e:> Pergamon Wal. Sci. Tech. Vol. 32. No.7, pp. 79-86, 1995.

Copyright 0 1996 IAWQ

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SEA OUTFALLS FOR THE DISPOSAL AND

TREATMENT OF WASTEWATER
EFFLUENTS

Raymond F. Caine
McDowells Ltd. Victory House. Churchill Court. Manor Royal. Crawley.
West Sussex RHID 2PN. UK

ABSTRACT
The paper brings together a useful summary of all aspects of design and implementation of outfall schemes
for the disposal of wastewater effiuents. It outlines methods of assessment of the receivmg water in relation
to short-term and long-term impacts using the concept of EnvironmenUII Quality Objectives, with reference
to European Union (EU) Standards and United Kingdom (UK) Practice. The need for good field data is
outlined with appropriale methods and an indication of cost. A discussion of predictive modelling techniques
and of the need to inlegrate combined SlO!lIl discharges is included. The principles of hydraulic and structural
design are outlined with special reference to the design of diffusers and to the impact on this of different
characteristics of the receiving water. Finally, a brief review is given of the construction methods available at
the present time.

KEYWORDS

B.athing water; environment; marine treatment; outfall; sewage. wastewater; water quality.

THE RECEMNG WATER

The natural water cycle of ocean evaporation. rainfall and river drainage to the ocean has become distorted
by man's diversion of clean water sources for the liquid conveyance of waste.

The cycle must none-the-less be completed by the return of the water to the ocean either directly or via a
river system. Environmental concerns are now focusing on the extent to which the polluting matter should
be removed prior to the return. and on what may be reasonably left for the ocean environment to absorb and
disperse.

The controlling factor should be the ability to achieve the return without damage or undue distortion of the
ecosystem of the receiving water. either in the short or long term. Thus. a treatment system must be devised
to match the impact of the discharge to the capacity of the receiving water.

The outfall is an integral part of this treatment system which by the choice of discharge point and hydraulic
design can influence the short-term impact of the discharge. An example is that by achieving the required
levels of dilution and dispersion. the oxygen demand of the effluent can be matched to the capacity of the
receiving water in terms of dissolved oxygen supply and the risk of oxygen starvation of the ecosystem is
minimised.
79
80 R. F. CAINE

The long-term influence of the discharge needs to be addressed in terms of levels of persistent substances in
the effluent, and wherever possible this problem should be addressed at source or by pre-treatment. Relevant
substances are categorised in the EU Dangerous Substances Directive (CEC 1976a).

For a given environment such as the Black Sea it is essential that the problem is addressed on a wider front,
as outfalls from coastal towns will contribute a much smaller percentage of long-term pollution than the
polluted rivers entering the same marine environment. (In the case of the North Sea, the percentage of
nitrogen contributed by rivers and outfalls is 92% and 8% respectively. and the percentage of lead 85% and
15% (Water Research Centre. 1990».

This paper therefore concentrates on the design of outfalls to achieve the immediate benefits of bacterial
protection of bathing waters. good dispersion and stabilisation of organic solids. and minimum damage to
local amenity and the fishing industry.

The introduction in the European Union of Directives for Bathing Water. Shell Fisheries and Urban
Wastewater Treatment has set the design standards in the countries of the EU. The design approach adopted
in the UK can be applied to meet whatever standards are deemed necessary or affordable.

The approach has been developed by the Water Research Centre (1990). and requires the defmition of
Environmental Quality Objectives (EQOs) and Environmental Quality Standards (EQSs).

For a given project a map can be produced of the locality to include all areas potentially affected by the
project. The "Use Area Chart" defines the EQO for each zone.

The EQO is a statement concerning the maintenance of water quality such that a particular area is
safeguarded, for example the EQO for Bathing Water is to maintain a safe environment for bathers. The
corresponding EQS will set measurable standards which may change with time, but which, when set, are
deemed such that compliance will achieve the EQO. Typical examples of an EQS are:-

Aesthetic impact - avoidance of visible slick

BacteriaVViral concentrations
Ammonia
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Chemical Oxygen Demand
Heavy metals and persistent organics
Nutrient levels - nitrogen and phosphorus
- mandatory and advisory concentrations
- mgll or tonnes per year
- mg/l
- mg/l
- mg/l or tonnes per year
- mg/l or tonnes per year

A range of options will be available to achieve the EQOs established on the Use Area Chart, ranging from a
basic screening plant discharging effluent through a long outfall into well-mixed water, to a secondary
treatment works with a sterilisation plant discharging relatively close inshore. The choice of treatment level
versus outfall length and depth will be greatly influenced by the topography and geology of the area. The
impact on the cost of construction versus the running costs of higher levels of treatment must be addressed in
comparing schemes on a financial basis.

It must also be remembered that achievement of EQOs with a long outfall may be undermined by
intermittent discharges of combined stormwater overflows, and a fully integrated approach is needed to all
discharges within the design area.

To enable the outfall designer to recommend a location for discharge, comprehensive data collection studies
are essential to establish engineering and environmental design parameters. These studies are expensive,
ranging from 0.6% to 13%, with a typical value of 2.5%, of outfall scheme costs for UK outfalls (Water
Research Centre, 1990) exclusive of modelling. IT a number of outfalls are planned for a stretch of coastline.
considerable savings can be achieved by planning comprehensive data studies for the area.
 Marine IrcalIIlcnt of W&<ilewaler effiucnlS 81

DATA COLLECTION

The collection of data in the field should always be preceded by a data search to establish the level of current
knowledge in the community. In developed countries records are kept of many aspects of the coastal
environment such as tide records. wind and wave statistics, geological maps and navigation charts.

Where such hard data is not available. seeking first-hand accounts of local waters from fishermen and
mariners can be beneficial. though converting such accounts into viable data is difficult and requires that the
engineer concerned has a good level of nautical understanding.

The information gleaned in this "desk study" should be used to plan the field work so as to focus its extent
and minimise the risk of abortive work.

Monitoring tide levels and currents is fundamental to this work and a number of methods are available:-

1) Hoat tracking - radar reflective floats can be released and tracked by radar. Releases at various
states of the tide will build up a picture of overall movement.

2) A more sophisticated method now available is the Ocean Surface Current Radar (OSCR) which
uses the doppler effect on radar signals bounced off waves simultaneously from two shore stations
to reconstruct surface current vectors.

3) Anchored buoyant current meters allow monitoring at various depths to build a velocity/depth
proflle. over e.g. a two week spring-neap tide cycle. This will assist in converting surface currents
to depth averaged values.

To gain further information on the rate of dispersion to be expected tracers can be used. A tracer may be a
dye such as Rhodamine WT or a microbiological tracer using bacterial spore. In each case concentration can
be measured by vessels crossing and re-crossing the plume to gauge both the direction of movement and the
dispersion achieved. Additional surveys of temperature and salinity proflles with depth may be prudent in
non-turbulent waters.

Assuming that the above studies. combined with any predictive model used. identify one or more suitable
locations for discharge. then more comprehensive sea bed data is required.

Sonar bathymetric and side scan surveys can be carried out simultaneously. the latter giving good
descriptive data to identify sand waves. local features. wrecks. etc. Bathymetric surveys should be repeated
to ascertain the extent of accretion or erosion in mobile sediments. Sub-bottom profiling can also be used to
ascertain depth of silts and sands over hard rock. but interpretation must always be calibrated by
geot:chnical sampling.

The drilling of boreholes for outfalls is expensive due to the depth of water and exposure to weather. It is
therefore essential that confidence in the outfall route is reaching a high level before a major investigation is
launched. Boreholes on shore can often be used to make an initial calibration of sub-bottom profiling. thus
increasing this confidence.

In parallel with these engineering studies, environmental studies are required into existing water quality.
sediment quality. and benthic surveys of life forms surviving in the sediments. This is a specialised area of
work beyond the scope of this paper.
82 R.F.CAINE

PREDICTIVE MODELUNG

Costs of abortive field work can be lessened while looking at a greater range of disposal strategies if the data
is collected over a suitably defined sea area for which a mathematical model can be set up.

These models are now well established and with modern computing power can operate on fme grids. The
basic topographical model. together with tidal functions can re-create current movements throughout the tide
cycle. Onto this are overlaid the sewage dispersion and bacterial die-off models. Mter running the model for
a perioo to reach balanced conditions. bacterial concentrations around the outfall can be predicted and
shown as contours of maximum concentration occurring during the complete tide cycle.

INTEGRATED DESIGN OF DRY WEATHER AND COMBINED STORM

SEWAGE SYSTEMS

The need to deal with combined stonn sewage only arises if rainwater is allowed to enter the foul sewage
system, and the scale of the problem is proportional to the percentage of surface water drains connected.

Where a marine treatment outfall is planned to meet bathing water or other amenity standards the impact of
overflows must also be assessed. Hydraulic capacity of the outfall system combined with stonn sewage
retention is matched to the acceptable level of spillages set by the EQO and EQSs for the site.

The lower the treatment flow rate is set. the higher the volume of storage required, and the longer the
duration of the critical storm. If stonn tank contents are to be emptied through the treatment system it is also
necessary to have adequate capacity to empty the storage within a reasonable period. A target of between 12
and 24 hours would typically be set in the UK. In hotter climates this would have to be reviewed against the
higher risk of septicity and potential bacteria growth in storage tanks.

Outfalls designed for a very wide range of flows are subject to a number of problems (discussed under
hydraulic design), and stonn water outfalls will always be needed for the extreme event The option of
making these outfalls longer to render spillages acceptable is a real alternative to storage if size and location
render this economic.

HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF OUTFALLS

The principles upon which long sea outfall hydraulic design is based are now well established and
documented. However, in practice the designer needs experience and judgement in order to reconcile the
conflicting requirements of theory and practical design.

The critical area of design is in the diffuser, the section at the end of the outfall where the flow is sub•
divided and released via multiple ports to achieve the required initial dilution in the receiving water. Of
principal concern is the operating head required to achieve the design discharge and the variation in that
head with variations in flow, tide level, and the long tenn deterioration of the outfall.

Principal head losses in an outfall are due to:-

Pipe friction losses -main outfall

Diffuser losses -port velocity head

-riser pipe friction loss
-bends and fittings losses
-density differential of effluent/receiving water
 Marine lreatment of wastewater effluents 83

Static head -may provide the driving head where sewerage systems are
above sea level. or be an additional head for pumping where
sewerage systems are below sea level - fluctuates with tide.

To maintain velocities in the outfall pipe forming the diffuser section it is necessary progressively to taper
the pipe beyond each diffuser port. Using computer spreadsheets it is a relatively straightforward exercise to
ascertain the discharge through each pon for a given set of conditions and calculate the initial dilution.

Initial dilution is controlled by density differential, depth of water over the polt, discharge from the pon and
ambient current velocity (ACV). The ACV is the parameter with the greatest impact causing outfall dilutions
to range from I:50 to 1:2000 over a spring tide range of slack water to peak flow current in typical English
Channel conditions.

In the turbulent coastal waters of Britain. low dilutions are acceptable for the slack tide periods as the more
concentrated plume arising is rapidly dispersed once tidal flow resumes.

Seas with little or no tidal movement such as the Black Sea pose rather different problems. The constant
water level provides a simplification in respect of hydraulic conditions. but lack of significant ambient
currents calls for good initial dilutions being achieved through diffuser design. Initial dilution may be
calculated for truly static water (CederwalI1968) or for notionally static water (WRC-Buoyancy Dominated
Near Field Case) according to results of the field survey.

Added to this limitation is the low salinity of the active upper layer of the Black Sea which reduces the
potential dilution for a given discharge arrangement The designer is then left with increasing the depth of
water and extending the diffuser to a large number of small pons.

A study of the bulk water movements is essential if major outfalls are to perform without an unacceptable
accumulation of sewage-rich water.

Having achieved the necessary dilution from each pon it is necessary to establish the separation distance
between pons to prevent recombining of the plumes and failure to achieve the overall initial dilution. From
experimental work the plume width is approximately 0.3H in still water and 0.7 to 0.9H in moving water.
where H is the overall water depth.

The importance of initial dilution is to achieve a very slight density differential between the plume and the
main body of the receiving water to discourage the formation of a lower density surface field by buoyant
spreading. Dilutions in the order of I:50 should normally prevent this, and even without turbulent ambient
flow. wind-induced turbulence will disperse any patches formed.

The importance of removing grease and persistent floatables from the effluent is paramount where little or
no turbulent dispersion will occur. and dilutions as high as 1:500 may be necessary to prevent slick
formation with untreated effluent

Initial dilution also has an important role in reducing bacterial concentration and dispersing solids so as to
improve sunlight penetration to the bacteria. The time taken for 90% of bacteria to die, known as the T90
time can be as little as 4 hours in clear water and good summer sunlight in the UK, less in areas nearer the
Equator. This is a major factor in bacteria reduction for bathing beach protection.

Steady-state analysis of a range of flow conditions will provide a profUe of dilutions achieved through the
diurnal flow ranges and water depths. However. it is necessary to consider transient flow conditions in
Pumped outfalls. or those used on a "plug flow" regime. When flow is stopped, inertia of the pipeline
contents causes an overrun with hydraulic gradient reversal and inflow of sea water on the return flow cycle.
84 R.F.CAINE

To prevent these incursions without creating severe pressure reversals in the pipelines. pumps can be
provided with ramped start and stop or full variable speed drives. Alternatively. surge control vessels on land
together with non return valves on outfall diffusers may be used. Such non return valves should be of the
inert rubber nozzle type as mechanical devices invariably fail in a sea water environment

Row variation within outfalls is the cause of most design problems. Minimum flows at night may fall to less
than 10% of the outfall design capacity. Thus. with pipe design velocities of say 2.5 m s·l at peak flow
(limited by total head losses) velocities of only 0.25 m s·l would occur at night, although the preferred
minimum is 0.75 m s·l. In addition. perhaps only the first two of ten diffusers would operate causing sea
water circulation to be set up through the remainder if non-return valves are not provided.

Thus, it becomes necessary to consider the plug flow option whereby at periods of low flow the effluent is
stored until a sufficient quantity is available to run the outfall pumps effectively or flush the outfall by
gravity. This mode of operation is common practice in the UK for modem outfalls.

Some large outfalls built in the UK to take significant storm water flows in addition to foul water suffered
from the above effect and developed serious problems of siltation and diffuser blockage. The use of separate
outfalls for storm flows is therefore well worth considering.

STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF OUTFALLS

There are three principal forms of construction for outfalls from the structural design viewpoint These are
tunnelled. pipes laid in trench, and pipes laid on the sea bed.

Design of tunnels is no different from other sub-aqueous tunnel construction except in the connection of
diffuser risers. For pipeline outfalls the structural design has two distinct phases. the construction phase
which is often the most onerous. and the operational phase.

Design for the construction stage is dependent on the installation method chosen. Commonly the most
critical condition is stress induced by the curvature required to tow or sink the pipeline into its fmal position.
Stress limitation in this condition will depend on pipe material and lining. Typical limiting radii are
1000 pipe diameters for steel with internal cement lining, down to 50 pipe diameters for polyethylene
(MDPE). These radii are also affected by pulling and spanning stresses. and it is essential that the contractor
is ultimately responsible for the stress calculations for the installation. Clearly however. specified limits on
stress should be defmed by the designer.

"Float and Sink" operations are particularly difficult to analyse due to the difficulty of controlling the
position of ballast water. Loss of stability can result in over-stress or actual failure of the pipeline.

Design for the permanent condition for pipe-in-trench is for pipe wall stiffness to withstand external water
and backfill pressures. summated with maximum internal positive and negative pressures. Control of backfill
is unlikely to be achieved in underwater operations. and the pipe should be designed without side support
from the backfill material. A cover of two metres will protect against most anchor furrowing. but additional
allowances may be needed for erosion.

Pipelines laid on the sea bed are subject to significant forces due to cyclic pressures from passing waves,
drag due to tidal currents and potential bridging due to erosion under the pipe. In addition. pipes in the surf
zone can suffer damage from breaking waves. Damage from ships. their anchors and fishing gear are a threat
where outfalls cross shipping lanes or anchorages. or lie across trawl flShing grounds.

It is recommended that modem outfalls are buried in trenches where possible, and that surface laying is only
used over hard rock. and in deep water where the risk of ship damage is low. The surf zone should always be
well anchored and protected with rock. Where the pipe beyond the protection is allowed to 'roll' with the
wave action, pipe wall design must take account of torsional stresses.
 Marine treatment of wastewater effluents 8S

All outfalls must interface with the sea bed at the diffuser. and structures must be devised to protect the
discharge pipes from damage. It is also important to limit the extent of damage and for buried outfalls it is
preferable to use a weaker material for the diffuser riser pipe than for the main outfall. or to joint it with
shear bolts. Protective structures should also be independent of the main pipeline.

CONSTRUcnON TECHNIQUES

The most widely used method of installation for outfalls exceeding I Ion in length in the UK is that of
bottom towing. A large onshore assembly area is required on which pipe can be welded into strings.
typically IS to 25 for the outfall. A weight coat is applied to the pipe to produce nominal negative buoyancy
in the air-filled condition. On completion of string assembly and dredging. the diffuser section is towed to
the end of the assembly area and an additional string rolled into line and welded using a joint such as the
"Reynolds Joint" which prevents damage to internal protection. Mter welding. painting and wrapping. the
outfall is moved again. passing over guide rollers to control the curvature down to low tide level. The
pulling barge maintains control through the inclination of the cables to guide the pipeline into the trench and
prevent it ploughing in. The cycle is repeated until the full length is installed. The pipeline is then flooded to
stabilise it prior to backfilling. A major benefit of this method is that the pipeline is less exposed to weather
effects and can be left for a few days if unexpected bad weather occurs.

Jack-up platforms can be used to advantage in sheltered water up to 12 m deep. e.g. a jack-up rig with back
hoe excavator and a vertical pipe assembly and feed system has been used to lay 315 mm OD MDPE.
Similar arrangements have been used to lay larger outfalls on a pipe-by-pipe basis. The major advantage
with progressive laying is that the full trench does not need to be excavated in advance. so loss of dredged
material is minimised.

Where inshore areas are environmentally sensitive then directional drilling is an option for outfalls up to
1000 m long or 800 mm diameter. In this process the steerable rig (based on oil well technology) is placed
inshore on a suitable site with space for bentonite cleansing and a water supply lagoon. A nearby sea level
site is required to preassemble the pipeline. Mter drilling to a pre-excavated trench offshore. the pipeline is
floated out and partially submerged to allow connection to the drilling head. A back reaming head is used to
enlarge the hole and the pipeline pulled back through to the rig. Further offshore sections or diffusers can
then be added by more conventional means.

Oil pipelines are frequently laid using lay barges on which pipe is assembled and launched over rollers into
the water. The barge can move along the route. or the pipe can be winched inshore from a stationery barge.
There have been few outfalls built using this equipment due to the very high mobilisation costs for the barge
to be recovered for a relatively short length of pipe.

Where an on-shore site is not available local to the outfall. pipe may be assembled at a remote site and towed
in lengths up to I Ion (depending on diameter) and sunk into a prepared trench. Sinking can be achieved by
controlled flooding of buoyancy tanks. winch-lowering from pontoons or controlled flooding of the pipe.

Major outfalls of 10 m2 or greater cross-section may be built using the techniques of "immersed tube"
tunnelling. The rate of progress and weather dependency of operation are points to consider with this system.

As an alternative to predredging of trenches. small diameter pipes may be laid on the sea bed and a jetting
machine used to lower the pipe by removing material from beneath it Several passes will be required. but 3
m cover may be achieved in certain sea bed conditions.

Back filling of all trenches requires careful control and for depths exceeding 10 m a fall pipe should be used
for the initial operation. Once the pipe is held in place and has a protective layer over it, bottom dumping
may be acceptable. but should not normally be used near diffuser assemblies.
86 R.F.CAINE

Tunnelled outfalls will be appropriate where surf zone conditions are severe, where there is no assembly site
available, or where the cross section (> 10 m2) is such that tunnelling becomes economic. Geologicial
conditions are a major consideration and will control the depth below sea bed that the tunnel is driven to
provide safe conditions. This frequently leads to deep tunnels, falling towards the shore to facilitate drainage
during construction. Such outfalls are especially prone to saline intrusion problems.

A recent development in tunnelling was made on a 520 m long stonn water outfall for Southern Water
where tunnelling was put forward as an alternative tender to the proposed steel pipeline. The tunnel was
constructed with minimal cover in chalk strata using a remote control mini-tunnelling machine with a pipe•
jack lining. To recover the machine a trench was dug in the chalk at the end of the outfall and backfilled
with sand. The machine was pushed out of the chalk into the sand and recovered by air-lifting the sand from
around it

Construction techniques for outfalls are varied and ever increasing as contractors face new challenges and
are forced to be more competitive. It is therefore important that an element of design is left to the contractor
to allow for innovation to suit his expertise and available equipment. However, the design consultant needs a
good understanding of all the options open to him as a number of decisions will be taken prior to tender
invitation. and geotechnical investigations must provide adequate infonnation for all foreseeable options.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Sea outfalls are an essential element of wastewater management for coastal towns. The nature of the
receiving water will dictate the extent of treatment, combined with outfall location, that is necessary to
achieve a sustainable system.

Design of outfall systems involves a wide range of skills, extensive data collection, and the use of predictive
computer models to achieve best "value for money· solutions.

The hydraulic design must be tailored to the local situation taking into account available water depth,
salinity and ambient currents. Structural design must be integrated with appropriate construction methods.

Thus, while no single element of outfall design is exceptional in tenns of engineering complexity, the co•
ordination of the multi-disciplinary project teams needed to implement an outfall project effectively from
concept to completion is a field of specialised endeavour.

REFERENCES
CEC (\976). Directive 761464IEEC on Discharge of Dangerous Substances.
CcderwaIl, K. (\968). Hydraulics of Marine Waste Disposal Report No. 42. Hydraulics Division. Chalmers University of
Technology, GOtzborg, Sweden.
Water Research Centre (1990). Design Guide for Marine Treatment Schemes. WRC Swindon. S8 YR UK.