PROJECT REPORT

ON

RF Controlled Robotic
Vehicle
Submitted in partial fulfillment of their requirements for
the award of the

DIPLOMA IN ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

Under the supervision of

Mr. AISHWARY DIXIT

(Sr. Project Manager)

Softpro Innovations (P) Ltd

Lucknow (UP)

Submitted By:

CHANDAN GUPTA
Submitted To:

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU POLYTECHNIC,

MAHMOODABAD, SITAPUR
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my deep and sincere gratitude to my

supervisor Mr. Aishwary Dixit (Softpro Innovations (P) Ltd.), who

gave me his full support and encouraged me to work in an innovative

and challenging project for Educational field. His wide knowledge and

logical thinking gave me right direction all the time.

I am deeply grateful my project coordinator for his/her help and

support provided at every step of the project.

Last but not the least, I thank to all employees of Softpro

Innovations (P) Ltd. for their support and co-operation.

Chandan Gupta
 SOFTPRO INNOVATIONS

COMPLETION CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr./Ms. Chandan Gupta of DIPLOMA (EC) from

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU POLYTECHNIC, MAHMOODABAD, SITAPUR was
working on the project entitled “RF CONTROLLED ROBOTIC VEHICLE” in
Softpro Innovations (P) Ltd. He/She was engaged with us during 1 June to 15 July
for a period of 45 days.
He/She has done an excellent job during his/her engagement with the
EMBEDDED ELECTRONICS Division of the company. He/She has completed
his/her project during the training tenure. His/her performance has been good and
satisfactory.
I would like to take this opportunity to express my appreciation to Mr./Ms.
Chandan Gupta for his/her work and wish him/her all the very best for his/her
future endeavors.

Regards,
……………………..
Yashi Asthana

Manager-HR

Softpro Innovations (P) Ltd. Lucknow (U.P.)

 DECLARATION

This is to certify that the project report entitled “RF Controlled

Robotic Vehicle” is done by me is an authentic work carried out for the

partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Diploma in

“(Electronics Engineering)” under the guidance of Mr. Aishwary Dixit.

The matter embodied in this project work has not been submitted earlier

for award of any degree or diploma to the best of my knowledge and

belief.

Chandan Gupta
TABLE OF CONTAINTS:
1.0INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT
2.0BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PROJECT
3.0DESIGN OF THE PROJECT
4.0SOFTWERE DESCRIPTION
5.0HARDWERE DESCRIPTION
5.1ATMEGA16
5.2RF TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER
5.3POWER SUPPLY
5.4TRANSFORMERS
5.5THE ADAPTING 3-TERMINAL VOLTAGE REGULATORS
5.6RESISTORS
5.7 CRISTAL OSCILLATORS
5.8DC MOTORS
5.9 L293D
5.10 H-BRIDGE
6.0MACHENICAL PART:
6.1CHESSIS
6.2 CASTER WHEEL
6.3 L-CLAMP
6.4WHEELS
8.0 MAKING PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD (P.C.B.)
8.1 INTRODUCTION
8.2 MATERIAL REQUIRED
8.3 PROCEDURE
8.4 PRECAUTION
8.5 USES
9.0 PROCEDURE FOR MAKING PROJECT
9.1 TOOLS:
9.2 MOUNTING & SOLDERING:
9.3 THE SOLDERING KIT
10.0 SCOPE OF THIS PROJECT
11.0 CONCLUSSION
12.0 REFERENCES
 1.0 INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT :

Robotics is a fascinating subject- more so, if you have to fabricate a robot

yourself. The field of robotics encompasses a number of engineering disciplines
such as electronics (including electrical), structural, pneumatics and mechanical.

The structural part involves use of frames, beams, linkages, axles, etc. the
mechanical parts/ accessories comprise various types of gears (spurs, crowns,
bevels, worms and differential gear systems), pulleys and belts, drive
systems(differentials, castors, wheels and steering) etc. The pneumatics plays a
vital role in generating specific pushing and pulling movements such as those
simulating arms or leg movement. Pneumatic grippers are also used with
advantage in robotics because of their simplicity and cost effectiveness. The
electrical items include DC and Stepper motors, actuators, electrical grips,
clutches and their control. The electronic parts involves remote control, sensors
(touch sensors, light sensor, collision sensor, etc), there interface circuitry and a
microcontroller for overall control functions.
 RF controlled robot is controlled by using Four push button placed at
transmitter side. Here we only need to push the buttons to control the
robot. A transmitting device is used in your hand which also contains a RF
Transmitter and a RF Encoder. This transmitter part will transmit
command to robot so that it can do the required task like moving forward,
reverse, turning left, turning right and stop. All these tasks will perform by
using four push buttons that are placed on RF transmitter.
2.0 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PROJECT:
 3.0 DESIGN OF THE PROJECT:

Circuit diagram of RF controlled robotic vehicle

CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION:

For the design of radio controlled robot we have chosen AVR

ATMEGA 8/16 microcontroller. Which is a very popular, low cost and easily
available microcontroller. We can also use Atmega16/32 instead of Atmega
8.In above figure atmega8 receives data from RF module on its serial data
receive pin, that is RXD (PIN 2). Then it processes the data and generates
control signal for the two motors (left and right). It also generates
the PWM signal on its OC1A and OC1B pins (pin 15 & 16), this PWM signal is
used to control the speed of the two motors. OC1A controls the speed of left
motor, while OC1B controls the speed of right motor. Four general purpose
input output lines of PORTD(PD1, PD2,PD3 and PD4) are used to control the
direction of motors. The output from the microcontroller's pins are not strong
enough to provide enough voltage and current to drive motors directly. So we
need to use motor driver IC like L293D.
The microcontroller is clocked from a 16MHz crystal oscillator which you can
see in the left hand side of the circuit diagram. It is connected to pins XTAL1
and XTAL2(pin 9 and 10) of the microcontroller.
In the right of schematic you can see the bi colour LED (D1). It serves a
very helpful purpose! It indicates if the robot is control range of the operator or
not. When the transmitter is not in range or is switched off. This LED will turn
RED. Other wise if the robot is receiving signals from the controller without
any problem, it will turn a sweet green colour.
The whole circuit should be powered using regulated 5v supply only.
This can be easily designed using a 7805 voltage regulator IC. Also note one
important thing that one of the up pointing arrow which is pin 8 of the L293D
IC (motor driver) should be connected to 12V supply. This can be obtained
from a 12V battery like those used in UPS of PC or using 9 AA cells.
 4.0 SOFTWERE DESCRIPTION:

 Atmel studio 6

AVR Studio 6 is a software development environment developed by

Atmel. It is meant to replace AVR Studio 5going forward providing a single
development platform for Atmel's 8-bits, 32-bits and ARM Cortex-M families
of AVR microcontrollers.
Some Features of AVR Studio 6:

- It is a full software development environment with an editor, simulator,

programmer, etc.

- It comes with its own integrated C compiler the AVR GNU C Compiler
(GCC). As such you do not need a third party C compiler.

- It provides a single environment to develop programs for both the 8-bits, 32-
bits and ARM Cortex-M AVR series of microcontrollers.

- It also integrates fully QTouch studio.

- Provides support for several programmers including the STK500, AVR

Dragon, etc.

 Proteus:

The Proteus Design Suite is an tool including schematic capture,

simulation and PCB Layout modules. It is developed in Yorkshire, England by
Labcenter Electronics Ltd with offices in North America and several overseas
sales channels.
 Schematic capture in the Proteus Design Suite is used for both the
simulation of designs and as the design phase of a PCB layout project. It is
therefore a core component and is included with all product configurations.
The micro-controller simulation in Proteus works by applying either a
hex file or a debug file to the microcontroller part on the schematic. It is then
co-simulated along with any analog and digital electronics connected to it. This
enables it's used in a broad spectrum of project prototyping in areas such as
motor control, temperature control and user interface design. It also finds use in
the general hobbyist community and, since no hardware is required, is
convenient to use as a trainingor teaching tool. is available for co-simulation of:

 PIC10, PIC12, PIC16,PIC18,PIC24,dsPIC33 Microcontrollers.

 8051 and Microcontrollers
 8051, ARM7 and ARM Cortex-M3 Microcontrollers.
 MSP430, PICCOLO DSP and ARM Cortex-M3 Microcontrollers.Parallax
Basic Stamp, Free scale HC11, 8086 Microcontrollers

 AVR Program Loader:

AVR USB Boot is a boot loader for the Atmel AVR controllers. It uses a
firmware-only USB driver to transfer binary data from the PC to the flash of the
controller. Once the AVR is flashed with the boot loader, no other ISP
programmer is needed; then the microcontroller can be reprogrammed over
USB.
 Avr program loader softwere

Avr program loader hardwere

Features:
Software works under multiple platforms. Linux, Mac OS X and Windows are
tested.
Tested with ATMega8-16
No special USB controllers or smd components are needed.
Boot loader fits into 1024 word boot loader block
Hardware
Basically AVR USB Boot can be used with all circuits which are supported by
the AVR USB driver. To switch between the boot loader and the application, an
additional jumper is necessary. Here is an example (Here the levels on the data
lines are 5V which doesn't meet the USB specification! The supply voltage
should be regulated to 3,3V - 3,6V):

Program:

/*
* RF CONTROLLED ROBOTIC VEHICLE.c
*
* Created: 8/25/2016 01:00:29 PM
* Author: softpro innovations
*/

#include <avr/io.h> //include avr i/p o/p

header file
#define F_CPU 8000000UL //define clock frequency
#include <util/delay.h> //include delay header
file

int main(void) //main function starts here

{

DDRA=0xff; //define portA as output

DDRB=0x00; //define portB as input
PORTB=0xff; //initialize port B as
high
while(1) //infinite while loop
{
if (PINB==0b11110001) //if 1st switch is pressed at
mobile
{
PORTA=0b00000101; //both motors move robot in
forword direction
}
 if (PINB==0b11110010) //if 2nd switch is pressed at
mobile
{
PORTA=0b00001010; //both motors move robot
in backword direction
}
if (PINB==0b11110010) //if 3rd switch is pressed at
mobile
{
PORTA=0b00000110; //both motors move robot in
left direction
}
if (PINB==0b11111000) //if 4th switch is pressed at
mobile
{
PORTA=0b00001001; //both motors move robot
in right direction
}
}}
/*
and we have considered here-
for forword movement o/p should be 0101 and left
movement output should be 0110.
*/
 5.0 HARDWERE DESCRIPTION:

DESCRIPTION OF COMPONANTS:-

5.1 ATMEGA16/8:
ATmega16/8 is an 8-bit high performance microcontroller of Atmel’s
Mega family with low power consumption. Atmega16/8 is based on enhanced
RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing, Know more about ) architecture
with 131 powerful instructions. Most of the instructions execute in one machine
cycle. Atmega16/8 can work on a maximum frequency of 16MHz.

ATmega16 is a 40 pin microcontroller. There are 32 I/O (input/output)

lines which are divided into four 8-bit ports designated as PORTA, PORTB,
PORTC and PORTD.
The high-performance, low-power Atmel 8-bit AVR RISC-based
microcontroller combines 16KB of programmable flash memory, 1KB SRAM,
512B EEPROM, an 8-channel 10-bit A/D converter, and a JTAG interface for
on-chip debugging. The device supports throughput of 16 MIPS at 16 MHz and
operates between 4.5-5.5 volts.
By executing instructions in a single clock cycle, the device achieves
throughputs approaching 1 MIPS per MHz, balancing power consumption and
processing speed.

Key Parameters
Parameter
Value
Flash (kBytes):
16 kBytes in atmega16, 8kBytes in Atmega 8
Pin Count:
40 in 16 and 28 in atmega8
Max. Operating Freq. (MHz):
16 MHz
CPU:
8-bit AVR
# of Touch Channels:
16
Hardware Q Touch Acquisition:
No
Max I/O Pins:
32in Atmega 16 and, 23 in atmega8
Ext Interrupts:
3

ATmega16 has various in-built peripherals. Each I/O pin has an

alternative task related to in-built peripherals. The following table shows the
pin description of ATmega16.

Pin Diagram:
Pin Description:

Pin
Pin name Description Alternate Function
No.
T0: Timer0 External Counter
(XCK/T0) I/O PORTB, Pin
1 Input.
PB0 0
XCK : USART External Clock I/O
I/O PORTB, Pin T1:Timer1 External Counter
2 (T1) PB1
1 Input
AIN0: Analog Comparator
(INT2/AIN0) I/O PORTB, Pin
3 Positive I/P
PB2 2
INT2: External Interrupt 2 Input
AIN1: Analog Comparator
(OC0/AIN1) I/O PORTB, Pin Negative I/P
4
PB3 3 OC0 : Timer0 Output Compare
Match Output
 I/O PORTB, Pin
5 (SS) PB4
4
(MOSI) I/O PORTB, Pin
6
PB5 5 In System Programmer (ISP)
(MISO) I/O PORTB, Pin Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)
7
PB6 6
I/O PORTB, Pin
8 (SCK) PB7
7
Reset Pin,
9 RESET Active Low
Reset
10 Vcc Vcc = +5V
11 GND GROUND
12 XTAL2 Output to Inverting Oscillator Amplifier
13 XTAL1 Input to Inverting Oscillator Amplifier
I/O PORTD,
14 (RXD) PD0
Pin 0 USART Serial Communication
I/O PORTD, Interface
15 (TXD) PD1
Pin 1
I/O PORTD,
16 (INT0) PD2 External Interrupt INT0
Pin 2
I/O PORTD,
17 (INT1) PD3 External Interrupt INT1
Pin 3
(OC1B) I/O PORTD,
18
PD4 Pin 4
PWM Channel Outputs
(OC1A) I/O PORTD,
19
PD5 Pin 5

I/O PORTD, Timer/Counter1 Input Capture

20 (ICP) PD6
Pin 6 Pin

I/O PORTD, Timer/Counter2 Output Compare

21 PD7 (OC2)
Pin 7 Match Output
I/O PORTC,
22 PC0 (SCL)
Pin 0
TWI Interface
I/O PORTC,
23 PC1 (SDA)
Pin 1
I/O PORTC,
24 PC2 (TCK)
Pin 2
JTAG Interface
I/O PORTC,
25 PC3 (TMS)
Pin 3
 I/O PORTC,
26 PC4 (TDO)
Pin 4
I/O PORTC,
27 PC5 (TDI)
Pin 5
PC6 I/O PORTC,
28 Timer Oscillator Pin 1
(TOSC1) Pin 6
PC7 I/O PORTC,
29 Timer Oscillator Pin 2
(TOSC2) Pin 7
30 AVcc Voltage Supply = Vcc for ADC

31 GND GROUND

32 AREF Analog Reference Pin for ADC

PA7 I/O PORTA, Pin
33 ADC Channel 7
(ADC7) 7
PA6 I/O PORTA, Pin
34 ADC Channel 6
(ADC6) 6
PA5 I/O PORTA, Pin
35 ADC Channel 5
(ADC5) 5
PA4 I/O PORTA, Pin
36 ADC Channel 4
(ADC4) 4
PA3 I/O PORTA, Pin
37 ADC Channel 3
(ADC3) 3
PA2 I/O PORTA, Pin
38 ADC Channel 2
(ADC2) 2
PA1 I/O PORTA, Pin
39 ADC Channel 1
(ADC1) 1
PA0 I/O PORTA, Pin
40 ADC Channel 0
(ADC0) 0

5.2 RF TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER:

The RF module, as the name suggests, operates at Radio Frequency. The

corresponding frequency range varies between 30 kHz & 300 GHz. In this RF
system, the digital data is represented as variations in the amplitude of carrier
wave. This kind of modulation is known as Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK).

Transmission through RF is better than IR (infrared) because of many

reasons. Firstly, signals through RF can travel through larger distances making
it suitable for long range applications. Also, while IR mostly operates in line-of-
sight mode, RF signals can travel even when there is an obstruction between
transmitter & receiver. Next, RF transmission is more strong and reliable than
IR transmission. RF communication uses a specific frequency unlike IR signals
which are affected by other IR emitting sources.

This RF module comprises of an RF Transmitter and an RF Receiver.

The transmitter/receiver (Tx/Rx) pair operates at a frequency of 434 MHz. An
RF transmitter receives serial data and transmits it wirelessly through RF
through its antenna connected at pin4. The transmission occurs at the rate of
1Kbps - 10Kbps.The transmitted data is received by an RF receiver operating at
the same frequency as that of the transmitter.

The RF module is often used alongwith a pair of encoder/decoder. The

encoder is used for encoding parallel data for transmission feed while reception
is decoded by a decoder. HT12E-HT12D, HT640-HT648, etc. are some
commonly used encoder/decoder pair ICs.
Pin Diagram:

Pin Description:
RF Transmitter

Pin
Function Name
No
1 Ground (0V) Ground
2 Serial data input pin Data
3 Supply voltage; 5V Vcc
4 Antenna output pin ANT

RF Receiver

Pin
Function Name
No
1 Ground (0V) Ground
2 Serial data output pin Data
3 Linear output pin; not connected NC
 4 Supply voltage; 5V Vcc
5 Supply voltage; 5V Vcc
6 Ground (0V) Ground
7 Ground (0V) Ground
8 Antenna input pin ANT

RF DECODER IC:

HT 12 E:

The HT 12E Encoder ICs are series of CMOS LSIs for Remote Control
system applications. They are capable of Encoding 12 bit of information which
consists of N address bits and 12-N data bits. Each address/data input is
externally trinary programmable if bonded out.

HT 12 D:

The HT 12D ICs are series of CMOS LSIs for remote control system
applications. This ICs are paired with each other. For proper operation a pair of
encoder/decoder with the same number of address and data format should be
selected. The Decoder receive the serial address and data from its corresponding
decoder, transmitted by a carrier using an RF transmission medium and gives
output to the output pins after processing the data.
RF MODULES:

5.3 POWER SUPPLY:

In flow in one direction only. When the anode of the diode is

positive with respect to its cathode, it is forward biased, allowing
current to flow. But when its anode is negative with alternating current
the electron flow is alternate, i.e. the electron flow increases to maximum
in one direction, decreases back to zero. It then increases in the other
direction and then decreases to zero again. Direct current flows in one
direction only. Rectifier converts alternating current to respect to the
cathode, it is reverse biased and does not allow current to flow. This
unidirectional property of the diode is useful for rectification. A single
diode arranged back-to-back might allow the electrons to flow during
positive half cycles only and suppress the negative half cycles. Double
diodes arranged back-to-back might act as full wave rectifiers as they
may allow the electron flow during both positive and negative half
cycles. Four diodes can be arranged to make a full wave bridge rectifier.
Different types of filter circuits are used to smooth out the pulsations in
amplitude of the output voltage from a rectifier. The property of
capacitor to oppose any change in the voltage applied across them by
storing energy in the electric field of the capacitor and of inductors to
oppose any change in the current flowing through them by storing
energy in the magnetic field of coil may be utilized. To remove pulsation
of the direct current obtained from the rectifier, different types of
combination of capacitor, inductors and resistors may be also be used to
increase to action of filtering.

Perhaps all of you are aware that a ‘power supply’ is a primary

requirement for the ‘Test Bench’ of a home experimenter’s mini lab. A
battery eliminator can eliminate or replace the batteries of solid-state
electronic equipment and the equipment thus can be operated by 230v
A.C. mains instead of the batteries or dry cells. Nowadays, the use of
commercial battery eliminator or power supply unit has become
increasingly popular as power source for household appliances like
transreceivers, record player, cassette players, digital clock etc.

THEORY:

USE OF DIODES IN RECTIFIERS:

Electric energy is available in homes and industries in India, in the
form of alternating voltage. The supply has a voltage of 220V (rms) at
a frequency of 50 Hz. In the USA, it is 110V at 60 Hz. For the
operation of most of the devices in electronic equipment, a dc voltage
is needed. For instance, a transistor radio requires a dc supply for its
operation. Usually, this supply is provided by dry cells. But sometime
we use a battery eliminator in place of dry cells. The battery
eliminator converts the ac voltage into dc voltage and thus eliminates
the need for dry cells. Nowadays, almost all-electronic equipment
includes a circuit that converts ac voltage of mains supply into dc
voltage. This part of the equipment is called Power Supply. In
general, at the input of the power supply, there is a power
transformer. It is followed by a diode circuit called Rectifier. The
output of the rectifier goes to a smoothing filter, and then to a voltage
regulator circuit. The rectifier circuit is the heart of a power supply.
RECTIFICATION
Rectification is a process of rendering an alternating current
or voltage into a unidirectional one. The component used for
rectification is called ‘Rectifier’. A rectifier permits current to flow
only during the positive half cycles of the applied AC voltage by
eliminating the negative half cycles or alternations of the applied
AC voltage. Thus pulsating DC is obtained. To obtain smooth DC
power, additional filter circuits are required.

A diode can be used as rectifier. There are various types of

diodes. But, semiconductor diodes are very popularly used as
rectifiers. A semiconductor diode is a solid-state device consisting
of two elements is being an electron emitter or cathode, the other
an electron collector or anode. Since electrons in a semiconductor
diode can flow in one direction only-from emitter to collector- the
diode provides the unilateral conduction necessary for
rectification. Out of the semiconductor diodes, copper oxide and
selenium rectifier are also commonly used.

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

It is possible to rectify both alternations of the input voltage by

using two diodes in the circuit arrangement. Assume 6.3 V rms (18 V p-
p) is applied to the circuit. Assume further that two equal-valued series-
connected resistors R are placed in parallel with the ac source. The 18 V
p-p appears across the two resistors connected between points AC and
CB, and point C is the electrical midpoint between A and B. Hence 9 V
p-p appears across each resistor. At any moment during a cycle of vin, if
point A is positive relative to C, point B is negative relative to C. When
A is negative to C, point B is positive relative to C. The effective voltage
in proper time phase which each diode "sees" is in Fig. The voltage
applied to the anode of each diode is equal but opposite in polarity at
any given instant.

When A is positive relative to C, the anode of D1 is positive with

respect to its cathode. Hence D1 will conduct but D2 will not. During the
second alternation, B is positive relative to C. The anode of D2 is
therefore positive with respect to its cathode, and D2 conducts while D1
is cut off.

There is conduction then by either D1 or D2 during the entire

input-voltage cycle.

Since the two diodes have a common-cathode load resistor RL, the
output voltage across RL will result from the alternate conduction of D1
and D2. The output waveform vout across RL, therefore has no gaps as
in the case of the half-wave rectifier.

The output of a full-wave rectifier is also pulsating direct current.

In the diagram, the two equal resistors R across the input voltage are
necessary to provide a voltage midpoint C for circuit connection and
zero reference. Note that the load resistor RL is connected from the
cathodes to this center reference point C.

An interesting fact about the output waveform vout is that its peak
amplitude is not 9 V as in the case of the half-wave rectifier using the
same power source, but is less than 4½ V. The reason, of course, is that
the peak positive voltage of A relative to C is 4½ V, not 9 V, and part of
the 4½ V is lost across R.
 Though the full wave rectifier fills in the conduction gaps, it
delivers less than half the peak output voltage that results from half-
wave rectification.

BRIDGE RECT6IFIER

A more widely used full-wave rectifier circuit is the bridge

rectifier. It requires four diodes instead of two, but avoids the need for a
centre-tapped transformer. During the positive half-cycle of the
secondary voltage, diodes D2 and D4 are conducting and diodes D1 and
D3 are non-conducting. Therefore, current flows through the secondary
winding, diode D2, load resistor RL and diode D4. During negative half-
cycles of the secondary voltage, diodes D1 and D3 conduct, and the
diodes D2 and D4 do not conduct. The current therefore flows through
the secondary winding, diode D1, load resistor RL and diode D3. In both
cases, the current passes through the load resistor in the same direction.
Therefore, a fluctuating, unidirectional voltage is developed across the
load.

Filtration

The rectifier circuits we have discussed above deliver an output

voltage that always has the same polarity: but however, this output is
not suitable as DC power supply for solid-state circuits. This is due to
the pulsation or ripples of the output voltage. This should be removed
out before the output voltage can be supplied to any circuit. This
smoothing is done by incorporating filter networks. The filter network
consists of inductors and capacitors. The inductors or choke coils are
generally connected in series with the rectifier output and the load. The
inductors oppose any change in the magnitude of a current flowing
through them by storing up energy in a magnetic field. An inductor
offers very low resistance for DC whereas; it offers very high resistance
to AC. Thus, a series connected choke coil in a rectifier circuit helps to
reduce the pulsations or ripples to a great extent in the output voltage.
The fitter capacitors are usually connected in parallel with the rectifier
output and the load. As, AC can pass through a capacitor but DC
cannot, the ripples are thus limited and the output becomes smoothed.
When the voltage across its plates tends to rise, it stores up energy back
into voltage and current. Thus, the fluctuations in the output voltage are
reduced considerable. Filter network circuits may be of two types in
general:

CAPACITOR FILTER

If a capacitor is placed before the inductors of a choke-input filter

network, the filter is called capacitor input filter. The D.C. along with
AC ripples from the rectifier circuit starts charging the capacitor C. to
about peak value. The AC ripples are then diminished slightly. Now the
capacitor C, discharges through the inductor or choke coil, which
opposes the AC ripples, except the DC. The second capacitor C by
passes the further AC ripples. A small ripple is still present in the output
of DC, which may be reduced by adding additional filter network in
series.

CHOKE INPUT FILTER

If a choke coil or an inductor is used as the ‘first- components’ in the

filter network, the filter is called ‘choke input filter’. The D.C. along with
AC pulsation from the rectifier circuit at first passes through the choke
(L). It opposes the AC pulsations but allows the DC to pass through it
freely. Thus AC pulsations are largely reduced. The further ripples are
by passed through the parallel capacitor C. But, however, a little nipple
remains unaffected, which are considered negligible. This little ripple
may be reduced by incorporating a series a choke input filters.
5.4 THE ADAPTING 3-TERMINAL
VOLTAGE REGULATORS

One can get a constant high-voltage power supply using inexpensive

3-terminal voltage regulators through some simple techniques described
below. Depending upon the current requirement, a reasonable load
regulation can be achieved. Line regulation in all cases is equal to that of
the voltage regulator used.

Though high voltage can be obtained with suitable voltage boost

circuitry using ICs like LM 723, some advantages of the circuits
presented below are: simplicity, low cost, and practically reasonable
regulation characteristics. For currents of the order of 1A or less, only
one zener and some resistors and capacitors are needed. For higher
currents, one pass transistor such as ECP055 is needed.

Before developing the final circuits, let us first understand the 3-

terminal type constant voltage regulators. Let us see the schematic in
Fig. where 78XX is a 3-terminal voltage regulator.

Schematic for obtaining low-voltage regulated output using 3-terminal

voltage regulators.
Rectified and filtered unregulated voltage is applied at VIN and a
constant voltage appears between pins 2 and 2 of the voltage regulator.
*The distribution of two currents in the circuit (IBIAS and ILOAD) is as
shown.
* It is highly recommended to use the two capacitors as shown.
Electrically regulator will be at a distance from the rectifier supply.
Thus, a tantalum grade capacitor of 5mf and rated voltage is good.
Electrolytic capacitor is not suitable for it is poor in response to load
transients, which have high frequency components. At the output side a
0.22mf disc ceramic capacitor is useful to eliminate spurious oscillations,
which the regulator might break into because of its internal high gain
circuitry.

These voltage regulators have a typical bias current of 5 mA,

which is reasonably constant. By inserting a small resistor Rx between
pin 2 and ground, the output voltage in many cases. By this method
voltage increment of 5 to 10 per cent is practically feasible. However, if a
high-value resistance is used to obtain a higher output voltage, a slight
variation in bias current will result in wide variation of the output
voltage.

Now let us see that what can be done to get a higher but constant
output voltage. If to the circuit of Fig. resistor RY and zener Vz are
added as shown in Fig., the output voltage is now given by

VOUT=VR+VZ + IBIAS RX

A constant current flows through RY** because VOUT is constant,

and small variations in IBIAS do not change practically the operating
point of Vz. This situation is like constant current biasing of zener,
which results in a very accurate setting of the zener voltage.

** As long a sVIN>VOUT+2 volts, VOZ is constant from the

reasoning of Fig, and thus current through RY is constant.

VOZ=VR + IBIAS Rx

Here the pin 2 of the regulator is raised above ground by Vz +

IBIAS Rx. Thus, any combination of zener with a proper selection of RY
can be used.
For example, Let VR=+15 V for 7815

IBIAS=5mA

VZ=39V (standard from ECIL)

For a standard 400mW zener of ECIL make, IZ MAX=10 mA. Thus,

if we let pass 5mA through RY to make a 55-volt supply

55 - 39
RY = ---------------=3.2k»3.3k
5 x 10-3

55 - 39 - 15 1
RX = ---------------------= ---------- = 200 ohm
IBIAS 5 x 10-3

Schematic for constant high-voltage power supplies

It should be noted here that the maximum input voltage allowed

for 78XX regulators is 35V between pins 1 and 2. We see that the actual
voltage betweens pin 1 and 2 of the regulator in this circuit is

VIN - VZ - IBIAS RX

It is therefore necessary that VIN be so chosen that voltage

between pins 1 and 2 of the IC does not exceed the maximum rating.
Also, a high input-output differential voltage VIN-VOUT means more
power dissipation in the series-pass element, the regulator. Thus, with
proper selection of the input transformer voltage and capacitor, this
should be minimized.

For example, if 7805 is used, VR equals + 5V and VZ is 40V, so

VOUT=45 volts. For 7805, the maximum input voltage is 35 V and the
minimum 7V. Therefore,
VIN MAX = 45 + 35 - 5 = 75 VOLTS
VIN MIN = 45 + 7 - 5 = 47 VOLTS

Thus, from no-load to full-load condition, the unregulated input

voltage-including peak ripple-should be within these limits. This gives a
margin of 75-47, i.e. 28 volt. Hence, the designer can work out the
maximum transformer voltage from the no-load input voltage chosen on
the upper side.

The capacitor's value can be determined from the full load

unregulated voltage chosen. Roughly, per 100mA current, 100mf
capacitor gives 1-volt peak-to-peak ripple. Hence, capacitor's value can
be determined for the desired current.

This circuit will have an excellent load and line regulation. For
shot-circuit protection, it is recommended to use a fast-blow fuse of
suitable value. Although the regulator has inherent short-circuit
protection, the maximum current differs from device to device.
Adequate heat sink should be used with the regulator.

Schematic for constant high-voltage power supplies providing currents

in excess of one ampere
 Now if currents in excess of 1A are needed, the circuit shown in
fig. is useful. This circuit is similar to that in Fig. except that a pass
transistor ECP055 is added besides a 0.5-ohm or more resistor. This
transistor bypasses the excessive current. By selecting proper Rz the
ratio of two currents passing through the regulator and transistor can be
altered.
This circuit will show load and live regulation within 1% and will
function properly for VIN-VOUT as low as 4 volt. For short-circuit
protection, a fast blow fuse is recommended as this circuit does not have
inherent short-circuit protection. Adequate heat sink is to be used for the
pass transistors. For negative voltages, use 79XX series regulators and
ECN055 as the pass transistor. Some advantages of the circuits described
above are: the lowest cost among comparable performance circuits,
ability to work at low input-output differential, and flexibility in design
for various applications.

So audio enthusiasts, if you are troubled by hum emanating from

your power amplifier, try this inexpensive alternative for power supply.

5.5 TRANSFORMERS:
Two coils are wound over a Core such that they are magnetically
coupled. The two coils are known as the primary and secondary
windings.
 In a Transformer, an iron core is used. The coupling between the
coils is source of making a path for the magnetic flux to link both the
coils. A core as in fig.2 is used and the coils are wound on the limbs of
the core. Because of high permeability of iron, the flux path for the flux
is only in the iron and hence the flux links both windings. Hence there is
very little ‘leakage flux’. This term leakage flux denotes the part of the
flux, which does not link both the coils, i.e., when coupling is not perfect.
In the high frequency transformers, ferrite core is used. The transformers
may be step-up, step-down, frequency matching, sound output,
amplifier driver etc. The basic principles of all the transformers are
same.

5.6 RESISTORS:
 Resistance is the opposition of a material to the current. It is
measured in Ohms ( ). All conductors represent a certain amount of
resistance, since no conductor is 100% efficient. To control the electron
flow (current) in a predictable manner, we use resistors. Electronic
circuits use calibrated lumped resistance to control the flow of current.
Broadly speaking, resistor can be divided into two groups viz. fixed &
adjustable (variable) resistors. In fixed resistors, the value is fixed &
cannot be varied. In variable resistors, the resistance value can be varied
by an adjuster knob. It can be divided into (a) Carbon composition (b)
Wire wound (c) Special type. The most common type of resistors used in
our projects is carbon type. The resistance value is normally indicated by
colour bands. Each resistance has four colours, one of the band on either
side will be gold or silver, this is called fourth band and indicates the
tolerance, others three band will give the value of resistance (see table).
For example if a resistor has the following marking on it say red, violet,
gold. Comparing these coloured rings with the colour code, its value is
27000 ohms or 27 kilo ohms and its tolerance is ±5%. Resistor comes in
various sizes (Power rating). The bigger, the size, the more power rating
of 1/4 watts. The four colour rings on its body tells us the value of
resistor value as given below.
COLOURS CODE

Black-------------------------------------------- 0
Brown ------------------------------------------ 1
Red --------------------------------------------- 2
Orange ----------------------------------------- 3
Yellow ----------------------------------------- 4
Green ------------------------------------------- 5
Blue --------------------------------------------- 6
Violet ------------------------------------------- 7
Grey -------------------------------------------- 8
White ------------------------------------------- 9
 The first rings give the first digit. The second ring gives the second
digit. The third ring indicates the number of zeroes to be placed after the
digits. The fourth ring gives tolerance (gold ±5%, silver ± 10%, No colour
± 20%).

In variable resistors, we have the dial type of resistance boxes.

There is a knob with a metal pointer. This presses over brass pieces
placed along a circle with some space b/w each of them.

Resistance coils of different values are connected b/w the gaps.

When the knob is rotated, the pointer also moves over the brass pieces. If
a gap is skipped over, its resistance is included in the circuit. If two gaps
are skipped over, the resistances of both together are included in the
circuit and so on.

A dial type of resistance box contains many dials depending upon

the range, which it has to cover. If a resistance box has to read upto
10,000 , it will have three dials each having ten gaps i.e. ten resistance
coils each of resistance 10 . The third dial will have ten resistances each
of 100 .

The dial type of resistance boxes is better because the contact

resistance in this case is small & constant.
5.7 CRISTAL OSCILLATORS

What are crystal oscillators?

Crystal oscillators are oscillators where the primary frequency
determining element is a quartz crystal. Because of the inherent
characteristics of the quartz crystal the crystal oscillator may be held to
extreme accuracy of frequency stability. Temperature compensation may
be applied to crystal oscillators to improve thermal stability of the
crystal oscillator.
Crystal oscillators are usually, fixed frequency oscillators where stability
and accuracy are the primary considerations. For example it is almost
impossible to design a stable and accurate LC oscillator for the upper HF
and higher frequencies without resorting to some sort of crystal control.
Hence the reason for crystal oscillators.
The frequency of older FT-243 crystals can be moved upward by crystal
grinding.
I won't be discussing frequency sythesisers and direct digital synthesis
(DDS) here. They are particularly interesting topics to be covered later.

A practical example of a Crystal Oscillator

This is a typical example of the type of crystal oscillators which
may be used for say converters. Some points of interest on crystal
oscillators in relation to figure 1.
 Figure 1 - schematic of a crystal oscillator

The transistor could be a general purpose type with an Ft of at

least 150 Mhz for HF use. A typical example would be a 2N2222A.
The turns ratio on the tuned circuit depicts an anticipated nominal
load of 50 ohms. This allows a theoretical 2K5 ohms on the collector. If it
is followed by a buffer amplifier (highly recommended) I would simply
maintain the typical 7:1 turns ratio. I have included a formula for
determining L and C in the tuned circuits of crystal oscillators in case
you have forgotten earlier tutorials. Personally I would make L a
reactance of around 250 ohms. In this case I'd make C a smaller trimmer
in parallel with a standard fixed value.

5.8 DC MOTORS:

A DC motor is any of a class of electrical machines that converts

direct current electrical power into mechanical power. The most common types
rely on the forces produced by magnetic fields. Nearly all types of DC motors
have some internal mechanism, either electromechanical or electronic to
periodically change the direction of current flow in part of the motor. Most
types produce rotary motion; a linear motor directly produces force and motion
in a straight line
Description:
Single Shaft Plastic Gear Motor - BO series L Shape motor gives good
torque and rpm at lower operating voltages, which is the biggest
advantage of these motors. Small shaft with matching wheels give
optimized design for your application or robot. Mounting holes on the
body & light weight makes it suitable for in-circuit placement.

Specifications:
• Operating Voltage : 3V - 12V DC
• RPM : Approximately 100 RPM
• No load current : 40 - 80 mA
• Output Torque : 3.5 Kgf.cm
• Weight : 35gm

DC motors were the first type widely used, since they could be powered
from existing direct-current lighting power distribution systems. A DC motor's
speed can be controlled over a wide range, using either a variable supply
voltage or by changing the strength of current in its field windings. Small DC
motors are used in tools, toys, and appliances. The can operate on direct current
but is a lightweight motor used for portable power tools and appliances. Larger
DC motors are used in propulsion of electric vehicles, elevator and hoists, or in
drives for steel rolling mills. The advent of power electronics has made
replacement of DC motors with possible in many applications.

5.9 L293D:

L293D is a dual H-bridge motor driver integrated circuit (IC). Motor

drivers act as current amplifiers since they take a low-current control signal and
provide a higher-current signal. This higher current signal is used to drive the
motors.

L293D contains two inbuilt H-bridge driver circuits. In its common mode
of operation, two DC motors can be driven simultaneously, both in
forward and reverse direction. The motor operations of two motors can be
controlled by input logic at pins 2 & 7 and 10 & 15. Input logic 00 or 11
will stop the corresponding motor. Logic 01 and 10 will rotate it in
clockwise and anticlockwise directions, respectively.

Enable pins 1 and 9 (corresponding to the two motors) must be high for
motors to start operating. When an enable input is high, the associated
driver gets enabled. As a result, the outputs become active and work in
phase with their inputs. Similarly, when the enable input is low, that
driver is disabled, and their outputs are off and in the high-impedance
state.

.
Pin Diagram:

Pin Description:
Pin
Function Name
No
 1 Enable pin for Motor 1; active high Enable 1,2
2 Input 1 for Motor 1 Input 1
3 Output 1 for Motor 1 Output 1
4 Ground (0V) Ground
5 Ground (0V) Ground
6 Output 2 for Motor 1 Output 2
7 Input 2 for Motor 1 Input 2
8 Supply voltage for Motors; 9-12V (up to 36V) Vcc 2
9 Enable pin for Motor 2; active high Enable 3,4
10 Input 1 for Motor 1 Input 3
11 Output 1 for Motor 1 Output 3
12 Ground (0V) Ground
13 Ground (0V) Ground
14 Output 2 for Motor 1 Output 4
15 Input2 for Motor 1 Input 4
16 Supply voltage; 5V (up to 36V) Vcc 1

5.10 H-BRIDGE:

The term H bridge is derived from the typical graphical representation of

such a circuit. An H bridge is built with four switches (solid-state or
mechanical). When the switches S1 and S4 (according to the first figure) are
closed (and S2 and S3 are open) a positive voltage will be applied across the
motor. By opening S1 and S4 switches and closing S2 and S3 switches, this
voltage is reversed, allowing reverse operation of the motor.
Using the nomenclature above, the switches S1 and S2 should never be
closed at the same time, as this would cause a short circuit on the input voltage
source. The same applies to the switches S3 and S4. This condition is known as
shoot-through
H-Bridges – the Basics
Introduction
You can learn how to build h-bridges from many on- and off-line
resources. After all these circuits are not terribly complicated. Some of those
resources are good, some are not so much. However when I’ve started working
with them, I’ve realized that many of my experiences were not documented and
some of the things I’ve learned seemed to be missing from those descriptions.
So I decided to write down what I’ve learned and try to organize that
description into an easy to understand yet comprehensive structure.
This work started off as a three-part series I’ve written, while developing the H-
Bridges. While the current material is based on those articles, it corrects many
errors and is expanded and updated greatly.
My intention is to cover more ground than most articles I’ve seen on the
subject. While I don’t expect the you, dear reader, to be familiar with h-bridges
or motors controllers in general, I do build upon basic electrical circuit
understanding. So if you don’t know what a resistor, an inductor or a capacitor
is, if you don’t understand at least the basics of time- and frequency-domain
circuit analysis, you’re not reading the right article. You probably won’t be able
to follow the discussion. But if you’re interested in motor control background
information, if you want to understand the reasons behind design decisions, if
you want to gain deeper knowledge not just in the h-bridges, but in what goes
on before and after them, you have found your place.
My plan is to eventually expand these articles to cover not just h-bridges but
control circuits and electromechanical systems as well.
The Basics
In general an H-bridge is a rather simple circuit, containing four
switching element, with the load at the center, in an H-like configuration:

The switching elements (Q1..Q4) are usually bi-polar or FET transistors,

in some high-voltage applications IGBTs. Integrated solutions also exist but
whether the switching elements are integrated with their control circuits or not
is not relevant for the most part for this discussion. The diodes (D1..D4) are
called catch diodes and are usually of a Schottky type.
The top-end of the bridge is connected to a power supply (battery for example)
and the bottom-end is grounded.
In general all four switching elements can be turned on and off
independently, though there are some obvious restrictions.
Though the load can in theory be anything you want, by far the most pervasive
application if H-bridges is with a brushed DC or bipolar stepper motor (steppers
need two H-bridges per motor) load. In the following I will concentrate on
applications as a brushed DC motor driver.
Static Operation
The basic operating mode of an H-bridge is fairly simple: if Q1 and Q4
are turned on, the left lead of the motor will be connected to the power supply,
while the right lead is connected to ground. Current starts flowing through the
motor which energizes the motor in (let’s say) the forward direction and the
motor shaft starts spinning.

If Q2 and Q3 are turned on, the reverse will happen, the motor gets
energized in the reverse direction, and the shaft will start spinning backwards.

In a bridge, you should never ever close both Q1 and Q2 (or Q3 and Q4)
at the same time. If you did that, you just have created a really low-resistance
path between power and GND, effectively short-circuiting your power supply.
This condition is called ‘shoot-through’ and is an almost guaranteed way to
quickly destroy your bridge, or something else in your circuit.
 Because of this restriction from the four possible states the side-A
switches could be in only three make sense:
Q1 Q2
open open
close open
open close
Similarly for side-B:
Q3 Q4
open open
close open
open close
Altogether this allows for 9 different states for the full bridge to be in:
Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
close open open open
close open open close
close open close open
open close open open
open close open close
open close close open
open open open open
open open open close
open open close open
We will get into much more detail in a minute, but before we do, let’s spend a
few minutes understanding the basics of our load, the DC motor.
 6.0 MACHENICAL PART:

6.1 CHESSIS
Chassis, basically the frame of the robot on which motors and wheels are
mounted and all the circuitry part is also placed on it.

AVR micro controller based line follower robot chassis

6.2 CASTER WHEEL

 A Caster wheel is an undriven, single wheel that is designed to be
mounted to the bottom of a larger object so as to enable that object to be
easily moved. They are available in various sizes, and are commonly
made of rubber, plastic, nylon, aluminum, or stainless steel, etc.

Caster Wheel

6.3 L-CLAMP

6.4 WHEELS:
Wheel is a circular object that revolves on an axle and is fixed below a
vehicle or other object to enable it to move over the ground.
 Robot Wheels

7.0 MAKING PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD

(P.C.B.)
7.1 INTRODUCTION

Making a Printed Circuit Board is the first step towards building

electronic equipment by any electronic industry. A number of methods are
available for making P.C.B., the simplest method is of drawing pattern on a
copper clad board with acid resistant (etchants) ink or paint or simple nail polish
on a copper clad board and do the etching process for dissolving the rest of
copper pattern in acid liquid.

7.2 MATERIAL REQUIRED

The apparatus needs for making a P.C.B. is :-

* Copper Clad Sheet

* Nail Polish or Paint

 * Ferric Chloride Powder. (Fecl)

* Plastic Tray

* Tap Water etc.

7.3 PROCEDURE

The first and foremost in the process is to clean all dirt from copper
sheet with say spirit or trichloro ethylene to remove traces grease or oil
etc. and then wash the board under running tap water. Dry the surface
with forced warm air or just leave the board to dry naturally for some
time.

Making of the P.C.B. drawing involves some preliminary consideration

such as thickness of lines/ holes according to the components. Now
draw the sketch of P.C.B. design (tracks, rows, square) as per circuit
diagram with the help of nail polish or enamel paint or any other acid
resistant liquid. Dry the point surface in open air, when it is completely
dried, the marked holes in P.C.B. may be drilled using 1Mm drill bits. In
case there is any shorting of lines due to spilling of paint, these may be
removed by scraping with a blade or a knife, after the paint has dried.

After drying, 22-30 grams of ferric chloride in 75 ml of water may be

heated to about 60 degree and poured over the P.C.B. , placed with its
copper side upwards in a plastic tray of about 15*20 cm. Stirring the
solution helps speedy etching. The dissolution of unwanted copper
would take about 45 minutes. If etching takes longer, the solution may
be heated again and the process repeated. The paint on the pattern can
be removed P.C.B. may then be washed and dried. Put a coat of varnish
to retain the shine. Your P.C.B. is ready.

REACTION:
Fecl3 + Cu ----- CuCl3 + Fe

Fecl3 + 3H2O --------- Fe (OH)3 + 3HCL

7.4 PRECAUTION

1. Add Ferric Chloride (Fecl3) carefully, without any splashing. Fecl3

is irritating to the skin and will stain the clothes.

2. Place the board in solution with copper side up.

3. Try not to breathe the vapours. Stir the solution by giving see-saw
motion to the dish and solution in it.

4. Occasionally warm if the solution over a heater-not to boiling.

After some time the unshaded parts change their colour continue
to etch. Gradually the base material will become visible. Etch for
two minutes more to get a neat pattern.
5. Don't throw away the remaining Fecl3 solution. It can be used

again for next Printed Circuit Board P.C.B.

7.5 USES

Printed Circuit Board are used for housing components to make a

circuit for compactness, simplicity of servicing and case of
interconnection. Thus we can define the P.C.B. as : Prinked Circuit
Boards is actually a sheet of bakelite (an insulating material) on the one
side of which copper patterns are made with holes and from another
side, leads of electronic components are inserted in the proper holes and
soldered to the copper points on the back. Thus leads of electronic
components terminals are joined to make electronic circuit.

In the boards copper cladding is done by pasting thin copper foil

on the boards during curing. The copper on the board is about 2 mm
thick and weights an ounce per square foot.

The process of making a Printed Circuit for any application has the
following steps (opted professionally):

* Preparing the layout of the track.

* Transferring this layout photographically M the copper.

* Removing the copper in places which are not needed, by the
process of etching (chemical process)

* Drilling holes for components mounting.

8.0 PROCEDURE FOR MAKING PROJECT

Building project in the proper manner is really an art, something

which must be prectised and learned through trial and error, it is not all
that difficult. The main thing is to remember to take each step slowly
and carefully according to the instructions giving making since that
everything at it should be before proceeding further.

8.1 TOOLS:
The electronics workbench is an actual
place of work with comfortably &
conveniently & should be supplied with
compliment of those tools must often
use in project building. Probably the
most important device is a soldering
tool. Other tool which should be at the
electronic work bench includes a pair of needle nose pliers, diagonal
wire cutter, a small knife, an assortment of screw driver, nut driver, few
nuts & bolts, electrical tape, plucker etc. Diagonal wire cutter will be
used to cut away any excess lead length from copper side of P.C.B. 7 to
cut section of the board after the circuit is complete. The needle nose
pliers are most often using to bend wire leads & wrap them in order to
form a strong mechanical connection.
8.2 MOUNTING&
SOLDERING: Soldering is
process of joining together two
metallic parts. It is actually a process
of function in which an alloy, the
solder, with a comparatively low
melting point penetrates the surface
of the metal being joined & makes a firm joint between them on cooling
& solidifying.

8.3 THE SOLDERING KIT

1. SOLDERING IRON:
As soldering is a process of joining together two
metallic parts, the instrument, which is used, for doing this job is known
as soldering Iron. Thus it is meant for melting the solder and to setup the
metal parts being joined. Soldering Iron is rated according to their
wattage, which varies from 10- 200 watts.

2. SOLDER:
The raw material used for soldering is solder. It is composition of
lead & tin. The good quality solder (a type of flexible naked wire) is 60%
Tin +40% Lead which will melt between 180 degree to 200 degree C
temperature.

3. FLUXES OR SOLDERING PASTE:

When the points to solder are heated, an oxide film forms. This
must be removed at once so that solder may get to the surface of the
metal parts. This is done by applying chemical substance called Flux,
which boils under the heat of the iron remove the oxide formation and
enable the metal to receive the solder.

4. BLADES OR KNIFE:
To clean the surface & leads of components to be soldered is done
by this common instrument.
5. SAND PAPER:
The oxide formation may attack at the tip of your soldering iron &
create the problem. To prevent this, clean the tip with the help of sand
paper time to time or you may use blade for doing this job. Apart from
all these tools, the working bench for soldering also includes
desoldering pump, wink wire (used for desoldering purpose), file etc.

HOW TO SOLDER?

Mount components at their appropriate place; bend the leads

slightly outwards to prevent them from falling out when the board is
turned over for soldering. No cut the leads so that you may solder them
easily. Apply a small amount of flux at these components leads with the
help of a screwdriver. Now fix the bit or iron with a small amount of
solder and flow freely at the point and the P.C.B copper track at the
same time. A good solder joint will appear smooth & shiny. If all appear
well, you may continue to the next solder connections.

TIPS FOR GOOD SOLDERING

1. Use right type of soldering iron. A small efficient soldering iron

(about 10-25 watts with 1/8 or 1/4 inch tip) is ideal for this work.

2. Keep the hot tip of the soldering iron on a piece of metal so that
excess heat is dissipated.

3. Make sure that connection to the soldered is clean. Wax frayed

insulation and other substances cause poor soldering connection.
Clean the leads, wires, tags etc. before soldering.

4. Use just enough solder to cover the lead to be soldered. Excess solder
can cause a short circuit.
5. Use sufficient heat. This is the essence of good soldering. Apply
enough heat to the component lead. You are not using enough heat, if
the solder barely melts and forms a round ball of rough flaky solder.
A good solder joint will look smooth, shining and spread type. The
difference between good & bad soldering is just a few seconds extra
with a hot iron applied firmly.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Mount the components at the appropriate places before soldering.

Follow the circuit description and components details, leads
identification etc. Do not start soldering before making it confirm
that all the components are mounted at the right place.

2. Do not use a spread solder on the board, it may cause short circuit.

3. Do not sit under the fan while soldering.

4. Position the board so that gravity tends to keep the solder where
you want it.

5. Do not over heat the components at the board. Excess heat may
damage the components or board.

6. The board should not vibrate while soldering otherwise you have a
dry or a cold joint.

7. Do not put the kit under or over voltage source. Be sure about the
voltage either dc or ac while operating the gadget.

8. Do spare the bare ends of the components leads otherwise it may

short circuit with the other components. To prevent this use sleeves
at the component leads or use sleeved wire for connections.
9. Do not use old dark colour solder. It may give dry joint. Be sure that
all the joints are clean and well shiny.

10. Do make loose wire connections especially with cell holder,

speaker, probes etc. Put knots while connections to the circuit board,
otherwise it may get loose.

9.0 SCOPE OF THIS PROJECT:

In the present domestic and international scenario usage of weapon systems,
if not for offence then at least for self defense is inevitable. A direct
consequence of this is putting the life of millions of defense personal at stake. In
this condition the only possibility for countries is to come up with weapon
systems which are increasingly autonomous or remotely guided. Such weapon
systems will drastically reduce the requirement for defense personal to be
physically present in the line of fire. This project aims at designing and
demonstrating a prototype of one such guided weapon system.

ADVANTAGES:
 Wireless robot controlled is easy
 More useful in remote areas
 Firing events more help full to save
 Easily operated

APPLICATIONS:
Military applications
 Landmine detection
 Firing situations
10.0 CONCLUSSION:
11.0 REFERENCES: