Chapter 14
Lease-Operated Hydrocarbon
Recovery Systems
Robert N. Maddox, Oklahoma State u.*
Introduction
In lease production of natural gas, the marketing specifi-
cations as prescribed by the gas sales contract must be
considered when selecting the system for processing well-
head gas for liquid recovery. Natural gas at the wellhead
can contain liquefied hydrocarbons, free water. water
vapor, acid gases, and other undesirable components. To
make wellhead gas merchantable, these components must
be reduced to a composition that will satisfy the market-
ing specifications. The first part of this chapter is devot-
ed to the removal of liquefiable hydrocarbons from natural
gas. The latter part of the chapter describes techniques
for removal of some of the other components.
The removal of liquefiable hydrocarbons, which are
called “condensate,” is necessary for efficient transmis-
sjon of natural gas in pipelines. If hydrocarbons condense
in the pipeline, additional horsepower is required to over-
come the increased pressure drop. Where the heating
value of the natural gas is specified by the gas sales con-
tract, there must be control of the condensate removal to
satisfy this limitation. A final consideration for removal
of condensate is that additional revenue is derived over
that from sale of natural gas. In many instances this addi-
tional revenue will readily pay out the cost of process
equipment required to produce gas of merchantable
quality.
Low-Temperature Separation
(LTS) Systems
Theoretical Considerations
Before various methods for removing condensate from
natural gas are discussed, some of the physical phenom-
ena involved in the formation of condensate are examined.
Retrograde Condensation. Retrograde condensation
a phenomenon that occurs at the high temperatures and
‘The author of the chapter on thls tqxc I” the 1962 edltlon was Edwm
pressures frequently encountered in condensate hydrocar-
bon reservoirs. In the retrograde condensation region, as
shown in Fig. 14.1, condensate forms at constant tem-
perature with a reduction in pressure or at constant pres-
sure with an increase in temperature, both of which are
contrary to the normal expectations for condensation. If
fluid in the reservoir existed at Point A, condensation
would occur as the pressure in the reservoir declined from
A to B. Less frequently encountered is the case shown
by Line C-D. Here the fluid is in the single-phase region
at Point C. As the temperature is increased at constant
pressure from C to D, condensatioh occurs.
Retrograde condensation also can occur at lower tem-
peratures and pressures than those encountered in the
reservoir. This phenomenon ’ can occur at normal proc-
essing conditions for lease-operated equipment. Gas re-
moved from a separator at typical high-pressure separator
conditions (100°F and 1,000 psia) will undergo an in-
crease in dewpoint temperature as the pressure is lowered.
In many cases this “bulge” in the dewpoint line at lower
pressures can amount to as much as 20°F or more, enough
to cause troublesome condensation in lines thought to be
at constant temperature as relatively small pressure drops
occur.
Fig. 14.2 shows the calculated dewpoint curve for the
off-gas from a separator operating at 120°F and 1,000
psia. The maximum dewpoint temperature is 136°F and
occurs at about 500 psia. Also shown in Fig. 14.2 are
constant mol% liquid lines. Over nominal line pressure
drops very little liquid will form but that formed will be
primarily the heaviest components in the gas stream.
Cooling. A second phenomenon to consider in conden-
is sate removal from natural gas is the cooling that can occur
when the pressure on the gas is decreased. This tempera-
ture decrease can have one of two causes. When natural
gas expands from a high pressure to a lower pressure
C Young
without heat transfer or work being done (a constant-
14-2 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

i*

Smooth Curve

Temoerature Temperature. “F

Fig. 14.1-Pressure-temperature diagram for typical natural Fig. 14.2--Retrograde condensation of separator off-gas.
gas and showing retrograde behavior.

enthalpy expansion), there is an accompanying tempera- water is present in the natural gas stream. Hydrates are
ture drop or refrigeration effect normally referred as to materials that have fixed chemical compositions but ex-
the Joule-Thomson effect. If, however, the expansion ist without chemical bonds and are called “clathrates.”
occurs through a turbine then work is removed from the They form a solid similar to snow at temperatures above
gas during the expansion and cooling occurs also. Ad- 32°F (the freezing point of water) when the gas is under
vantage can be taken of the available pressure drop to low- pressure. They appear to be hydrates of a mixture of the
er the separation temperature of the hydrocarbon mixture component gases and not a mixture of the hydrates of the
and cause more liquid to form from the natural gas. Cool- individual gases. The hydrates form at a temperature that
ing from turbine expansion must be modeled along the is characteristic of a given gas mixture rather than at the
lines of compression calculations and is not easily cor- hydrate temperature for the individual components in the
related. Cooling available from constant-enthalpy expan- mixture. The hydrates normally include several water
sion can be estimated by charts such as Fig. 14.3. One molecules for each hydrocarbon molecule so that the pres-
must be cautious in using charts like Fig. 14.3 because ence of liquid water is generally considered necessary for
they are composition-dependent and cooling depends on the formation of hydrates in sufficient quantity to cause
gas composition and amount of liquid formed as well as plugging of a line, valve, etc. Turbulence accelerates the
the initial and final pressures. formation of hydrates and for this reason they frequently
occur downstream from valves, regulators, chokes, orifice
Hydrate Formation. A third phenomenon that must be plates, sharp bends, etc. Fig. 14.4 can be used to esti-
considered is the possible formation of hydrates when mate hydrate-forming conditions for different natural

180
170
160
I50
y 140
o I30
$120
6 II0
u IO0
5 90
5 80
2 70
% 60
t 50
40
30
20
IO
0
0 500 1000 15002CCO25003COO35004ooO45005CCO55006ooO
INITIAL PRESSURE, psig

Fig. 14.3-Temperature drop associated with a given pressure drop,

LEASE-OPERATED HYDROCARBON RECOVERY SYSTEMS 14-3

6000 1 I 1
gases. Caution also must be used in Fig. 14.4 because,
as shown by the different hydrate-forming lines for
O.&gravity gases, there can be considerable difference
4000-
in the hydrate temperature of gases of the same gravity.
If the composition of the gas is known, a composition-
dependent calculation of the hydrate temperature, either
by hand3 or by computer, I will give a much better esti-
mate of the hydrate temperature than will Fig. 14.4.
A necessary condition for hydrate formation is the pres- 2000-

ence of liquid water. Prediction of the temperature where

free water will occur will help identify the first point at
which hydrates might form. The chart shown in Fig. 14.5
gives the water vapor content of sweet [no hydrogen sul-
fide (HlS) or CO21 natural gas as a function of temper- 5 1000-
ature and pressure. As the temperature decreases at a 2
- eoo-
given pressure the water content required for saturation
K
also decreases. This will result in condensation of liquid
water for a saturated gas stream as it is cooled. As an i
example, suppose a well is flowing 1 MMscf/D of natural
E
gas at 1,000 psia saturated with water vapor but contain-
ing no liquid water at 110°F. The gas is cooled to 60°F
because of ground and atmospheric cooling. At 1,000 psia
and 1 lO”F, the gas contains 80 lbm water vapor/MMscf
and at 60°F it contains only 18 IbmiMMscf. One day of
gas production will result in the formation of 62 Ibm of
free water because of the cooling. Referring to Fig. 14.4,
if the gas flowing has a specific gravity greater than 0.6,
hydrates are likely to form in the flow line at some point
of turbulence.

Constant-Enthalpy Expansion Systems 30 40 60 00 70 80

The constant-enthalpy expansion systems use the TEMPERATURE, OF
rcfrigcration effect that results from a pressure drop
taken on a high-pressure wellstream. This expansion oc- Fig. 14.4-Approximate hydrate-forming conditions for natur-
curs across a choke and the resulting rcfrigcration effect al gas mixtures.
ih dependent on the tetnperaturc on the upstream side of
the choke. the pressure differential across the choke. and
the amount of liquid formed. For obtaining the tnax-
imum removal of liquefiable hydrocarbons from the gas condensation of the liquefiable hydrocarbons. The hy-
stream for a given pressure differential and sales-gas drates and condensate are separated from the gas by means
pressure. the lowest possible temperature within of centrifugal force, normally generated by locating the
reasonable limits should be attained in the separator. choke tangential to the shell of the separator, and by gravi-
This in turn means the lowest possible temperature ty. The hydrates and condensate collect in the bottom of
upstream of the choke. Two basic methods commonly the separator where they absorb heat from the inlet coil,
used to accomplish condensate removal are low- causing the hydrates to be melted. The liquid level is main-
temperature separation with or without hydrate in- tained by a level controller such that the coils are always
hibiton. Each method is discussed in the following submerged in the liquid.
sections. Two possible operating problems might occur in this
simple system. Either the wellstream could be near the
Low-Temperature Separation Without Hydrate Inhi- hydrate temperature on entering the coil and further cool-
bitor. The basic unit for low-temperature separation ing would create hydrates upstream of the choke, or there
without hydrate inhibitor includes essentially a choke, is an insufficient amount of the liquid bottoms causing
separator. and heat-exchange coils. Assuming that the inlet hydrates to build up inside the separator. In either case
wellstream contains a minimum amount of free water and the system will malfunction. To use low-temperature sepa-
is of sufficient temperature to prevent formation of hy- ration successfully, the pressure of the gas upstream of
drates upstream of the choke, the operation is as follows. the choke must be approximately twice the pressure in
The wellstream enters the unit shown in Fig. 14.6 through the low-temperature separator. Certainly, the higher the
the heat-exchange coil. where it is cooled through heat pressure upstream of the choke the lower the tempera-
exchange with the liquid external to the coil. The well- ture that can be achieved in the low-temperature separator.
stream then passes through an adjustable choke used to The common solution to this problem is to install an
control the flow rate through the system and establish a indirect heater upstream of the low-temperature separa-
means for introducing the necessary pressure drop. The tor. The indirect heater temperature would be maintained
turbulence and temperature drop created by the expansion at a level to ensure wellstream gas temperatures above
across the choke cause the formation of hydrates and the the hydrate temperature. Heat transfer is accomplished
14-4 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

loo00

0ooo

6ooO

4OOOH CORRECTION FGA SALINITY I--

‘>OLlD’Y IN mrdf %

200
s Warning: Dashed lines are =k#‘: 2
e rncta-stable equilibrium. f
E Actual equilibrium is lower
5 water content. Angle is a
0

Water contents of nstursl gasss with ~orre~,,on~

for ~almoty and relal~v. denwty

’W i i i i i.. . . . . . . . . .
-KO 40 20 0 .‘o 40 W R” 100 I20 14Cl win I00 700 240 2.90
Temperature, F

Fig. 14.5-Water dewpoint of natural gas.

LEASE-OPERATED HYDROCARBON RECOVERY SYSTEMS 14-5

by flowing the wellstream through the coils in the indirect

heater. The gas temperature is controlled by a thermostat
located in the outlet end of the coil. A second thermostat
can be located in the liquid section of the low-temperature
separator to override the heater controls in the event the
liquid temperature is too low.
For the simple system outlined here, the prime concern
was to keep the temperature high enough upstream of the
choke to ensure continuous operation. One of the neces-
sary elements for hydrate formation, as pointed out previ-
ously, is the presence of free liquid water. In cases where
free water and liquid hydrocarbons are present in the well-
stream, and where these liquids are formed because of
the chilling effect in the coil, a high-pressure separator
can be placed between the coil and the choke. The liq-
uids separated in this vessel are dumped at a relatively
warm temperature into the bottom of the low-temperature
separator and combined with the liquids in the separator. Fig. 14.6-Typical low-temperature separator
This reduces the amount of free water and liquid hydrocar-
bons passing through the choke and allows more net cool-
ing to occur. Since the sensible heat transfer to these
liquids can be used for cooling the gas and condensing
additional hydrocarbon vapor, it also reduces the amount temperature. From the analysis given, the lower this inlet
of hydrates formed by minimizing the amount of free temperature, the lower will be the temperature in the sepa-
water passing through the choke. rator and the greater will be the amount of condensate
A further refinement to this system is possible for in- removed.
creasing the condensate removed from the wellstream. The complete system is shown in Fig. 14.7. The well-
This includes the addition of a heat exchanger located be- stream flows through the coil in the low-temperature sepa-
tween the inlet high-pressure liquid separator and the rator where it is slightly chilled, then to the inlet
choke. The high-pressure wellstream flows through the high-pressure liquid separator where free liquids are sepa-
tube side of this heat exchanger, and cold sales gas off rated from the gas. The gas then flows through the gas-
the top of the low-temperature separator flows through to-gas heat exchanger, through the choke, and into the
the shell side. The amount of sales gas flowing on the shell low-temperature separator. The cold gas flows from the
side is controlled by a three-way bypass valve actuated separator, through the gas-to-gas heat exchanger, and into
by a temperature controller upstream of the choke. In this the sales-gas line. The liquids from the bottom of the low-
manner the upstream temperature at the choke can be temperature separator are dumped to some form of stabili-
maintained at a minimum value but still above hydrate zation before going into storage.

TEMPERATURE
CONTROL%LVE +.....

Fig. 14.7-Typical LTS system with inlet separator and inter-

mediate heat exchanger.
14-6
GAS TO GAS
HEAT EXCHANGER
PUMP
Fig. 14.8--Schematic flow diagram
In summary, the following considerations are necessary
for operation of low-temperature separation systems
without hydrate inhibitors. The controlled temperature of
the high-pressure stream must be kept slightly above the
hydrate temperature to prevent freezing upstream of the
choke. The hydrate temperature can be determined by
reference to the hydrate curve for natural gas (Fig. 14.4).
The temperature of the low-temperature separator can be
estimated from pressure-temperature drop curves for
natural gas in Fig. 14.3. Allowances must be made for
the liquid content, which will slightly reduce the temper-
ature drop if the liquid hydrocarbons are not separated
in a high-pressure separator upstream of the choke.
On wellstreams with low flowing temperatures a heat-
er may have to be installed upstream of the low-
temperature unit. In such cases the temperature is con-
trolled with the heater and the gas-to-gas heat exchanger
may not be required. If a well makes little free water
and/or no waxy distillates or free condensate, the inlet
high-pressure liquid separator can be eliminated.
This type of system is economically feasible from a
liquid-recovery standpoint for gas streams with liquid con-
tent of a few barrels up to about 100 bbl/MMscf gas. The
optimal recovery pressure will vary with different well-
streams but may be as low as 350 psig.
A rough rule of thumb is that 0.05 bbl additional liquid
can be recovered per MMscf of gas for each degree lower-
ing of the temperature. Below 20°F the increase in recov-
ery becomes lower, and in some cases only slight
additional recovery of net stock-tank liquid can be real-
ized by lower temperatures.
Low-Temperature Separation With Hydrate Inhibitor.
The formation of hydrates can be prevented by changing
the character of the water in such a way that it will not
hydrate with the natural gas. This is accomplished through
the use of a substance known as a “hydrate inhibitor.”
The most commonly used hydrate inhibitors are glycols
and alcohols. Either will function satisfactorily. The sys-
tem with a hydrate inhibitor is similar to the one in Fig.
14.7 except that the inhibitor is injected between the in-
let high-pressure separator and the regenerative heat ex-
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
GAS-GLYCOL CONDENSATE
TO STORAGE
of a glycol injection LTS system
changer. The inhibitor mixes with free water formed on
cooling and prevents hydrate formation. The advantages
and disadvantages of alcohols and glycols as inhibitors
are discussed by Campbell,’ as is the required amount
of either material necessary for preventing hydrate for-
mation. Further discussion here centers on the use of
glycol as a hydrate inhibitor. A typical system using glycol
is shown in Fig. 14.8.
The presence of the inlet high-pressure liquid separa-
tor is very important in this system. The produced water
must be removed in this inlet separator to prevent con-
tamination of the glycol and to keep the regeneration
equipment from having to handle this extra vaporization
load. The contamination occurs as (1) excessive dilution
of the glycol, which reduces its inhibiting qualities; (2)
as salt water, which is detrimental to the regeneration sys-
tem; and (3) as solids, which can cause foaming and other
problems in the separation and regeneration systems. If
the wellstream contains waxy heavy ends these must be
removed and kept out of the low-temperature separator
where they could build up and cause the system to mal-
function.
Glycol, which has been processed through the regener-
ation system to remove the water picked up in the sys-
tem, is pumped from a storage tank to an injection point
downstream of the inlet separator. The glycol rate is con-
trolled by setting the speed of the pump. The rate is es-
tablished by calculating the amount of water to be inhibited
while going from the saturated condition downstream of
the inlet separator to a saturated condition in the low-
temperature separator. The glycol concentration, resulting
from dilution with this water to be picked up, must be
maintained sufficiently above the freezing point of the so;
lution to prevent freeze-up in the low-temperature sepa-
rator or the regenerative heat exchanger. There are
published curves3 that can be used to calculate the nec-
essary quantity of glycol.
The inhibited wellstream passes through the regenera-
tive heat exchanger, to the choke, and into the low-
temperature separator. The cold sales gas off the separa-
tor passes through the shell side of the heat exchanger.
A three-way valve is used to control the amount of heat
LEASE-OPERATED HYDROCARBON RECOVERY SYSTEMS
Fig. 14.9-Schematic
system
transferred from the wellstream to the sales gas to main-
tain a specified temperature in the low-temperature sepa-
rator. This valve is actuated by a temperature controller
located in the low-temperature separator. Since the in-
hibited wellstream can be cooled below hydrate temper-
ature ahead of the choke, lower temperatures are possible
in this system than with the uninhibited system. This al-
lows more liquefiable hydrocarbons to be condensed out
of the wellstream and separated along with the rich glycol.
The liquids from the low-temperature separator con-
tain condensate and rich glycol. The step of separating
these liquids is difficult because of the low temperature
and high viscosity. One method of handling this separa-
tion is to pass the liquids through a heater, as shown in
Fig. 14.8, to bring the temperature to a level where sepa-
ration can be achieved. However, this decreases the poten-
tial liquids recovery because of the warming up of the
liquid hydrocarbons. Since condensates from glycol in-
jection systems are commonly stabilized to give better
stock tank recovery, in some cases the glycol hydrocar-
bon mixture passes through the stabilizer before separa-
tion. A flowsheet for this process is shown in Fig. 14.9.
If the gas being processed contains aromatic hydrocar-
bons, these will dissolve preferentially in the glycol. They
may then cause degradation and decomposition problems
in the glycol regeneration system.
The glycol from the injection system is rich in water
and must be reconcentrated before it can be recirculated.
This is accomplished in the glycol reboiler as shown in
Figs. 14.8 and 14.9. The rich glycol is fed into a still
column where it contacts the steam rising from the re-
boiler. This serves to preheat the glycol, strip out any dis-
solved gases, and condense any glycol that may be
entrained in the steam vapors. With diethylene glycol the
reboiler is operated at around 240 to 250°F to provide
outlet glycol concentrations of about 80 to 8.5 wt% The
glycol-condensate separator is usually designed to act as
a surge to take up the slack in the event that glycol might
be temporarily accumulated elsewhere in the system.
Glycols are expensive. so the system must be designed
and operated to keep losses at a minimum. Losses occur
because of the slight solubility of glycols in condensate
14-7
flow diagram of a glycol injection LTS
with low-temperature stabilization.
and the vaporization of glycols in the regeneration sys-
tem. Proper equipment design and sizing for separation
in the low-temperature separator and the glycol-
condensate separator can keep mechanical losses to a mini-
mum. In considering the type of glycol best suited for an
injection system, both the solubility and the vaporization
characteristics must be considered. Ethylene glycol has
the least solubility in condensates but the highest vapori-
zation losses. The vaporization can be reduced through
a more elaborate regeneration system but at a higher ini-
tial equipment cost. Triethylene glycol has the least
vaporization loss but is the most soluble. Diethylene glycol
is usually considered a good compromise. In a typical con-
densate, 70 to 80 wt% diethylene glycol solution is about
0.4 wt% soluble. More concentrated solutions are more
soluble but these are seldom encountered in glycol injec-
tion systems. Aromatic hydrocarbons tend to increase the
solubility of the glycol in the condensate and higher loss-
es can be expected when they are present. In installations
where extreme care is exercised to eliminate glycol loss-
es of a mechanical nature, such as leakage past the pump
packing and unnecessary spillage, glycol losses have been
found to be approximately 0.2 gal/MMscf of gas
processed.
Hydrocarbons separated in the inlet high-pressure liquid
separator can be recombined in the low-temperature sepa-
rator provided they are not of a waxy base. The solution
gas flashed in discharging from the high-pressure sepa-
rator can be recombined with the sales gas and the liq-
uids recombined with the condensate prior to stabilization.
Waxy-based hydrocarbon liquids are best discharged
directly to the stabilizer, where the temperatures are
higher and they are more easily handled.
The low-temperature separation system with hydrate in-
hibitor eliminates the formation of hydrates and allows
the gas to be cooled below the hydrate temperature be-
fore expansion. This results in an increase in the amount
of condensate removed from the wellstream. The operat-
ing costs are higher than for the system using expansion
without inhibitor, but the increased recovery will normally
more than offset this. Glycol injection can be used more
effectively on wellstreams where the pressure drop is low-
14-8 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

leaves the expander and flows to the separator that nor-

mally is on top of the stabilizer column. Sales gas flows
back through the exchanger and may be compressed in
the direct-connected centrifugal compressor before being
put into the sales gas line. Since extremely low tempera-
tures are reached in a typical turbo-expander plant, de-
hydration normally is a first step though some plants do
use alcohol injection. The gas frequently is expanded be-
low sales gas pressure and then recompressed to make
use of the work that must be extracted from the shaft of
the turbine. The stabilizer is either a demethanizer or de-
ethanizer with the mixed hydrocarbon product being sold.
A fairly recent development in gas processing, the
turbo-expander process is one of great simplicity and ease
of operation. The favorable operating characteristics al-
low the plant to run unattended through long periods and
Fig. 14.10-Process flow for expansion process. its simplicity and relatively low investment cost make it
an attractive option.

Mechanical Refrigeration Systems

er than can the straight expansion system. Approximate-
ly 1,000 psi of pressure drop should be available for
operation of an LTS system while a glycol injection sys-
tem can function well with pressure drops as low as 500
psi.
Turbine Expansion Systems
The turbine expansion low-temperature liquid recovery
system differs from the choke or valve expansion in that
the turbine turns a shaft from which work is extracted.
A typical turbo-expander process is shown in Fig. 14.10.
The gas enters through an inlet separator with any liquid
separated at this point being introduced to a low point in
the stabilizer tower. The gas then goes through heat ex-
change with the cold gas leaving the stabilizer. Another
separator is installed if sufficient liquid is formed in the
gas-to-gas exchanger with the liquid being introduced at
an intermediate point in the stabilizer. The cold gas then
flows to the expander where the pressure is reduced and
low temperature achieved. The gas and liquid mixture
Because mechanical refrigeration systems frequently chill
to as low as O”F, they involve essentially the same prob-
lems encountered in the low-temperature systems where
the temperature is obtained by pressure expansion. The
systems really are quite similar. The only essential differ-
ence is that the choke in the low-temperature separator
systems is replaced by a chiller in the mechanical refriger-
ation systems.
Although glycol-injection systems are used extensively,
there are many installations where inlet dehydration is
used to lower the water dewpoint of the gas below the
operating temperature in the chiller. There is merit to this
system since the glycol does not come in contact with the
condensate and glycol losses are, therefore, much smaller.
Some of the other operating problems such as separation
of glycol and condensate also are eliminated. The dehydra-
tor, if it exists in the flowsheet, would ordinarily be placed
between the inlet liquid separator and the chiller. The de-
hydrator could either be a liquid or granular desiccant
We.

GAS TO GAS COLD LIQUID TO

EXCHANGER1 rGAS EXCHANGER

HYDRATE INHIBITOR
TO REGENERATION

ACCUMULATOR

R HYDROCARBONS
W-LEVEL CONTROLLER TO STORAGE
PC-PRESSURE CONTROLLER
TC-TEMPERATURE CONTROLLER

Fig. 14.1 l-Hydrocarbon-liquid recovery system with mechan.

lcal refrigeration and stabilization.
LEASE-OPERATED HYDROCARBON RECOVERY SYSTEMS 14-9

TABLE 14.1-COMPARISON OF COMMON REFRIGERANTS’

Evaporator Temperature (“F)

- 80 -70 - 60 -50 -40 - 30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Evaporator Pressure ~ ~
Ammonia 5 55 7 67 10 4 139 183 23.7 30.4 38.5 48.0 59 7 73 0 89 2 1075
Propylene 7 20 9.50 12 50 16 1 20 7 26 0 32 1 39.0 48.0 58.0 70.0 82.5 96.0 113.0 131 0
Propane 5 55 7 45 978 126 16 2 20 5 25 5 31 3 38 1 46.4 56.0 67 3 80 0 94 1 110.0
Freon 12 2.80 3.97 5 36 7.12 93 120 153 19.2 23.8 29.3 35.7 43.1 51 7 61.4 72.4

Condensed ltquld temperature 95OF Condenser pressure In psla ammonba 197; propylene 212; propane 177; Freon 12 123.

Pounds of Refrigerant per Minute per Ton of Refrlgeratlon

Ammonia 0 454 0 450 0 446 0.442 0 436 0.435 0.432 0.429 0.426 0 424 0 422 0.420 0.418
Propylene 2.07 2.01 1.96 1.92 1 87 1.83 1 79 1.76 1.72 1.69 1.66 1 63 1.60 1.57 1.54
Propane 2.18 2.11 2 04 1.98 1 93 1.88 1 83 1.78 1.74 1.71 1.67 1 63 1 59 1.56 1 53
Freon 12 5.18 5.03 4 89 4.77 4 65 4.53 4 42 4.32 4.22 4.13 4.05 3 95 3 a8 3.81 3 74

CFM of Refrigerant per Minute per Ton of Refrlgeratlon

Ammoma 20.4 14.9 11.1 8.40 6 45 5.00 3.96 3.13 2.52 2.04 1 69 1.38 1.14
Propylene 27.1 20.2 15 7 12.0 9 18 7.30 5 85 4.74 3.64 3.11 2 53 2 12 1 80 1.51 1.28
Propane 37.4 27.4 20.0 15.5 12.0 9.37 7 29 5.79 4 77 3.87 3 12 2.59 2 13 1.77 1.50
Freon 12 59.9 43.2 31.7 23.7 18.0 13.9 108 8.52 6.79 5.47 4.44 3.63 3.00 2.50 2.09

Brake Horsepower per Ton of Refrigeration

Ammonia 4 31 3.74 3.23 2.80 2 41 2.08 1.78 1.50 1.26 1.03 0.835 0.648 0 483
Propylene 5.00 4.47 3.96 3.51 3.10 2.69 2 35 2.06 1.74 1.46 1.20 1.00 0.830 0 647 0.485
Propane 4.98 4.39 3.87 3.43 3.03 2 67 2 32 2 03 1.75 1.49 1.24 1.01 0 800 0.622 0.458
Freon 12 5.70 4.98 4.33 3.79 3.31 2 86 2 47 2.14 1.83 1.55 1.30 1.06 0 848 0.668 0.490

Condensed liquid temperature 125OF Condenser pressure In psla ammoma 303: propylene 314: propane 260. Freon 12 184

Pounds of Refrlgeranl per Minute per Ton of Refrigeration

Ammonia 0.492 0487 0.483 0 478 0474 0 469 0.466 0.463 0.460 0.457 0.454 0.452 0.450
Propylene 2.67 2 58 2.50 2 42 2.35 2 28 2 22 2 16 2 11 2 06 2.01 1.97 1.93 1.89 1.86
Propane 2.86 2.74 2.63 2.53 2.44 2 36 2.29 2.22 2.16 2 10 2.04 1.99 1 94 1.89 1.84
Freon 12 6 42 6.19 5 98 5.80 5.61 5 45 5 28 5.14 5.00 4.87 4.75 4.64 4.53 4.43 4.33

CFM of Refrigerant per Minute per Ton of Refrlgeratlon

Ammonia 22.0 16.1 12.0 9.09 6.97 5.40 4.26 3.38 2.72 2.19 1.82 1.49 1.23
Propylene 35.2 26.0 20.0 15.4 11.5 9.40 7.32 5.85 4.72 3.81 3.08 2.60 2.18 1.84 1.56
Propane 50.0 35.6 25.0 19.7 15.4 11 a 9.16 7 20 5 94 4.79 3.79 3.14 2.63 2.19 1.80
Freon 12 74.0 53.0 30.8 28.8 21 7 166 12.9 10 1 8 05 6 45 5 21 4.25 3.50 2.90 2.42

Brake Horsepower per Ton of Refngeration

Ammonia 5.68 4.96 4.38 3.81 3.33 2 92 2 54 2 19 1.90 1.63 1 38 1.16 0.952
Propylene 7.49 6.72 5.96 5.32 4.71 4.14 3.66 3.23 2 79 2.41 2.03 1.78 1.55 1.31 1.10
Propane 7.47 6 60 5.85 5.18 4.60 4 06 3.59 3.18 2.81 2 43 2.07 1.77 1 50 1.25 1.03
Freon 12 8.09 7.11 6.25 5.46 4 78 4 18 3.67 3 20 2 78 2 41 2 07 1.77 1 49 1 24 1.02

I Gasesconsaderedsatwaledat compressor
~nietHeatof hqutdassumed condenser
pressureandmnpera,ure
shown
2 Horsepowers
are average“BI”BSbasedonce”lrlf”gal
COmpreSSOreffiCle”CleS
wllho”leconomlrlng
3 Properltes 01 ammoma tram US Bureau 01 Standards propylene and propane kom Ell~ol Co Bull 11961) P 1 I and Freon 12 from “Thermodynamtc Properws 01 Freon 12
D”PO”l co (1955)
4 All cases shw”” can be handled by one compressor body except ammonia al O’F and colder ,95’F condenscng) and 2O’F and colder (125°F condensing,
5 One ton Of refrlgeralloo = (2 Cm au-tlr

In a refrigeration process, low temperature is achieved
by cooling the gas using a refrigerant at low pressure.
The heat in the incoming stream vaporizes the refriger-
ant at low pressure. The refrigerant must then have its
pressure increased so that it can be liquefied. The pres-
sure may be raised in two ways-compression or by ab-
sorbing the refrigerant in a liquid, which is then pumped
to high pressure with the refrigerant being stripped and
subsequently condensed. Compression refrigeration sys-
tems are more common, but either should work satisfac-
torily .
Compression Refrigeration Systems
A typical compression refrigeration system
Fig. 14.11. The inlet gas stream flowing through the
chiller causes the refrigerant to boil. The cold refriger-
ant vapors flow out of the chiller and to the compressor.
Only one chiller is shown in Fig. 14.11. However, fre-
quently in larger systems two or even three chillers may
be used with each operating at a different pressure. The
chiller pressures are fixed at interstage compression pres-
sures for the compressor.
After compression, the refrigerant vapors are liquefied
by cooling with either water or air. The liquid refriger-
ant is stored in the receiver until required in the chiller.
A number of different materials may be used as refriger-
ants. Tables 14.1 and 14.23compare properties of a num-
is shown in ber of commonly used refrigerants.
14-10 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

TABLE 14.2-PROPERTIES OF SIX REFRIGERANTS

Areotrope of
Drchlorodl-
fluoromethane
lr~chioromono DlchlorOdi Monocholorodl Txhiorotrl- Dichloroletram and
Refrigerant Number fluoromethane fluoromethane fluoramethane iluoroelhane lluoroethane Dlfluoroethane
(AR Des~onat~onl 1, 12 22 113 114 500

73 800 CCI,F,
CCI ,F CCI F CHCIF.. Ccl, F-CCIF C.,CI .F; 26 2%
CH,CHF,

Molecular weight 13738 12093 86 48 18739 170 93 99 29

Gas constant, R (ft-lbfllbm-“R) 11 25 12 70 17 87 8 25 9 04 1557
Bohng pomt at I atm.OF 74 7 -21 62 -41 4 1176 38 4 - 28 0

Freezmg punt a1 1 aIrx°F -168 252 - 256 -31 137 254

CrItIcal femperature.°F 368 0 233 6 204 8 417 4 294 3 221 1
CrltwX pressure. psja 635 0 597 0 7160 495 0 474 0 631 0

Specific heal of Ilquld. 86OF 0 220 0 235 0 335 0 218 0 238

Speclflc heat of vapor. C,,
6OoF at 1 atm 0 146 0 149 0 156 0 171
Spectfrc heat of vapor, C,.
60°F al 1 atm 0 130 0 127 0 145 0 151

Ratlo of C,/C, =K (86OF at 1 atm) 111 1 14 1 18 1 12 1 09 113

Ratlo of speclfrc heats.

llquld (105”F)lvapor C, (40°F). 2 04 1 55 2 14 I 47 1 59 1 77
saturation pressure

Liqud head (1 psi at 105°F). 11 1 61 1 64 2 04 1 51 1 65 2 10

Saturation pressure at. PSI

-50°F 0 52 7 12 11 74 1 35
O°F 2 55 23 85 36 79 0 64 5 96 27 96
40°F 7 03 51 67 83 72 2 66 15 22 60 94
105OF 25 7 141 25 227 65 1158 50 29 167 85

Net refrigeration effect

(40 lo 105OF: no subcoolmg).
Btu-lbm 67 56 49 13 66 44 54 54 43 46 59 62

Cycle etflcmcy (40 to 105OF)

% Carnot cycle 90 5 83 2 81 8 a7 5 84 9 82 0

Solubihty of water m refrigerant negllglble neglrgrble negllglble negllgtble negllglble

Miscibihty wth 011 miscible miscible hmlted miscible mlsclble mlscrble
TOXIC concentration, ~01% above 10% above 20% above 20% above 20%

The refrigeration load on the chiller for a given gas flow The selective adsorption system consists basically of two
rate is a function of the wellstream analysis, pressure, and or more adsorption towers filled with a solid material
the inlet temperature to the chiller. The two factors in- capable of adsorbing hydrocarbons. The towers are con-
volved in this cooling load are the sensible heat required trolled on a time cycle to be adsorbing, regenerating,
to reduce the wellstream from flowing temperature to and/or cooling. Alternatively, the bed is used to adsorb
chiller temperature and the latent heat required to con- the desired quantity of hydrocarbon from the gas stream.
dense the liquefiable hydrocarbons. Obviously, the richer When the bed becomes saturated with hydrocarbons, the
the wellstream the greater the refrigeration load required. gas stream is switched to another bed. The saturated bed
The chiller and refrigeration system must be designed to then is regenerated by passing hot gas through the bed.
meet the requirements of each individual installation. The hot gas vaporizes and drives off the adsorbed
These requirements are based on the wellstream analy- hydrocarbons. During the regeneration cycle, the bed and
sis, pressure, and temperature. some of the parts of the adsorber become heated and must
For economical operation the system must be designed be cooled before the bed can again be used on an adsorbing
to use as much of the cooling as possible. This is done cycle.
by taking advantage of heat exchange between cold and The approach used in hydrocarbon adsorption is the
hot streams wherever possible. same as is widely used in dry-desiccant dehydrators. The
basic difference is in the time allowed for the adsorption
Selective Adsorption Systems cycle. Dehydrators normally operate on a 6-hour or longer
On lean wellstreams where economic justification and cycle. Hydrocarbon recovery units operate on a much
payout of the equipment necessary for hydrocarbon shorter time cycle and for this reason are frequently called
removal by refrigeration are not possible, a selective ad- “short-” or “quick-cycle” units.
sorption system should be considered. This type of sys- When a multicomponent mixture like natural gas is ad-
tem frequently will be competitive in hydrocarbon sorbed, the lighter components saturate the bed first. They
recovery with mechanical refrigeration for lean gas then are displaced gradually by the heavier hydrocarbons
streams. and, eventually, the hydrocarbons would be displaced by
LEASE-OPERATED HYDROCARBON RECOVERY SYSTEMS 14-11

TABLE 14.2-PROPERTIES OF SIX REFRIGERANTS (continued)

Areofrope 01
Dlchlorodr-
fluoromethane
Trrchloromono- Dichlorodr- Monocholorodr- Trrchlorotri- Drchlorotelra- and
Refrrgerant Number fluoromethane fluoromethane fluoromethane fluoroethane fluoroelhane Dilluoroelhane
(AR1 Desrgnatron) 11 12 22 113 114 500
73800 CC! F
CCI ,F CCI;,F CHCIF, CCl,,FmCCIF, C-Cl F, 26 2Jf
Ct. ,CHF

Ethereal
odorless when same as R 11 same as R 11 same as R 11 same as R 11 same as R 11
mrxed wrth air

Warning Properhes none none none none none none

Explosrve range, vol% none none none none none none
Safety group. u L 6 5A 4 to 5 6 5A
Safety Group. ASA 89 1 1 1 1 1 1
Toxic decomposrtron products Yes yes Yes Yes yes yes

vlscoslty. cp
saturated lrqurd 95OF 0 3893 0 2463 0 2253 0 5845 0 3420 0 2150
105OF 0 3723 0 2395 0 2207 0 5472 0 3272 0 2100
vapor at 1 atm 30°F 0 0101 00118 0 012G 0 0097 0 0108
40°F 0 0103 00119 0 0122 0 0098 0 0109
50°F 0 0105 00121 0 0124 0 0100 00111

Thermal conductwrty. k
saturated ltquld 95°F 0 0596 0 0481 0 0573 0 0512 0 0435
105-F 0 0581 0 0469 0 0553 0 0500 0 0421
vapor at 1 atm 30°F 0 0045 0 0047 0 0060 0 0037 0 0056
40°F 0 0046 0 0049 0 0061 0 0039 0 0057
50°F 0 0046 0 0051 0 0063 0 0040 0 0059

Lrqurd circulated. Ibmlm~nlton

(40 to 105°F) 2 96 4 07 3 02 3 66 4 62 3 35

Theoretrcal drsplacement cu
ttlmmlton
(40 lo 105°F) 16 1 3 14 1 98 39 5 9 16 2 69

Theoretrcal hpiton
(40 to 105°F) 0 676 0 736 0 75 0 70 0 722 0 747

Performance coetfrcrent
4 ‘Il!(hp/ton)
(40 to 105OF) 6 95 6 39 6 29 6 74 6 52 6 31

Cost comoared wth R 11 1 00 1 57 2 77 2 15 2 97 2 00

water present in the gas. The secret to operating a regenerated. The heavier hydrocarbons and water vapor
hydrocarbon recovery unit is determining the point where that were adsorbed are driven off by the hot gases. The
the largest percentage of desired liquefiable hydrocarbons gas and vaporized fluids pass through an air-cooled heat
has been adsorbed. The cycle time normally has to be a exchanger where the temperature is lowered, condens-
compromise since it is done on a time basis. ing some of the liquid. Additional cooling is obtained in
Fig. 14.12 shows a typical installation for a selective the main gas-to-gas heat exchanger with further conden-
adsorption system. The wellstream flows into an inlet- sation. The regeneration gas and condensates are passed
liquid separator to remove any free liquids and thus cut through the regeneration-system separator where the con-
down on possible adsorbent contamination. The gas then densates are removed from the gas. The gas off the sepa-
flows through a pressure-reducing valve, used to control rator flows back into the main gas stream downstream
the flow of gas through the regeneration and cooling cy- of the pressure-reducing valve. The condensates are sepa-
cles, and into a manifold for switching to the tower on rated, the water is dumped, and the hydrocarbon liquid
stream by the time-cycle controller. As the gas passes typically flows to a stabilizer.
through the bed, the heavier hydrocarbons and water The system just described is commonly called an “open
vapor are adsorbed. Stripped dry gas leaves the tower and regeneration system.” This means that the regeneration
flows through the gas-to-gas heat exchanger into the sales- gas flows continuously out and into the main gas stream
gas line. on either side of the pressure-reducing valve. This requires
The tower being regenerated has been saturated through that a pressure drop be taken in the main gas stream. In
previous contact with the main gas stream. Gas for applications where presure drops cannot be tolerated, a
regeneration is taken off the main gas line upstream of closed regeneration system can be used. Such a system
the pressure-reducing valve, and the flow rate through can be seen in Fig. 14.13.
the regeneration system is controlled by the pressure drop A blower is used to recirculate the regeneration gas
across this valve. The regeneration gas flows through the through the regeneration heating and cooling cycles. The
heater where it is heated and then to the tower being blower picks up gas downstream from the regeneration-
14-12 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

INLET
GAS

I
GAS-GAS HEAT SALES
EXCHANGER
GAS OUT _

-MAIN GAS FLOW LINES -REACTIVATIMU GAS FLOW LINES

6% OPEN VALVE 84 CLOSE0 VALVE

Fig. 14.12-Typical two-tower open-cycle selective hydrocarbon-

adsorption system.

liquid separator and boosts the pressure sufficiently to
produce the required circulation rate of the regeneration
gas. Although the system shown in Fig. 14.13 is for a
three-tower system, the blower will work equally well on
the two-tower system shown in Fig. 14.12. The blower
discharge would connect into the meter run going to the
regeneration gas heater. The pressure-reducing valve and
extra piping shown in Fig. 14.13 are included to ensure
continuous operation while the blower is shut in for main-
tenance. Under these circumstances the unit operates as
an open-cycle system. To compensate for varying pres-
sures in the reactivation-gas system caused by tempera-
ture changes, equalizer lines are connected into the system
with check valves. In the event that gas is required in the
system, dry gas is taken from the sales-gas end of the sys-
tem. If the reverse is the case, then gas within the regener-
ation system is discharged ahead of the adsorber so that
wet gas can be processed before entering the sales-gas
line.
One advantage of the closed system is that the regener-
ation gas never becomes a factor in the drying cycle. Es-
sentially the same gas is used over and over again. This
results in slightly higher recoveries with an additional
operating expense that requires an economic study for
justification. The inclusion of the blower in the system
adds considerably to the maintenance expense and oper-
ating problems encountered over the open system. The
main advantage of the closed system is that the pressure
drop on the main gas stream can be held to a minimum.
The size of the adsorption beds is a function of the
amount of liquid to be removed. This quantity of liquid
may be obtained from a small volume of rich gas or a
large volume of lean gas. The diameter of the tower is
established from the allowable velocity of the gas through

-MAIN GAS FLOW LINES

- ~E$;IVATION GAS FLOW

$2 OPEN VALVE fz CLOSED VALVE

Fig. 14.13-Typical three-tower closed-cycle selective hydro-

carbon-adsorption system.
LEASE-OPERATED HYDROCARBON RECOVERY SYSTEMS 14-13

the bed. At low pressures this diameter can become quite

large if a given capacity must be satisfied. The depth of
the bed is determined by the amount of adsorbent required,
the allowable pressure drop, or the minimum bed depth.
The length of the time cycle affects the size of the bed
for a given amount of liquid removed. The amount of ad-
sorbent decreases with decreasing time, but the heating
and cooling requirements increase as the cycle is short-
ened. The heat required is a function only of the pounds
of liquids to be removed and the materials to be heated
such as the adsorbent and portions of the towers. The heat-
ing and cooling rates are thus inversely proportional to
the time of the cycle.
For a given wellstream, the design of the equipment
and the operation and control are most important in ef-
fecting liquid removal. The time cycle is important and
is good only for a range of variation in the wellstream
analysis. If the wellstream becomes richer, the cycle may
be too long and all liquids are not removed. If the well-
stream becomes leaner, the cycle is too short and the ad-
sorbent is not used to the maximum capacity.
The quality of process cooling can also affect the proc-
ess efficiency. If sufficient cooling is not accomplished,
condensation of the liquefiable hydrocarbons will not be
complete. In the open cycle this means that the regenera-
tion gas will carry these vapors back into the bed to be
0 20 80 100 120 140 I60 iso 200
adsorbed again. This could result in a considerable amount TEt&%AT”k?6E” DEGREES FAHRENHEIT
of recycling of hydrocarbon vapors.
The nonhydrocarbons present in the natural gas will
Fig. 14.14-Vapor pressure-temperature curves for motor and
have some effect on the process. This is especially true
natural gasolines.
of the water vapors that eventually replace the hydrocar-
bons adsorbed in the bed and allow them to be expelled.
The short-cycle unit is an excellent dehydrator as well as
a hydrocarbon-removal unit. Presence of Hz S has little storage and salvaging or recovering the maximum amount
effect on the process unless oxygen is present. In this of light vapors that flash from the separated liquids.
event, the oxygen causes free sulfur to form which will If a liquid is to be stored at atmospheric pressure without
tend to foul the desiccant. CO;!, nitrogen, and other gases vaporization losses, it must have a vapor pressure no
occasionally found in natural gas do not affect the process greater than the existing atmospheric pressure at the max-
significantly. imum temperature it will reach in the storage tank. The
When selecting a short-cycle unit, the following can be vapor pressure exerted by the liquid is called its “true
used as a guide. When the butanes and heavier hydrocar- vapor pressure.” Measuring the true vapor pressure of
bons to be adsorbed amount to 10 bbl/MMscf of gas or a liquid is difficult. For this reason a standard vapor pres-
less, then the application of this type of system is normally sure, called the “Reid vapor pressure” (RVP) is much
feasible. Between 10 and 1.5 bbl/MMscf the choice must more frequently determined for the liquid. The RVP is
be made between the quick-cycle and the refrigeration sys- determined by using a standard ASTM technique in a
tem. Only through an economic analysis of both these sys- 100°F controlled-temperature bath. By sampling the liquid
tems can the proper choice be made. On wellstreams in hydrocarbon product, the actual RVP of the liquid being
excess of 15 bbl/MMscf the refrigeration system is more produced can be determined.
feasible. The normal application for the quick-cycle unit Fig. 14.14 shows a correlation for approximating the
is downstream of low-temperature separation systems in true vapor pressure of a liquid for which the RVP has
which the reservoir pressure has decreased to the extent been determined. Because vapor pressure is composition-
that the refrigeration from expansion cannot effectively dependent, Fig. 14.14 should be considered an approxi-
remove the liquefiable hydrocarbons. mation only. If the maximum storage temperature were
expected to be 6O”F, Fig. 14.14 shows that approximately
Hydrocarbon Stabilization a 29-psi RVP product could be stored. If the maximum
The previous discussion covers the processes by which storage temperature were lOOoF, the maximum RVP for
a maximum removal of liquefiable hydrocarbons from the the product would be approximately 14 psi.
gaseous phase of the well stream is accomplished to satisfy When the hydrocarbon liquids are dumped from the
gas pipeline specifications and derive additional revenue high-pressure separator, the liquids are at their boiling
from the liquid hydrocarbons. Unless the liquid hydrocar- point for the pressures involved. Each reduction in pres-
bons are handled properly after separation from the main sure causes some vapors to be boiled off. If the liquids
gas stream, the maximum revenue will not be derived. were dumped directly to a storage tank, violent boiling
The maximum is obtained by retaining the maximum would take place, resulting in a loss of not only the light-
volume of separated hydrocarbon liquids in atmospheric er vapors but also some of the heavier ends. By taking
14-14 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

REFLUX rl
CONOENSER\ t IGC

I II STABILIZER

’ ii 1 i 1 CCiTROLLER r-1 I I

JJ Ll6l.k
f--1 SEFAF;(ATOR I I

i/,r--T I
-I II SALT’EATH! !
I
4 HEATER_$_$

PRODUCT TQ
STOCK TANK

STANDARD LOW- i STABILIZATION UNIT WITH STANDARD LOW-TEMPERATURE

TEMPERATURE , SEPARATION
SEPARATION UNIT

Fig. 14.15-Stabilization unit with standard LTS system.

the pressure reduction in stages these losses are reduced.
Increasing the number of stages of separation results in
greater stock-tank recovery. Regardless of the number of
stages used, some recoverable hydrocarbons that are nor-
mally liquid are lost with the solution vapors from each
stage of separation. Considerable volumes of low-pressure
gas are released from each stage and are costly to sal-
vage. Recovery of a maximum volume of hydrocarbon
liquid stable under stock-tank conditions with a minimum
volume of solution vapors removed at relatively high pres-
sure can be accomplished by fractionation of the first-stage
separator liquid. This process is commonly called “stabili-
zation process, ” and various systems are outlined.
Fig. 14.15 shows a flow diagram of a stabilizer used
with a heated-liquid-type low-temperature separation sys-
tern. In this system the condensate feed stream to the
stabilizer is preheated. Condensate comes from the low-
temperature separator at about 80 to 90°F and is preheated
in a heat exchanger with the bottom product to approxi-
mately the same temperature as the stabilizer at the point
of entry. A temperature controller regulates a bypass valve
in the feed line so that a constant temperature can be main-
tained in the feed to the stabilizer. The hydrocarbon mix-
ture is fractionated and the lighter components pass
overhead in the vapor state. The stable liquid is withdrawn
from the bottom of the stabilizer. A portion of the over-
head vapors is condensed either by cooling water or by
the cold gas stream from the low-temperature separator
in a heat exchanger. The liquid is separated and returned
to the stabilizer as reflux.
Gas from the reflux accumulator is vented for fuel and
instrument gas. If the excess is great enough, it may be
recompressed and added to the sales gas, but it may have
to be dehydrated after compression.
Heat is supplied to the stabilizer by circulating the liquid
that has passed through the fractionating section through
an indirectly fired salt-bath heater. This provides stripping
vapors for the liquid as it flows down the tower. The
remaining liquid is automatically discharged by a liquid-
level controller in the bottom of the stabilizer. This liquid
is partially cooled in the feed preheater and further cooled
with air coolers. Final cooling to atmospheric tempera-
ture is done with the cold gas from the low-temperature
separator. After cooling, the bottom product is stored in
a stock tank.
A number of variations of this system are possible, de-
pending upon the utilities available at the particular loca-
tion. Where these units are used in conjunction with
normal recovery methods, cooling water or an air cooler
may be used in place of the cold gas.
Fig. 14.16 shows a flow diagram of a stabilizer used
with a glycol-injection cold-liquid-type low-temperature
separation system. The system uses cold feed from a
glycol-injection system for the feed stream to the stabiliz-
er. Condensate at 0 to 25°F is fed into the stabilizer at
the top. This cold feed requires no other equipment for
refluxing the stabilizer
Condensate is fractionated by the same process used
in the system described by Fig. 14.15. The light compo-
nents pass overhead as vapor, and the stable product is
withdrawn from the bottom of the tower. The bottom
product is cooled in a heat exchanger either by the cold
gas from the low-temperature separator or by cooling
water. Overhead gas may be used for fuel and supply gas.
If the volume warrants, it may be recompressed for sales
gas. Heat is supplied with an indirectly fired salt-bath
heater.
To determine the pressure and temperature at which the
maximum recovery will be achieved, Fig. 14.17 is in-
cluded. The curves are drawn for 14.5.psia stock-tank
pressure. The example shown is for a low-pressure
stabilizer using a steam generator for a bottoms heater.
For temperatures and pressures above this range, the high-
pressure stabilizer and salt-bath heater combination are
used.
Where the feed to the stabilizer is at low temperature,
as in glycol-injection systems, good fractionation can be
obtained by feeding the cold liquid on the top tray, causing
LEASE-OPERATED HYDROCARBON RECOVERY SYSTEMS 14-15

LOW-TEMPERATURE
SEPARATOR PRESSURE

I I I STABILIZER

~Gd~~:z7L
Li”“lV LLlLL
CONTROLLEF;
_____--_----- ----- ?
pmm

REBOILFR I
’ I
GLYCOL INJECTION LOW-

STABILIZATION UNIT WITH GLYCOL INJECTION AND

LOW-TEMPERATURE SEPARATION SYSTEMS

Fig. 14.16-Stabilization unit with glycol-injection LTS system

the column to reflux itself. This eliminates the relatively pressure vapors from the same system using stage sepa-
expensive reflux system required on stabilizers where the ration. The vapors from the stabilizer are also lean in
feed is at higher temperatures. The elimination of reflux heavy hydrocarbon components and therefore more de-
condenser, reflux control, and reflux pump greatly sim- sirable in a gas-transmission line than the hydrocarbon-
plifies the operation of a stabilizer on an oilfield lease liquid-laden vapors from stage separation.
where operational supervision is limited. In most cases When the overhead vapors from a stabilizer are com-
sufficient refrigeration is available in the system to chill pressed into the sales-gas line and the stabilized liquid is
the liquid from the heated-liquid-type low-temperature stored in a vapor-tight tank, every pound of the produced
separation system. The simplified stabilizer can then be well fluid, with the exception of that used for fuel gas
used with the heated-liquid system as well as with the in lease heaters (if any) and the stabilizer reboiler, can
glycol-injection low-temperature system. be marketed.
By this method, the separator liquid is separated into
its heavier components, which will remain liquid at at-
mospheric pressure and temperatures. and its lighter com-
ponents, which will become a gas at atmospheric
conditions. A minimum of liquid components is lost with 600

the lighter components in this method of separation.

For selective adsorption units the liquefied hydrocar-
bons are recovered on a batch basis. This means that the
liquids build up fast over a short period of time and no
more are produced until the cycle switches. This means
that an accumulator must be used between the separator
and the stabilizer so that a more continuous flow of liquids
can be provided to effect eftictent stabilizer operation.
In stage separation all the increased volume of normally
liquid hydrocarbons is not reflected in the stock tanks be-
cause a larger amount of it is carried out as a vapor dur-
ing the separation of the lighter components. By the use
of stabilization, almost all the increased volume of nor-
mally liquid components in the low-temperature separa-
tor is retained in the stock tanks under stable conditions.
In addition to producing a larger stock-tank volume of
liquid from a given volume of low-temperature separa-
tor liquid, the stabilizer produces all the lighter normally
gaseous components overhead at one point in the system STABILIZER PRESSURE,PSIG

at relatively high pressure. Gas at this pressure can be

compressed back to gas-transmission line pressure at a Fig. 14.17-Stabilizer operating conditions. Initial settings for de-
much reduced compression cost as compared with the low- termining the point of maximum recovery.
14-16 PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK

fraction of that component in the vapor, 4’i, to the mole

fraction in the liquid, Xi, that would be in equilibrium
with that vapor at the temperature and pressure as given by

Vi/V
&L- l,lL ....... .... .. ... (4)
Xi

The value of Ki for a given component in a stream is a

function of the temperature, pressure, and composition
of the stream. In light hydrocarbon systems containing
essentially only the paraffin hydrocarbons, the composi-
tion dependency of the VLE constant is slight. For this
reason many calculations only approximate the composi-
tion dependency of Ki.
By definition the summation of the mole fractions in
any stream is equal to unity and shown by CX, = 1,
,
Eyi=I, and CZi=l.
I, The operating equations used for equilibrium flash cal-
-IT culations are derived by assuming that the separator oper-
I ates with the vapor and liquid leaving the separator in
l’;
equilibrium as shown in Fig. 14.18.
Combining Eqs. 3 and 4 and eliminating v, leads to
Fig. 14.18-Equilibwm flash separation.

fi
1j= Ki” . ... .. ..... ... ...
To evaluate the requirements of the lease from an
equipment standpoint, the operator must understand the ‘+L
principles of material balance and equilibrium as they ap-
If li had been eliminated we would get
ply to multicomponent light hydrocarbon mixtures. Be-
fore undertaking such an evaluation, the complete
properties of the wellstream must be known. This includes Kifi
v;- K,+L,“’ . .. . . . . .
a component-by-component analysis, the temperature,
pressure, and the quantities of gas and liquid that can be
marketed. These quantities are essential if a payout for
the equipment is to be estimated. If sufficient informa- In either case L=Cli, P’/=CVi.
tion is available, liquid recoveries can be calculated by E.qs. 5 and 6 apply at any point in the process step where
using the procedure outlined next. the liquid and vapor are in equilibrium. In normal lease
In making hydrocarbon liquid recovery calculations, processing, there will be many instances where the vapor
compositions and flow rate normally must be expressed and liquid are separated. Eqs. 5 and 6 can be used to
in terms of the number of molecular weight equivalent predict the amount and composition of vapor and liquid
of the material present (moles). The feed to the recovery present. Solution of either Eq. 5 or 6 is by trial and error
unit, F, is the sum of the liquid, L, and the vapor or gas, because both equations involve V and L, the total vapor
V, as given by and liquid rates leaving the separator. To use the equa-
tions, the recommended procedure is to solve for the
F=.L+v. . . . (I) stream that is expected to be present in smallest amount.
A value for that stream is assumed and the appropriate
Individual component compositions are expressed in equation used to solve for the moles of the individual com-
mole fractions. The mole fraction of any component in ponents in that stream. These are summed to give the tota-
a stream is the moles of that component divided by the stream flow rate. If the value calculated differs from the
total number of moles for all components in the stream. value assumed, the next assumption should be even further
The mole fraction of any component in a liquid stream in the direction of the difference.
is denoted x, ; in the vapor phase yi; and in the feed or Keep in mind that the terms involved in Eqs. 5 and 6
wellstream ii. A material balance for any component on are molar flows and not the normal units used to describe
the same basis as Eq. 1 can be written liquid and vapor flow rates.
If a digital computer program is available it can readily
z;F=xJ,+y; v . . (2) be used for solution of Eqs. 5 and/or 6. In most instances
the computer program will incorporate an appropriate
or equation of state (EOS) to evaluate equilibrium constants.
The user of such a program should be aware that the re-
f;=l,fV,. _._........................... (3) sults will differ for different EOS’s. Also, two programs
written by different people using the same EOS may give
By definition the vapor/liquid equilibrium (VLE) con- significantly different quantities of liquid and vapor for
stant, K;, for a given component is the ratio of the mole the same separator at the same temperature and pressure
LEASE-OPERATED HYDROCARBON RECOVERY SYSTEMS
conditions. In addition, the manner in which the unde-
fined components (C,, or C7 + fractions) are character-
ized also will have an impact on the calculated liquid
present. ’
To determine the volume of gas at any point in the proc-
ess, the number of moles of gas present may be multi-
plied by 379.5 to determine the number of standard cubic
feet. If the actual volume of the gas under the tempera-
ture and pressure are required the procedure followed in
determining the gas volume in Chap. 20 must be used.
To estimate the liquid production, the number of gallons
per mole for each component should be determined from
a standard reference such as the GPSA’s Engineering Dutu
Br,~k.~ These densities in gallons per mole should be
multiplied by the number of moles of each component and
the results summed to give the total volume of liquid
formed.
For the case of hydrocarbon recoveries from a stabilizer
or from short-cycle adsorption units, no attempt is made
to present the methods of calculations here. They are be-
yond the scope of this treatment but should be checked
carefully for reasonableness and apparent accuracy.
Gas-Treating Systems for Removal of
Water Vapor, Cot, and H2S
Natural gas can contain any number of nonhydrocarbon
impurities in the formation or at wellhead conditions.
Some of these are detrimental to efficient pipeline opera-
tion, whereas others have no effect on operation but do
affect the heat content or Btu rating of the natural gas.
In almost every case natural gas contains water vapor
to some extent. The characteristics of the rock in the for-
mation will determine largely the extent to which water
occurs. In some cases the gas is supersaturated, which
means that free water will be present. In other cases the
gas is saturated at reservoir conditions, which would mean
that at producing conditions it will be supersaturated. Fi-
nally, the water content can be much lower than satura-
tion but higher than specifications to be satisfied for
pipeline acceptance. The formation of free water with
pressure and/or temperature reduction can result in the
formation of hydrates if the temperature falls below the
hydrate-forming temperature. This phenomenon is dis-
cussed more fully in the preceding section. In addition
to the problems of hydrates, the formation of free water
because of condensation can add to the horsepower re-
quirements for pipelines because of increased pressure
drops caused when water collects in low spots in the line
and reduces the flow area of the gas. This condition is
also conducive to corrosion in the pipe. Water vapors must
be removed from the gas, and various methods used for
this removal are discussed in the following.
Sour gas is the name commonly given to natural gas
containing HIS. This HIS is found in concentrations
varying from a trace on up to 30 mol% . The presence
of H 1 S causes severe corrosion to occur when free water
is present in natural-gas pipelines. When burned it forms
sulfur dioxide, which is very toxic and can be a serious
problem on the marketing end of the pipeline. Various
methods for removal of H2S are discussed in the fol-
lowing.
A companion to H 1 S is CO2 It occurs quite frequently
in natural gas but is not nearly so serious a detriment as
H;?S. The main difficulty encountered is the corrosive
14-17
characteristics of CO> in the presence of water. Since it
is not combustible, it lowers the heat content of the natural
gas, and this becomes a factor especially where large
volumes of CO* are present. The same systems that are
used to remove the H;?S also can remove the CO*, The
presence of both these acid gases in the same wellstream
will require larger recirculation and regeneration equip-
ment than if only one were present.
Other impurities can be found in natural gas but their
occurrence is not so frequent. Mercaptans. compounds
similar to alcohols but with sulfur replacing the oxygen
(RSH instead of ROH), are found occasionally. Because
mercaptans contain sulfur, they will form sulfur dioxide
on combustion and this could present a problem. In addi-
tion, mercaptans may present a problem because they are
foul smelling. Interestingly, even if mercaptans have to
be removed from the gas to make it salable, a small
amount of mercaptan will normally be added to the gas
intentionally before it is sold. This is done so that natural
gas leaks can be detected by smell. Nitrogen is frequent-
ly found in natural gas. It has no detrimental effects other
than lowering the heat content of the gas. Oxygen is some-
times encountered but the quantities are usually so low
as to be negligible. Another impurity that is only rarely
encountered is helium. Because manufacture of helium
is all but impossible, and because of its importance in
many industrial applications, the U.S. government has
established helium-recovery facilities. Production of heli-
um is a specialized low-temperature process that will not
be discussed further.
Removal of Water Vapor
In the preceding sections the removal of liquefiable
hydrocarbons is discussed. The basic processes used for
this removal of hydrocarbons invariably result in the
removal of water vapors. Experience has shown that the
water-vapor dewpoint of the gas leaving the low-
temperature separator in these processes is from 10 to
12°F below LTS temperature for systems not using hy-
drate inhibitors and from 20 to 40°F below LTS temper-
ature for systems using hydrate inhibitors. Dewpoint
depressions for selective adsorption systems will be dis-
cussed further, and the use of liquid desiccants will be
covered for the field of gas dehydration in this section.
To understand water-vapor dewpoint and dewpoint
depression better, refer to Fig. 14.5. As was explained,
this curve shows the saturation conditions for water vapor
in natural gas. The water dewpoint temperature is the same
as the saturation temperature for a given pressure. As-
sume that gas is flowing into a dehydration unit at 1,000
psia and 100°F and that it must be dehydrated to 7 lbm
water/MMscf gas to meet contract specifications. At 1,000
psia and 100°F the gas contains 62 Ibm of water. The
inlet water-vapor dewpoint temperature is 100°F. From
the chart for 1,000 psia and 7 lbm water/MMscf the out-
let water-vapor dewpoint temperature is 33°F. The de-
hydrator must be capable of producing a 67°F dewpoint
depression and removing 55 lbm water/MMscf gas.
Dehydration With Organic Liquid Desiccants. Since
1949 the removal of water from natural gas with organic
liquid desiccants has become one of the most widely ac-
cepted methods of dehydration. Though a large number
of organic materials can be used as liquid desiccants, by
14-18
FUEL GAS
I
GLYCOL
Fig. 14.19-Glycol-absorption gas dehydrator.
far the most generally used are the ethylene glycols. Ethy-
lene glycol (EG), diethylene glycol (DEG), triethylene
glycol (TEG), and tetraethylene glycol (TRG) all can be
satisfactorily used for dehydration of natural gas. How-
ever, by far the most widely used and generally accepted
is TEG. Figure 14.19 shows a schematic flowsheet for
absorption dehydration of natural gas using an ethylene
glycol. The flowsheet will vary little from one glycol to
the next. Wet gas enters the absorber and flows up through
a series of plates coming into contact with the concen-
trated glycol solution. The glycol removes from 75 to 95 %
of the incoming water vapor in the gas, depending on the
efficiency of the overall system. This lowers the dewpoint
of the gas and the dehydrated gas leaves the absorber top
and flows to the sales gas line.
The dilute glycol solution leaves the bottom of the ab-
sorber and flows through a heat exchanger and is heated
prior to discharging into the still column. The heated
glycol flashes off solution gases and enters the still column
and comes into countercurrent contact with vapor rising
from the reboiler. These vapors are essentially steam but
do contain some hydrocarbon vapor and a small amount
of glycol. The cooler glycol feed tends to condense the
glycol vapors but does not affect appreciably the flow rate
of the steam or hydrocarbon vapors which are discharged
from the top of the still column. The dilute glycol then
dumps into the reboiler where it is heated to the tempera-
ture required for producing glycol of high enough con-
centration to allow the outlet gas to be sufficiently
dehydrated. The regenerated glycol overflows the weir
in the reboiler and flows into the storage tank. Glycol from
the storage tank is pumped to the top tray of the absorber
where it comes in contact again with the gas being de-
hydrated. The glycol flows through the absorber by gravi-
ty, removing water vapors from the gas. Since the gas
contains more water with each subsequent lower stage,
the water picked up on the lower trays is greater than that
on the upper trays. The dilute glycol is dumped from the
absorber by a liquid level controller (LLC). Some glycol
dehydrators use spent glycol and some high pressure gas
as the driving force for the diaphragm pump for circulat-
ing lean glycol. If this is done, the contactor will not have
an LLC.
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
Fig. 14.20-Equilibrium (minimum) water dewpoint obtainable
for a given lean TEG concentration and effective
contactor temperature.
Glycol dehydration units have been designed for capac-
ities ranging from a few Mcf/D to those designed for mil-
lions of scf/D. Where the dehydration required is within
the range of the TEG unit, it generally will be the most
economical method of natural gas dehydration.
TEG has gained its position of prominence in gas de-
hydration because of several advantages. The first is that
TEG will give a greater dewpoint depression with less
loss of glycol than with any of the others. For equal con-
centrations, DEG can theoretically produce greater dew-
point depressions than is possible with TEG. However,
the temperature to which the glycoliwater solution can
be heated without decomposing the glycol is only about
330°F for DEG, whereas TEG begins to decompose at
temperatures above about 400°F. This allows for great-
er concentrations of TEG in the glycol solution with con-
sequently higher dewpoint depressions.
The concentrations of the glycol solution are normally
given in weight percent, This is somewhat misleading as
the absorption of water takes place on a mole-composition
rather than a weight-composition basis; 98 wt % TEG con-
tains almost 15 mol% water. Thus the weight concentra-
tions can be somewhat misleading because of the great
difference in molecular weight for TEG and water.
Fig. 14.20 shows the equilibrium dewpoint for natural
gas streams in equilibrium with TEG solutions of a given
concentration. You will note that the higher the contactor
temperature, the higher the equilibrium dewpoint. The ef-
fective contactor temperature for a glycol absorber will
LEASE-OPERATED HYDROCARBON RECOVERY SYSTEMS
98.0
II I II II 111 I I I!I i Ir,,,.,,,,,,,,tiiiiiiii
96.5 97.0 97.5 98.0
Wt% TEG in rich glycol feed
Fig. 14.21-Effect of stripping gas and vacuum
be at the temperature of the wet gas coming to the ab-
sorber. Some heat is released when the water is absorbed
but the masses of water and glycol involved are so small
in comparison with the mass of the gas flowing that, in
general, the contactor will operate at the gas temperature.
The dashed line on Fig. 14.20 shows the approximate
concentration of TEG solution that can be obtained by a
reboiler operating at 400°F and atmospheric pressure.
This concentration is in the range of 98.5 to 98.7 wt%
glycol. If a higher concentration of glycol is required to
obtain the desired outlet dewpoint, some additional means
of regeneration must be employed. This can either be
stripping gas, whose effect on glycol concentration can
be estimated by the use of Fig. 14.2 1, or there are a num-
ber of patented closed regeneration recycle processes that
also give higher TEG concentrations. In addition, a
vacuum pump can be used to lower the pressure in the
reboiler and still column as indicated in Fig. 14.21.
One important variable in selecting the glycol to be used
for dehydration is the loss of solution that can be expect-
ed. These losses result from vaporization. mechanical en-
trainment, and vaporization with the still overhead. TEG
is more favorable from a loss or replacement standpoint
because the consumption resulting from vapor losses is
much less than for DEG or EC for the same operating
conditions. The vaporization losses are directly propor-
tional to the vapor pressure of the liquid and the vapor
pressure of TEG is considerably less than for the other
glycols. Glycol consumption can be kept to losses in the
range of 0.1 gal/MMscf gas under normal operating con-
ditions with contactor temperatures of 100°F or lower and
14-19
Wt% in TEG in dry qlycol
- _ outlet
98.5 49.0 99.5
98.5 99.0
on TEG regeneration.
pressures above about 200 psi. Glycol contactors should
always contain a well-designed mist pad to remove en-
trained giycol from the dehydrated gas.
There are practical limitations to using TEG for de-
hydration from both a dehydration-efficiency and an
operating-cost standpoint. The lower the temperature in
the contactor, the greater the viscosity of the glycol solu-
tion. As the viscosity of the solution increases, the effi-
ciency of the contactor decreases, which results in less
water-vapor removal per stage or plate. At temperatures
below 50”F, a pronounced reduction in efficiency has
been observed. At temperatures approaching the freezing
point of water, the TEG solution becomes so viscous that
the liquid is all but impossible to move through the sys-
tem. As the contact temperature increases, the vapor pres-
sure of the solution increases, which results in higher
vaporization losses of glycol and higher outlet water con-
tent of the gas. If the contactor temperature is increased
to 120°F the vapor pressure of a 99-wt% glycol TEG so-
lution will be almost twice what it is at 100°F with con-
sequently larger vapor losses of the circulating solution.
There is no reasonable pressure limitation on the use
of TEG for dehydration. However, the maximum dew-
point depression appears to increase with pressure up to
about 500 psi and then remains essentially constant for
higher pressures. Dehydration units have been designed
and operated satisfactorily at pressures as high as 2,000
psi.
The higher the ratio of glycol circulated to the water
vapor removed from the gas, the less will be the dilution
on the individual trays and the dewpoint depression will,
14-20
Fig. 14.22-Typical flow sheet for a dry-desiccant plant
theoretically, be increased. However, since the dilution
on the top tray is relatively small the overall effect of in-
creasing the circulation rate is not appreciable. The overall
effect could be obtained by increasing the number of plates
or trays in the contactor. From an economic standpoint
a circulation rate of 3 to 5 galilbm water absorbed ap-
pears best for most applications.
The number of trays in the contactor varies with the
dewpoint depression desired. For normal pipeline-quality
gas on a typical wellhead installation, four actual plates
should be sufficient in the contactor. When higher dew-
point depressions are required, higher TEG concentra-
tions are used and more trays are in the contactor. For
high dewpoint depression operations as many as 10 to 12
or more plates may be installed in the contactor.
Various contaminants that enter the absorber under
operating conditions can prove troublesome. A small
amount of liquid water entering the absorber will have
no serious effects on the system. If the water contains salt,
however, the salt will be deposited in the reboiler and
potentially can cause reduced efficiency of heat transfer
and even the formation of hotspots and tube failures. Large
quantities of water will overload the regeneration equip-
ment causing inefficient regeneration of the glycol and
perhaps other operational problems.
Liquid hydrocarbons are potentially a source of trouble
for the system. An inlet separator capable of separating
all liquid water and hydrocarbons before introducing the
gas to the absorber is a must. Presence of liquid hydrocar-
bons will tend to clog the filter and flood the still column
and reboiler. This may result in a serious fire hazard if
the overhead from the still column is not piped away from
the unit. Liquid hydrocarbons also can cause glycol foam-
ing in the absorber and seriously reduce the capacity of
the unit and increase glycol losses. Heavier hydrocarbon
liquids will accumulate in the glycol and not be separat-
ed. Hydrocarbons may also decompose and deposit out
on the firetube along with the decomposed glycol. This
will cause the glycol to become discolored and also to lose
its effectiveness for dehydration.
Ordinarily, there should not be serious corrosion in a
TEG dehydrator unless CO2 and/or HzS is present.
These acid gases do cause serious corrosion and other
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
operating problems in the dehydrator. Oxygen also causes
glycol degradation, For this reason, storage tank and surge
drums should be gas blanketed.
Dehydration by Adsorption. Water vapor also can be
removed from natural gas by use of a solid desiccant as
an adsorption medium. The adsorption process is a very
complex phenomenon involving transfer of the compo-
nent adsorbed from the gas phase to contact with the solid.
For this reason the most effective adsorbents have ex-
tremely large surface areas per unit of mass. This means
that their surface is honeycombed with capillaries that
serve to provide the necessary surface area.
A flowsheet of a typical dry desiccant dehydration unit
is shown in Fig. 14.22. There must be at least two desic-
cant beds for continuous operation because adsorption is
a batch process. The main gas stream flows through an
inlet separator where all free liquids are removed. Any
liquids can be harmful to the dehydration process. Free
water will reduce the capacity of the unit if not removed.
Hydrocarbons can poison the bed if not properly regen-
erated. The main gas stream then flows through a
pressure-reducing valve that controls the flow of the
regeneration gas by inducing a pressure drop in the main
gas stream. The gas then flows through one of the two
adsorption towers where it contacts the desiccant and the
water vapors are removed. The main gas stream flows
to the sales gas line through a gas-to-gas heat exchanger
where heat is removed from the regeneration gas.
The second adsorption tower is regenerated while the
other tower adsorbs water vapor from the main gas
stream. Regeneration gas (approximately 10 to 15% of
the total gas flow) is taken from the main gas stream up-
stream of the pressure reducing valve and passed through
a heater where the temperature is raised to approximately
450°F. The hot gas then passes through the desiccant bed.
The water adsorbed through the bed is vaporized and
swept out of the bed by the regeneration gas. The hot,
wet regeneration gas passes through the gas-to-gas ex-
changer where it is cooled by the main gas stream. The
water condensed from the gas is separated in the regener-
ation gas scrubber. The regeneration gas flows into the
main gas stream downstream of the pressure-reducing
valve. Because of the regeneration gas flow, the pressure
drop through a solid desiccant dehydration unit will be
higher than for a TEG unit and will be approximately 25
psi for the system.
An adsorption dehydration unit is controlled automat-
ically on a time-cycle basis. The most frequently used
cycle is 8 hours for the adsorption and regeneration. This
requires that the towers be sized to handle 8 hours of flow
from a water-vapor-capacity standpoint and that the heat-
ing and cooling requirements must be satisfied on the same
basis. The time-cycle controller switches the three-way
valves to place one tower on stream and the other on
regeneration. The three-way valve on the heater system
is controlled so that, when the heating cycle is complet-
ed, the valve switches to allow cool gas to flow through
the system to cool the desiccant and tower prior to plac-
ing it on adsorption.
Some of the significant factors that must be considered
in the design of these units are gas pressure and tempera-
ture, gas velocity, design outlet water content, adsorp-
tion capacity of the desiccant, and free liquids to be
removed from the main gas stream. For good operation,
LEASE-OPERATED HYDROCARBON RECOVERY SYSTEMS
low spots in the flowlines and equipment where water
might collect during the regeneration cycle must be avoid-
ed. Proper sequencing of the valve switching must be ac-
complished so that no unusual pressure or velocity surges
will occur and no wet gas will be allowed to pass from
the unit to the sales-gas line. Precautions should be taken
to ensure that no high temperatures occur in the main gas
stream.
There are a number of materials that can be used satis-
factorily for desiccants. Activated aluminas, silica gel
beads, and molecular sieves have all been used satisfac-
torily. Several grades or types of each desiccant are avail-
able and the final choice of the one to be used depends
on the outlet water dewpoint required and an economic
balance.
The capacities of the desiccants to adsorb water vary.
However, in all cases, the initial desiccant capacity will
indicate that the desiccant is capable of picking up far more
water than can be designed for on a long-term basis. The
capacities tend to drop off fairly rapidly initially and then
gradually taper off until the desiccant becomes ineffec-
tive and must be replaced. The capacity and life of the
desiccant are strongly dependent on the nature of the ap-
plication. Under ideal operating conditions, a life of sever-
al years can be expected. Under severe fouling conditions
the life of the desiccant may be reduced to one year or
less. The design capacity to be used for the individual
desiccant must be determined through an economic bal-
ance between the first cost of the unit and the additional
operating cost for occasional desiccant replacement.
The heating required in the regeneration cycle is the
sum of the heat of vaporization of the water adsorbed:
the sensible heat to raise the desiccant, water, and water
vapor to the regeneration temperature; and the heat re-
quired to heat the piping, vessels, etc. to regeneration tem-
perature. Fuel requirements are directly proportional to
the heat requirement. Cooling requirements are also
directly proportional to the heat requirements. Proper de-
sign of the unit to minimize heat requirements can have
a substantial effect on the size of heating and cooling
equipment required.
The desiccant beds must be protected from slugs of
liquid water and liquid hydrocarbons. Slugs of water will
serve at least to decrease the adsorptive capacity of the
unit and at worst can result in loss of the desiccant. Slugs
of liquid hydrocarbons can cause fouling and reduce ca-
pacity for adsorbing water. The higher-molecular-weight
hydrocarbons can plug the pores in the desiccant pellets
and seriously affect the adsorptive capacity for water.
Protection of the beds is sufficiently important that an
inlet separator must be included as an integral part of the
unit. In addition, a guard or protective bed of desiccant
placed ahead of the main adsorption vessel or as a top
layer of desiccant in the adsorber can serve to protect the
main desiccant bed from such items as compressor oil.
The heavy oil when adsorbed on the desiccant can seri-
ously affect the adsorptive capacity.
Corrosion usually is not considered a serious problem
in dry desiccant dehydration. However, where there are
large quantities of CO1 and/or HIS, corrosion may occur
in the regeneration gas heat exchanger. At this point free
water is condensing from the system and the water in com-
bination with CO> and/or H 2 S can create serious cor-
rosion problems.
14-21
Fig. 14.23-Amine gas desulfurizer.
Removal of Acid Gases
The presence of acid gases, H2 S and/or C02, in natural
gas is undesirable from many standpoints. Perhaps the
principal objection is the corrosion that results when free
water is present. For this reason the H 2s and CO1
normally are removed at the wellhead or relatively close
to it. There are a number of systems that can be used for
removal of acid gases.
Sweetening by Ethanolamines. Perhaps the most wide-
ly used type of acid-gas-removal system involves the use
of an ethanolamine. A simplified flow diagram of a typi-
cal ethanolamine-type desulfurization unit is shown in Fig.
14.23.
In this process a solution of water and ethanolamine that
may vary from about 15 to 60 wt% ethanolamine is used
for removing HzS and CO? from the incoming gas
stream. The process is based on the principle that the acid
gases, HzS and CO2, will react with the ethanolamine
at ordinary temperatures. The reaction can be reversed
by reducing the pressure and heating the solution. The
sour gas passes up through the contactor and the lean
ethanolamine solution passes downward. The foul solu-
tion is discharged from the bottom of the contactor and
flows through a heat exchanger before it discharges into
the top of the still or regenerator column. The ethanola-
mine solution is boiled by application of heat in the re-
boiler. This boiling action supplies vapors, primarily
steam, that pass up through the still column sweeping the
H2S and CO;? from the ethanolamine solution.
The regenerated ethanolamine leaves the reboiler and
passes through the amine-to-amine heat exchanger into
a storage tank from which it is recirculated to the contac-
tor with the amine pump. The H2 S and CO? leaving the
top of the still column have a large volume of steam with
them. To keep down the quantity of makeup water re-
quired and to minimize ethanolamine losses the overhead
product usually is cooled. The water condensed in this
cooling is returned to the regenerator as reflux.
A number of different types of ethanolamine can be used
in the process. Monoethanolamine (MEA), diethanola-
mine (DEA), diglycolamine (DGA), and methyldieth-
anolamine (MDEA) are among those that are the most
popular. There are a number of things that can affect the
choice of ethanolamine to be used in a given system. MEA
is a stronger base and has a lower molecular weight than
14-22
the others. This means that lower concentrations should
be possible and that the removal of H 2 S and CO1 should
be greater. DGA is also a primary amine with good
removal properties but has the same molecular weight as
DEA. DEA is a secondary ethanolamine and slightly less
basic and therefore will not make specification sweet gas
at as a low a pressure as MEA and/or DGA. MDEA is
said to offer selectivity when only H2S removal is
desired. Other sulfur compounds such as carbonyl sul-
fide (COS) also can affect the choice. COS reacts irrever-
sibly with MEA and this requires the installation of a
reclaimer to control MEA losses.
In many ethanolamine sweetening units, corrosion is
the greatest operating problem. Corrosion can occur in
the reboiler, storage tank, still column, heat exchangers,
and the contactor. Most of the corrosion problems can
be minimized by correct design. Limiting the heat flux
in the reboiler and condenser can serve to minimize cor-
rosion there. Maintaining pressure on the sour amine so-
lution until it is passed through the heat exchanger and
to the point of introduction to the still column can help
minimize corrosion in the heat exchanger and piping.
Limiting the amount of acid gas pickup per unit of cir-
culating solution will also help. Limiting the temperature
on the stream introduced to the top of the still column
will help. The lowest possible pressure should be main-
tained on the still column because this lowers the boiling
temperature of the ethanolamine solution.
Another severe problem that can occur in ethanolamine-
type desulfurizers is foaming. This foaming most frequent-
ly occurs in the contactor and can result in excessive amine
losses. Foaming has many causes but the presence of
liquid hydrocarbons in the contactor is a frequent one.
In addition, particulate matter can stabilize foam. A good
filter should be used to remove any iron sulfide or other
solid materials from the circulating solution. If oxygen
enters the system it will cause problems. It can cause the
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING HANDBOOK
formation of thiosulfates and also cause direct degrada-
tion of the amine solution.
Iron Sponge Sweetening. Hydrated iron oxide can also
be used for removing Hz S from natural gas. This process
is “selective” and removes only the HzS from the gas.
It is suitable for removing small quantities (a few grains
per 100 scf) of H 2s from natural gas streams. The flow
sheet is similar for that of a solid desiccant dehydration
unit except for the fact that there is no regeneration gas
stream. The iron oxide or sponge is generally suspended
on wood chips to disperse it and limit the heat release
caused by the reaction of H2.S with the iron oxide. The
iron oxide must be kept in a basic environment (pH > 8)
so that soda ash or caustic soda solution is normally in-
jected into the bed with the natural gas. The gas leaving
the bed has essentially all the H 2 S removed.
Since the iron sponge is consumed in the process and
must be replaced frequently, the vessels must be construct-
ed in such a way that the bed can be replaced easily. Iron
sulfide will self-ignite when exposed to air, so extreme
caution must be used when replacing the iron sponge bed.
In addition, disposal of the spent sponge can present a
problem because, when it burns, sulfur dioxide is formed.
In all desulfurization units, disposal of the HzS gas
presents a problem. Increasingly, government agencies
forbid exhausting the H2S to the atmosphere either as
H2S or, after incineration or flaring, as SO;?. For this
reason disposal of the removed HzS must be an integral
part of the planning for any desulfurization unit.
References
I. Maddox, R.N. and Erbar. J.H.. “Advanced Techniques and Ap-
plicatmns,“ Gas Conditioning und Procrs.h~. Campbell Petrole-
um Series. Norman, OK (1981) 3.
2. Campbell, I.M.: Gus Conditioning and Prows.sing. Campbell
Petroleum Series. Norman, OK (1982) 2.
3. GPSA D~gineen’ng Data Book, ninth edition, fifth rewsion. GasPrw-
essor~Suppliers Assoc., Tulsa (1981).