Heat Transfer

Module 6

Radiation

Course Instructor
G.Nataraj
Assistant Professor (Sr.)
School of Mechanical Engineering
Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore

MEE 2005
1
 INTRODUCTION
The hot object in vacuum
chamber will eventually cool
down and reach thermal
equilibrium with its surroundings
by a heat transfer mechanism:
radiation.
Radiation differs from conduction and convection
in that it does not require the presence of a
material medium to take place.
Radiation transfer occurs in solids as well as
liquids and gases.
2
Radiation – Basic Concepts
Definition
The heat transfer from one body to another without any transmitting medium is
known as radiation
 Electromagnetic wave phenomenon
 Propagates at the speed of light

Emission properties
The rate of emission of radiation by a body depends upon the following factors:
 Wavelength or frequency of radiation
 Temperature of the surface
 Nature of the surface

Emissive power
The emissive power is defined as the total amount of radiation emitted by a body per
unit time and unit area. It is expressed in W/m2

Monochromatic emissive power is the energy emitted at a given wavelength per unit
time per unit area in all directions
Accelerated charges or changing electric currents give rise to electric and
magnetic fields. These rapidly moving fields are called electromagnetic waves or
electromagnetic radiation, and they represent the energy emitted by matter as a
result of the changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules.
Electromagnetic waves transport energy just like other waves and they are
characterized by their frequency  or wavelength . These two properties in a
medium are related by

c = c0 /n
c, the speed of propagation of a wave in that medium
c0 = 2.9979108 m/s, the speed of light in a vacuum
n, the index of refraction of that medium
n =1 for air and most gases, n = 1.5 for glass, and n = 1.33 for water
It has proven useful to view electromagnetic radiation as the propagation
of a collection of discrete packets of energy called photons or quanta.
In this view, each photon of frequency n is considered to have an energy of

The energy of a photon is inversely

proportional to its wavelength.

4
 THERMAL RADIATION
The type of electromagnetic radiation that is pertinent
to heat transfer is the thermal radiation emitted as a
result of energy transitions of molecules, atoms, and
electrons of a substance.
Temperature is a measure of the strength of these
activities at the microscopic level, and the rate of
thermal radiation emission increases with increasing
temperature.
Thermal radiation is continuously emitted by all matter
whose temperature is above absolute zero.

Everything
around us
constantly
emits thermal
radiation.

The
electromagnetic
5
wave spectrum.
 BLACKBODY RADIATION
• Different bodies may emit different amounts of radiation per unit surface area.
• A blackbody emits the maximum amount of radiation by a surface at a given
temperature.
• It is an idealized body to serve as a standard against which the radiative
properties of real surfaces may be compared.
• A blackbody is a perfect emitter and absorber of radiation.
• A blackbody absorbs all incident radiation, regardless of wavelength and
direction.

The radiation energy

emitted by a blackbody:

Blackbody emissive power

Stefan–Boltzmann constant

6
Radiation – Basic Concepts
Concept of Black body
Black body is an ideal surface having the following properties
 Absorbs all incident radiation, regardless of wavelength and direction
 Emits the maximum energy for a given temperature and wavelength

Formation of a real time black body

A black body condition can be approached in practice by forming a cavity in a
material as shown in below figure (i).

Radiation passing through the hole into the cavity is repeatedly absorbed and
reflected at the cavity walls until it all absorbed (thus satisfying the first feature of the
black body).

Fig (i) Fig (ii)

Radiation – Basic Concepts
Formation of a real time black body
Consider a black body at a uniform temperature, placed inside an arbitrarily shaped,
perfectly insulated enclosure composed of another black body whose temperature is
also uniform but different from that of the former (refer fig (ii)) .

The black body and the enclosure will reach a common equilibrium temperature after
a period of time due to heat transfer.

Concept of Gray body

If a body absorbs a definite percentage of incident radiation irrespective of their
wavelength, the body is known as gray body.

The emissive power of a gray body is always less than that of the black body.
Emissivity
It is defined as the ability of the surface of a body to radiate heat.

It is also defined as the ratio of the emissive power of any body (gray body) to the
emissive power of a black body of equal temperature.
Emissivity, ε = E / Eb
 RADIATIVE PROPERTIES
Most materials encountered in practice, such as metals, wood, and bricks, are opaque
to thermal radiation, and radiation is considered to be a surface phenomenon for such
materials.
Radiation through semitransparent materials such as glass and water cannot be
considered to be a surface phenomenon since the entire volume of the material
interacts with radiation.
A blackbody can serve as a convenient reference in describing the emission and
absorption characteristics of real surfaces.

Emissivity
• Emissivity: The ratio of the radiation emitted by the surface at a given temperature
to the radiation emitted by a blackbody at the same temperature. 0    1.
• Emissivity is a measure of how closely a surface approximates a blackbody ( = 1).
• The emissivity of a real surface varies with the temperature of the surface as well as
the wavelength and the direction of the emitted radiation.
• The emissivity of a surface at a specified wavelength is called spectral emissivity
. The emissivity in a specified direction is called directional emissivity  where 
is the angle between the direction of radiation and the normal of the surface.
9
Concepts:
• Any surfaces at all temperatures (but above
absolute zero temperature) emit thermal
radiation.
• In addition to emitting radiation, the surfaces of
a body has the capacity for absorbing all or part
of the radiation emitted by surrounding surfaces
and falling on it.
• Directional nature of thermal radiation:
A surface emits radiation in all directions
encompassed by a hemisphere.
. We shall be concerned only with situations
involving radiation exchange between surfaces,
in which the space between the surfaces is a
vacuum or is occupied by a gas which does not
participate in the radiative exchange in any way.
 Irradiation, G:
Radiation flux
incident on a
surface.

Absorptivity,
Reflectivity, and
Transmissivity

for opaque surfaces

11
 ATMOSPHERIC AND SOLAR RADIATION
Atmospheric radiation: The radiation energy emitted or
reflected by the constituents of the atmosphere.
The energy of the sun is due to the
continuous fusion reaction during which two
hydrogen atoms fuse to form one atom of
helium.
Therefore, the sun is essentially a nuclear
reactor, with temperatures as high as
40,000,000 K in its core region.
The temperature drops to about 5800 K in the
outer region of the sun, called the convective
zone, as a result of the dissipation of this
energy by radiation.
Total solar irradiance Gs:
The solar energy reaching Solar constant: The total solar irradiance. It
the earth’s atmosphere is represents the rate at which solar energy is
called the incident on a surface normal to the sun’s rays
at the outer edge of the atmosphere when the
earth is at its mean distance from the sun 12
Radiation – Laws of Radiation
Planck’s Distribution Law

The relationship between the monochromatic emissive power of a black

body and wave length of a radiation at a particular temperature is
given by the following expression, by Planck

Ebλ = (c1 λ-5) / (exp(c2/ λT) - 1)

[HMT data book, Pg no: 81]

where Ebλ = Monochromatic emissive power W/m2

λ = Wavelength – m
c1 = 0.374 x 10-15 W m2
c2 = 14.4 x 10-3 mK
Radiation – Laws of Radiation
Wien’s Displacement Law

The Wien’s law gives the relationship between temperature and

wavelength corresponding to the maximum spectral emissive power of
the black body at that temperature

λmax T = 2898 µmK

[HMT data book, Pg no: 81]
=> λmax T = 2.9 x 10-3 mK [since µ = 10-6 m]
Radiation – Laws of Radiation
Stefan – Boltzmann Law

The emissive power of a black body is proportional to the fourth power

of absolute temperature

Eb α T4
[HMT data book, Pg no: 81]
Eb = σ T4

where Eb = Emissive power – W/m2

σ = Steffan – Boltzmann constant
= 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2K4
T = Absolute Temperature - K
Radiation – Laws of Radiation
Maximum Emissive Power, ( Ebλ )max

A combination of Planck’s law and Wien’s displacement law yields the condition for
the maximum monochromatic emissive power for a black body.

( Ebλ )max = c4T5

where c4 = 1.307 x 10-5 [Radiation constant]

=> ( Ebλ )max = 1.307 x 10-5 T5

Radiation – Laws of Radiation
Kirchoff’s Law Of Radiation
This law states that the ratio of total emissive power to the absorptivity is constant for
all surfaces which are in thermal equilibrium with the surroundings. This can be
written as

E1 / α1 = E2 / α2 = E3 / α3 ………

It also states that the emissivity of the body is always equal to its absorptivity when
the body remains in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings.

α1 = ε1 ; α2 = ε2 and so on.
Radiation – Laws of Radiation
Intensity of Radiation ( lb )

It is defined as the rate of energy leaving a surface in a given direction per unit solid
angle per unit area of the emitting surface normal to the mean direction in space.

In = Eb / π

Lambert’s Cosine Law

It states that the total emissive power Eb from a radiating plane surface in any
direction is directly proportional to the cosine of the angle of emission.

Eb α cos θ
Radiation – Formulae Used [HMT data book, Pg no: 81]
1. Emissive Power (or) Total Emissive Power:

Eb = σ T4 W/m2

where σ = Steffan Boltzmann constant

= 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2K4

2. Wien’s Law:
λmax T = 2898 µmK = 2.9 x 10-3 mK

3. Monochromatic Emissive Power (or) Spectral Emissive Power:

Ebλ = (c1 λ-5) / (exp(c2/ λT) - 1)

where c1 = 0.374 x 10-15 W-m2

c2 = 14.4 x 10-3 mK
Radiation – Formulae Used [Contd]
4. Maximum Emissive Power ( Ebλ )max :

( Ebλ )max = c4T5

where c4 = 1.307 x 10-5

5. Intensity of Radiation ( Ib):

I n = Eb / π

6.
Absorptivity, α = Radiation absorbed / Incident radiation

Reflectivity, ρ = Radiation reflected / Incident radiation

Transmissivity, τ = Radiation transmitted / Incident radiation

 Radiation – Problems on Laws
1. A black body at 3000 K emits radiation. Calculate the following
a. Monochromatic emissive power at 1 µm wave length,
b. Wave length at which emission is maximum.
c. Maximum emissive power.
d. Total emissive power,
e. Calculate the total emissive of the furnace if it is assumed as a real
surface having emissivity equal to 0.85
Given:
Surface temperature, T = 3000 K
To find:

a. Monochromatic emissive power Ebλ at λ = 1 µ = 1 x 10-6 m

b. Maximum Wave length, (λmax )
c. Maximum emissive power, ( Ebλ )max
d. Total emissive power, Eb
e. Emissive power of real surface at ε = 0.85
Radiation – Problems on Laws
Solution:
a. Monochromatic emissive power:

From Planck’s distribution law,

Ebλ = (c1 λ-5) / (exp(c2/ λT) - 1)

[HMT data book, Pg no: 81]

where c1 = 0.374 x 10-15 W m2

c2 = 14.4 x 10-3 mK
λ = 1 x 10-6 m [Given]

=> Ebλ = 3.10 x 1012 W/m2

b. Maximum Wave length, (λmax ) :
From Wien’s law,
λmax T = 2.9 x 10-3 mK

=> λmax = 0.966 x 10-6 m

Radiation – Problems on Laws
c. Maximum emissive power, ( Ebλ )max :

Maximum emissive power

( Ebλ )max = 1.307 x 10-5 T5
( Ebλ )max = 3.17 x 1012 W / m2

d. Total emissive power, Eb :

From Steffan - Boltzmann law,

Eb = σ T4 W/m2
[HMT data book, Pg no: 81]
where σ = Steffan Boltzmann constant
= 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2 K4

=> Eb = 4.59 x 106 W/m2

Radiation – Problems on Laws
e. Total emissive power of a real surface :

(Eb)real = ε σ T4

where ε – Emissivity = 0.85

(Eb)real = 3.90 x 106 W/m2

 Radiation – Problems on Laws
2. A black body of 1200 cm2 emits radiation at 1000 K. Calculate the following
a. Total rate of energy emission
b. Intensity of normal radiation
c. Wavelength of maximum monochromatic emissive power
d. Intensity of radiation along a direction at 60o to the normal.

Given:
Area, A = 1200 x 10-4 m2
Surface temperature, T = 1000 K
To find:

a. Total rate of energy emission, Eb.

b. Intensity of normal radiation, In.
c. Wavelength of maximum monochromatic emissive power, λmax
d. Intensity of radiation at 60o , Iθ
Radiation – Problems
Solution:

a. Energy emission, Eb :

From Steffan - Boltzmann law,

Eb = σ T4 W/m2
[HMT data book, Pg no: 81]
=> Eb = 56.7 x 103 W/m2

Here Area = 1200 x 10-4 m2

=> Eb = 56.7 x 103 x 1200 x 10-4 = 6804 W

b. Intensity of normal radiation, In :

In = Eb / π = (56.7 x 103)/ π W/m2 = 18048 W/m2

Radiation – Problems on Laws
c. Maximum Wavelength, λmax :

From Wien’s law,

λmax T = 2.9 x 10-3 mK

=> λmax = (2.9 x 10-3) / 1000 = 2.9 x 10-6 m = 2.9 µ [since µ = 10-6 m]

d. Intensity of radiation at 60o , Iθ:

In = Iθ = 18048 W/m2
Radiation – Gray body heat exchange formulae
Heat exchange between 2 large parallel plate is given by:

Q12 =  σ A (T14 – T24)

1
where emissivity,  
1 1
 1
1 2
σ = Steffan Boltzmann constant
= 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2 K4
ε1 = Emissivity of surface 1
ε2 = Emissivity of surface 2
T1 = Temperature of surface 1 – in K
T2 = Temperature of surface 2 – in K
Heat exchange between 2 large concentric cylinder (or) sphere is given by :
Q12 =  A1 σ (T14 – T24)
1
where   For cylinder, Area, A = 2 π r L
1 A  1 
 1   1  For sphere, Area, A = 4 π r2
1 A2  
 2


 Radiation – Gray body heat exchange Problems
1. Calculate the net radiant interchange per sq.m. for two large planes at a
temperature of 900 K and 400 K respectively. Assume that the emissivity
of hot plane is 0.9 and that of cold plane is 0.7.

Given:
Hot plane temperature, T1 = 900 K
Cold plane temperature, T2 = 400 K
Emissivity of hot plane, ε1 = 0.9
Emissivity of cold plane, ε2 = 0.7

To find:
Net radiant heat exchange per square meter.
Solution:
The heat exchange between two large parallel plate is given by

Q =  σ A (T14 – T24)  (1)

where  = 1 / ((1/ ε1) + (1/ ε2) – 1) = 0.649

Radiation – Gray body heat exchange Problems
σ = Steffan Boltzmann constant
= 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2 K4

Equation ( 1 )
=> Q / A = 23.20 x 103 W/m2 = 23.20 kW/m2
 Radiation – Gray body heat exchange Problems
2. Estimate the net radiant heat exchange per square meter between two large
plates at a temperature of 550o C and 320o C. Assume that emissivity of hot
plate is 0.8 and cold plate is 0.6

Given:
T1 = 550 + 273 = 823 K
T2 = 320 + 273 = 593 K
ε1 = 0.8
ε2 = 0.6

To find:
Heat exchange per square meter, (Q/A)
Solution:
The heat exchange between two large parallel plate is given by

Q =  σ A (T14 – T24)  (1)

where  = 1 / ((1/ ε1) + (1/ ε2) – 1) = 0.52

Radiation – Gray body heat exchange Problems
σ = Steffan Boltzmann constant
= 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2 K4

Equation ( 1 )
=> Q / A = 9880.6 W/m2 = 9.88 kW/m2
 Radiation – Gray body heat exchange Problems
3. Calculate the heat exchange by radiation between the surfaces of two
long cylinders having radii 120 mm and 60 mm respectively. The axis of
the cylinders are parallel to each other. The inner cylinder is maintained
at a temperature of 130o C and emissivity of 0.6. Outer cylinder is
maintained at a temperature of 30o C and emissivity of 0.5.
Given:
r1 = 60 mm = 0.060 m
r2 = 120 mm = 0.12 m
T1 = 130 + 273 = 403 K
T2 = 30 + 273 = 303 K
ε1 = 0.6
ε2 = 0.5
To find:
Heat exchange, (Q)
Solution:
The heat exchange between two large concentric cylinder is given by

Q12 =  σ A (T14 – T24)  (1)

Radiation – Gray body heat exchange Problems
 = 1 / ((1/ ε1) + (A1/A2)((1/ ε2) – 1))
= 0.46 [since A = π D L and L1 / L2 =1]

Equation ( 1 )
=> Q12 = 176.47 W
 Radiation – Gray body heat exchange Problems
4. A liquid oxygen is stored in double walled spherical vessel. Inner wall
temperature is – 160o C and outer wall temperature is 30o C. Inner
diameter of sphere is 20 cm and outer diameter is 32 cm. Calculate the
following.
a. Heat transfer if emissivity of spherical surface is 0.05
b. Rate of evaporation of liquid oxygen if its latent heat is 200 kJ/kg.

Given:
Inner wall temperature,T2 = -160 + 273 = 113 K
Outer wall temperature,T2 = 30 + 273 = 303 K
Inner diameter, D1 = 0.20 m
Inner radius, r1 = 0.10 m
Outer diameter, D2 = 0.32 m
Outer radius, r2 = 0.16 m
Emissivity, ε1 = 0.05 = ε2
Latent heat = 200 x 103 J/kg

To find:
1. Heat transfer, (Q12) 2. Rate of evaporation.
Radiation – Gray body heat exchange Problems
Solution:
This is heat exchange between large concentric sphere problem.

Q12 =  σ A1 (T14 – T24)  (1)

 = 1 / ((1/ ε1) + (A1/A2)((1/ ε2) – 1))

= 0.036 [since A = 4 π r2, ε1 = ε2 = 0.05]

Equation ( 1 )
=> Q12 = - 2.12 W
[Negative sign indicates heat is transferred from outer surface to
inner surface]

Rate of evaporation (m) = Heat transfer / Latent heat

= 2.12 W / (200 x 103) J/kg
m = 1 x 10-5 kg/s
 Radiation – Gray body heat exchange Problems
5. A pipe of outside diameter 30 cm having emissivity 0.6 and at a temperature
of 600 K runs centrally in a brick duct of 40 cm side square section having
emissivity 0.8 and at a temperature of 300 K. Calculate the following.
a. Heat exchange per metre length.
b. Convective heat transfer coefficient when surrounding of duct is 280 K.

Given:
Pipe diameter, D1 = 0.30 m
Surface area, A1 = π D1L = 0.942 m2
ε1 = 0.6
T1 = 600 K
Brick duct side = 0.40 m
Surface area, A2 = (0.4 x 1) x 4 = 1.6 m2
[length L = 1m; No. of sides =4]
ε2 = 0.8
T2 = 300 K
To find:
1. Heat exchange, (Q)
2. Convective heat transfer coefficient (h) when T∞ = 280 K
Radiation – Gray body heat exchange Problems
Solution:
Heat exchange,

Q12 =  σ A1 (T14 – T24)  (1)

 = 1 / ((1/ ε1) + (A1/A2)((1/ ε2) – 1))

= 0.55

Equation ( 1 )
=> Q12 = 3569.2 W  (2)

Heat transfer by convection, Q = h A (Tω - T∞)

Q12 = h A (T2 - T∞) = 20 h  ( 3 )

Equating (2) and (3),

3569.2 = 20 h

=> Heat transfer coefficient, h =178.46 W/m2K

Shape factor – Definition
Shape factor is defined as “The fraction of radiative energy that is
diffused from one surface and strikes the other surface directly with no
intervening reflections.” It is designated as Fi – j

Determination of Shape factor is based on reciprocity theorem

A1 A2
Let F1 – 2 be shape factor for plate 1 to plate 2
& F2-1 be shape factor for plate 2 to plate 1

According to reciprocating theorem,

A1 F1 – 2 = A2 F2 – 1

Using reciprocating theorem and the known shape

factor of one surface (defined geometry), the shape
factor of the other surface (undefined geometry)
could be established.

Shape factor is also known as view factor (or) configuration factor

 Shape factor – Definition
The shape factor is purely a function of geometric properties only.

When two bodies are exchanging radiant energy with each other, the Reciprocating theorem.
Ai Fi-j = Aj Fj-i

When all the radiation emanating from a convex surface 1 is intercepted by the enclosing
surface 2, the shape factor of convex surface with respect to the enclosure F1-2 is unity.

The concave surface has a shape factor with itself because the radiant energy coming
out from one part of the surface is intercepted by the other part of the same surface. The
shape factor of a surface with respect to itself is F1-1.

For flat plate or convex surface, the shape factor w.r.t itself is zero.
( this is due to fact that for any part of flat or convex surface, one cannot see/view any
other part of the same surface.)

If the radiant surface is subdivided, the shape factor for that surface w.r.t the receiving
surface is not equal to the sum of the individual shape factors.

The shape factor fom a radiating surface to a subdivided receiving surface is simply the
sum of individual shape factors.
 Shape factor – Problems
1) Determine the view factor F1 – 2 and F2 – 1 for the figure shown below
5m
2m

2
1m

1
5m
Solution: From Figure, we know that
A4 = A2 + A3
A2
2m

A4 Further, A1F1-4 = A1F1-3 + A1F1-2

[Since, F1-4 = F1-3 + F1-2]
A3
1m

A1F1-2 = A1F1-4 – A1F1-3

A1
F1-2 = F1-4 – F1-3  (1)
 B

Shape factor – Problems L2

[Refer HMT data book, Pg no: 94]

L12

Shape factor for the area A1 and A4: Shape factor for the area A1 and A3:
5m 5m

A4 A3

1m
3m

A1

A1 Z = L2 / B = 1 / 5 = 0.2
Y = L1 / B = 1 / 5 = 0.2

Z = L2 / B = 3 / 5 = 0.6 F1-3 = 0.27104

Y = L1 / B = 1 / 5 = 0.2
Substituting the values of F1 – 4 & F1 – 3 in (1)
F1-4 = 0.36884 F1-2 = 0.0978
Shape factor – Problems
Reciprocity relation is used to determine F2-1

A1 F1 – 2 = A2 F2 – 1

F2-1 = (A1/A2)F1-2
= ((1 x 5) / (2 x 5)) x 0.0978
= 0.048

F2-1 = 0.0489
Shape factor – Problems
2) Determine the view factor F1 – 4 for the figure shown below

1m
Solution:
4 1m A4
A6
1m 3 1m A3
1m 2 1m A2 A5
1m 1 A1
1m

From Figure, we know that,

A5 = A1 + A2
A6 = A3 + A4

Further,
A5F5-6 = A1F1-6 + A2F2-6 [Since, A5 = A1+A2; F5-6 = F1-6 + F2-6]
= A1F1-3 +A1F1-4+A2F2-6 [Since, F1-6 = F1-3 + F1-4]
Shape factor – Problems
A5F5-6 = A5F5-3 – A2F2-3 +A1F1-4+A2F2-6 [Since, A1 = A5 – A2; F1-3 = F5-3 – F2-3]

A1F1-4 = A5F5-6 - A5F5-3 + A2F2-3 - A2F2-6

F1-4 = (A5/A1)[F5-6 - F5-3] + (A2/A1)[F2-3 - F2-6] -> (1)

Required shape factor F1-4 is expressed in terms of the shape factors of

those geometries having defined shape factors
B

Refer HMT data book, Pg no: 94

L1

L2
Shape factor – Problems
Shape factor for the area A5 and A6: Shape factor for the area A5 and A3:

Referring to HMT databook Page: 94 Referring to HMT databook Page: 94

B=1m
B=1m

Z = L2 / B L2 = 1 m A3
L2 = 2 m A6 Y = L1 / B
L1 = 2 m A5

L1 = 2 m A5
Z = L2 / B = 1 / 1 = 1
Y = L1 / B = 2 / 1 = 2
Z = L2 / B = 2 / 1 = 2
Y = L1 / B = 2 / 1 = 2 F5-3 = 0.11643

F5-6 = 0.14930
Shape factor – Problems
Shape factor for the area A2 and A3: Shape factor for the area A2 and A6:

Referring to HMT databook Page: 94 Referring to HMT databook Page: 94

B=1m B=1m

1m
Z = L2 / B
A3 Y = L1 / B 2m A6
1m A2

1m A2
Z = L2 / B = 1 / 1 = 1
Y = L1 / B = 1 / 1 = 1 Z = L2 / B = 2 / 1 = 2
Y = L1 / B = 1 / 1 = 1
F2-3 = 0.20004
F2-6 = 0.23285
Shape factor – Problems
Substitute F5-6, F5-3, F2-3 and F2-6 values in equation (1)

F1-4 = (A5/A1) [0.14930 – 0.11643] + (A2/A1) [0.20004 – 0.23285]

View factor, F1-4 = 0.03293