Mountainous Terrainthe same speed as passenger cars. This type of terrain includes
vehicles to maintain
short grades ofterrain
Mountainous no more than
is any 2 percent.of grades and horizontal or vertical
combination
• Rolling Terrain
alignment that causes heavy vehicles to operate at crawl speeds for significant distances
Øorisatany
frequent intervals.
combination of grades and horizontal or vertical alignment that causes heavy
Exhibit 23-8 gives passenger-car equivalents for extended freeway segments. Note
vehicles to reduce their speeds substantially below those of passenger cars but that
that it is extremely difficult to have mountainous terrain as defined herein without
does not cause heavy vehicles to operate at crawl speeds for any significant length of time
violating the guidelines for using the general terrain methodology (i.e., having no grade
or at frequent intervals.
greater than 3 percent longer than 0.5 km). To a lesser extent, the same statement may be
• Mountainous Terrainto rolling terrain. The equivalence values shown in Exhibit 23-8 are
made with respect
is any
Ømost combination
useful of grades
in the planning stageand horizontal
of analysis, or vertical
when alignment
specific thatarecauses
alignments heavy
not known but
vehicles tocapacity
approximate operatecomputations
at crawl speeds for needed.
are still significant distances or at frequent intervals.
EXHIBIT 23-8. PASSENGER-CAR EQUIVALENTS ON E XTENDED FREEWAY SEGMENTS
Type of Terrain
Factor Level Rolling Mountainous
ET (trucks and buses) 1.5 2.5 4.5
ER (RVs) 1.2 2.0 4.0

Engenharia de Tráfego Rodoviário Lecture 4 - Basic Freeway segments 24

Equivalents for Specific Grades
 Specific grades in freeway segments

• Freeway segments which doesn't obey the conditions described earlier

are considered specific upgrades

• In specific upgrades
– Length (km) and grade (%) both influence ET

– The percentage of heavy vehicles (PT) also influences ET because they tend to
group in platoons

• In downgrades, the heavy vehicles effect is calculated as in level terrain

except when: L > 6,4 km and i > 4%, where specific downgrades
parameters should be used.

Engenharia de Tráfego Rodoviário Lecture 4 - Basic Freeway segments 25

 Grades in freeways (upgrades)
Highway Capacity Manual 2000

EXHIBIT 23-9. PASSENGER-CAR EQUIVALENTS FOR TRUCKS AND BUSES ON UPGRADES

Trucks and Buses
ET
Upgrade Length Percentage of Trucks and Buses
(%) (km) 2 4 5 6 8 10 15 20 25
<2 All 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
0.0–0.4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
> 0.4–0.8 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
≥ 2–3 > 0.8–1.2 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
> 1.2–1.6 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
> 1.6–2.4 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
> 2.4 3.0 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
0.0–0.4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
> 0.4–0.8 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.5 1.5
> 3–4 > 0.8–1.2 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
> 1.2–1.6 3.0 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.0 2.0
> 1.6–2.4 3.5 3.5 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.5
> 2.4 4.0 3.5 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.5
0.0–0.4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
> 0.4–0.8 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
> 4–5 > 0.8–1.2 3.5 3.0 3.0 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
> 1.2–1.6 4.0 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
> 1.6 5.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 3.5 3.5 3.0 3.0 3.0
0.0–0.4 2.0 2.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
> 0.4–0.5 4.0 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
> 5–6 > 0.5–0.8 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
> 0.8–1.2 5.0 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
> 1.2–1.6 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
> 1.6 6.0 5.0 5.0 4.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5
0.0–0.4 4.0 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.0 2.0 2.0
> 0.4–0.5 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.5 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.5
>6 > 0.5–0.8 5.0 4.5 4.0 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.5
> 0.8–1.2 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 3.0 3.0
> 1.2–1.6 6.0 5.5 5.0 5.0 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.5 3.5
> 1.6 7.0 6.0 5.5 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.0 4.0 4.0

Engenharia de Tráfego Rodoviário Lecture 4 - Basic Freeway segments 26

EXHIBIT 23-10. PASSENGER-CAR E QUIVALENTS FOR RVs ON UPGRADES
ER
 Grades in freeways (upgrades)
Recreational Vehicles - RVs

Engenharia de Tráfego Rodoviário Lecture 4 - Basic Freeway segments 27

 Equivalents for Specific Downgrades

Grades in freeways (downgrades)

For RVs, down
There are few specific data on the effect of heavy vehicles on traffic flow on treated as leve
downgrades. In general, if the downgrade does not cause trucks to shift into a low gear,
Trucks and Buses
they may be treated as if they were level terrain segments, and passenger-car equivalents
are selected accordingly. Where more severe downgrades occur, trucks must often use
low gears to avoid gaining too much speed and running out of control. In such cases,
their effect is greater than it would be on level terrain. Exhibit 23-11 gives values of ET.
For RVs, downgrades may be treated as level terrain.

EXHIBIT 23-11. PASSENGER-CAR EQUIVALENTS FOR TRUCKS AND BUSES ON DOWNGRADES

ET
Downgrade Length Percentage of Trucks
(%) (km) 5 10 15 20
<4 All 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
4–5 ≤ 6.4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
4–5 > 6.4 2.0 2.0 2.0 1.5
> 5–6 ≤ 6.4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
> 5–6 > 6.4 5.5 4.0 4.0 3.0
>6 ≤ 6.4 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
>6 > 6.4 7.5 6.0 5.5 4.5

Equivalents for Composite Grades

The vertical alignment of most freeways results in a continuous series of grades. It is
often necessary to determine the effect of a series of significant grades in succession. The
most straightforward technique is to compute the average grade to the point in question.
The average grade is defined as the total rise from the beginning of the composite grade
Engenharia de Tráfego Rodoviário Lecture 4 - Basic Freeway segments 28
divided by the length of the grade.
The average grade technique is an acceptable approach for grades in which all Appendix A giv
composite grad
 Composite Grades (I)
• In a basic freeway segment analysis, an overall average grade can substitute a series of grades if
no single portion of the grade is steeper than 4% or the total length of the grade is less than
1200m.
• For grades outside these limits (i.e., grades having either a total length greater than 1200 m or
portions steeper than 4%, or both), the composite grade procedure is recommended.
• The composite grade procedure is used to determine an equivalent grade that will result in the
same final truck speed as would a series of varying grades.

Ø If both consecutive ramps have i<4% or Ltotal<1200 m:

– Weighted average (based on each segments’s lenght) should be used for grade.

Ø For successive grades outside these limits (i>4% and/or Ltotal>1200 m)

– It is necessary to find an equivalent grade evaluating the impact of each ramp in the
speed of heavy vehicles using the following abacus

Engenharia de Tráfego Rodoviário Lecture 4 - Basic Freeway segments 29

 Composite Grades (II)
y Capacity Manual 2000

EXHIBIT A23-2. PERFORMANCE CURVES FOR TRUCKS (120 kg/kW)

100
-5% 4% %
90 - -3 -2% 1%
-1% 0%
80
2%
70
3%
Speed (km/h)

60

50 4%
5%
40 6%
7%
30
8%
20
Acceleration
10 Deceleration

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Length in Hundreds of Meters
Source: (TRB, 2000, Exhibit A23.2)
Engenharia de Tráfego Rodoviário Lecture 4 - Basic Freeway segments 30
The composite grade procedure is not applicable in all cases, especially if the first
hway Capacity Manual 2000 Composite Grades (III)
EXHIBIT A23-2. PERFORMANCE CURVES FOR TRUCKS (120 kg/kW)
100
-5% 4% %
90 3 - -3 -2% 1%
-1% 0%
80 1
2 2%
70
3%
Speed (km/h)

60

50 4%
5%
40 7 6
6%
7%
8
30
8%
20
Acceleration
10 Deceleration
5
0
0 4 5 10 15 20 25 30
Length in Hundreds of Meters
• Example: 1st Segment is 1500m long with 2% upgrade; 2nd segment is 1500m long with 6% upgrade
The composite grade procedure is not applicable in all cases, especially if the first
• What is the final grade
segment equivalent
is downgrade andtothe
thesegment
composite effect
length of both
is long, segments
or the onare
segments thetoo
HVshort.
speed?In Answer: 6%.
using the performance curves, cases that cannot be solved with this procedure will
Engenharia de Tráfego Rodoviário Lecture 4 - Basic Freeway segments 31
become apparent to the analyst because lines will not intersect or points will fall outside
the limits of the curves. In such cases, field measurement of speeds should be used as
 Driver Population (fP)

• It is generally accepted that traffic streams composed of different types

of drivers (e.g., commuters and recreational drivers) use freeways less
efficiently.
• The adjustment factor fp is used to reflect this effect.
ü The values of fp range from 0.85 to 1.00.
• In general, the analyst should select 1.00, which reflects commuter
traffic (i.e., familiar users), unless there is sufficient evidence that a
lower value should be applied

Engenharia de Tráfego Rodoviário Lecture 4 - Basic Freeway segments 32

 Failure, breakdown, congestion, and LOS F occur when queues begin to form on the
freeway. Density tends to increase sharply within the queue and may be considerably
higher than the maximum value of 28 pc/km/ln forrd LOS E. Further guidance on analysis
of basic freeway segments with densities greater than 28 pc/km/ln is provided in Chapter
3 Step estimating average
22.
Exhibit 23-3 shows the relationship between speed, flow, and density for basic
passenger car speed
freeway segments. It also shows the definition of the various LOS on the basis of density
a) Through speed–flow
boundary values. curves as a function of FFS

EXHIBIT 23-3. S PEED-FLOW CURVES AND LOS FOR BASIC F REEWAY SEGMENTS
130
Free-Flow Speed, FFS = 120 km/h 1300
120
110 km/h 1450
110
100 km/h 1600
Average Passenger-Car Speed, S (km/h)

100
90 km/h 1750
90
80 LOS A B C D E
70
/ln

60
km

/ln
pc/

50 /k m
pc ln
=7

11 /km/
pc /ln
ty

40 16 pc/km
nsi
De

30 22 /km/ln
c
28 p
20
10
0
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400
Flow Rate, vp (pc/h/ln)
Note:
Capacity varies by free-flow speed. Capacity is 2400, 2350, 2300, and 2250 pc/h/ln at free-flow speeds of 120, 110, 100, and
90 km/h, respectively.
Engenharia de Tráfego Rodoviário Lecture 4 - Basic Freeway segments 33
For 90 ≤ FFS ≤ 120 and for flow rate (vp )
(3100 - 15FFS) < vp ≤ (1800 + 5FFS),
 3rd Step estimating average
passenger car speed
b. Through analytical computation

If FFS is between 90 and 120 km/h, average speed (s) could be given by the following
equations :

1. If (3100 – 15.FFS) < Vp < (1800 + 5.FFS), then

2.6
⎡1 ⎛ v p + 15FFS - 3100 ⎞ ⎤
s = FFS - ⎢ (23FFS - 1800)⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ 28 ⎝ 20FFS - 1300 ⎠ ⎥⎦

2. If Vp < (3100 - 15FFS) then s = FFS

Engenharia de Tráfego Rodoviário Lecture 4 - Basic Freeway segments 34

 3rd Step estimating average
passenger car speed
c. Through analytical computation

Engenharia de Tráfego Rodoviário Lecture 4 - Basic Freeway segments 35

 4th Step determining LOS

DENSITY: vp
D=
where s
• D is density [pc/km/ln]
• Vp flow rate [pc/h/ln]
• S average passenger car speed [km/h]
Density (pc/km/lane) LOS
LEVEL OF SERVICE: 0–7 A
> 7 – 11 B
According density based on the values of
> 11 – 16 C
this table
> 16 – 22 D
> 22 – 28 E
> 28 F
Engenharia de Tráfego Rodoviário Lecture 4 - Basic Freeway segments 36
 Methodology limitations
The methodology does not apply to or take into account (without modification by the
analyst) the following:
• Special lanes reserved for a single vehicle type, such as high-occupancy vehicle (HOV)
lanes, truck lanes, and climbing lanes;
• Extended bridge and tunnel segments;
• Segments near a toll plaza;
• Facilities with free-flow speeds below 90 km/h or in excess of 120 km/h;
• Demand conditions in excess of capacity (refer to Chapter 22 for further discussion);
• The influence of downstream blockages or queuing on a segment;
• Posted speed limit, the extent of police enforcement, or the presence of intelligent
transportation systems features related to vehicle or driver guidance; or
• Capacity-enhancing effects of ramp metering.

Engenharia de Tráfego Rodoviário Lecture 4 - Basic Freeway segments 37