MIDTERM REVIEWER ECONOMICS - The discipline that concentrates on

SOC114 - DISS how a particular society solves its problem of scarcity

of resources. Came from Greek word, oikos meaning
SOCIAL SCIENCE – any discipline or branch of “house” and nomos meaning “custom” or “law”
science that deals with human behavior in its social
and cultural aspects. BRANCHES OF ECONOMICS
• Microeconomics
HUMANITIES - Collective term of branches of • Macroeconomics
knowledge that concern themselves with human
beings and their culture or with analytic and critical GEOGRAPHY - The study of the features of the earth
methods of inquiry derived from an appreciation of and the location of living things on the planet. The
human values and of the unique ability of the human term derived from the Greek word geographia , from
spirit to express itself. geo meaning “earth” and graphe meaning “to
describe
PHYSICAL SCIENCE – a branch of science that deals
with the physical world. BRANCHES OF GEOGRAPHY
• Physical Geography
The Scientific Method (Hypothetico-Deductive • Human Geography
model)
• Observation HISTORY - Branch of knowledge that attempts to
• Identification of Problem ascertain, record, and explain facts and events that
• Hypothesis happened in the past. Came from the Greek word
• Inquiry/Data Gathering/Experimentation historia meaning “inquiry”
• Analysis
• Conclusion BRANCHES OF HISTORY
• Social History
• Cultural History
• Political History
• Economic History
• Diplomatic History
• Military History
• History of Religion
• History of Women
• Environmental History

LINGUISTICS - Field of knowledge involving the

scientific study of language as a universal and
DISCIPLINES OF SOCIAL SCIENCES
recognizable aspect of human behavior and capacity.

ANTHROPOLOGY - The study of mankind

BRANCHES OF LIGUISTICS
Derived from words Anthropos meaning “human” &
• General Linguistics
logo meaning “word”. The field of study that is an
• Macro Linguistics
amalmagation of a branch of natural sciences
• Micro Linguistics
(biology) and social science
POLITICAL SCIENCE - The study of politics. The
BRANCHES OF ANTHROPOLOGY
science which concerns the institutionalization of
• Physical or Biological Anthropology
human politics. Came from Greek word polis meaning
• Social or Cultural Anthropology
“City-States”

1
BRANCHES OF POLITICAL SCIENCE SOCIAL RESEARCH: A PRELUDE
• Comparative Politics
• International Relations PHILOSOPHIES OF RESEARCH/SCIENCE
• Public Administration • EPISTEMOLOGY - It is a branch of
• Political Philosophy philosophy that addresses the question of the
• Political Economy ‘nature, sources and limits of knowledge’
• Public Law • ONTOLOGY - This is about what we study,
that is, the object of investigation. Disputes
SOCIOLOGY - The field of study dealing with the about the existence of a physical world go
systematic study of human interaction. Came from back to the ancients.
the Latin word socius meaning “companion” and • TELEOLOGY - The explanation of phenomena
logos meaning “study of” in terms of the terms of the purpose they
serve rather than of the cause by which arise.
BRANCHES OF SOCIOLOGY The reason or explanation for something in
• General Sociology function of its end, purpose, or goal.
• Special Sociology • PRAXEOLOGY - Understanding the “essence”
or the science of action
PSYCHOLOGY - It deals with the nature of human
behaviors, and both internal and external factors that THEORIES OF HUMAN KNOWLEDGE
affects behavior. From Latin word psychologia
combining psyche meaning “spirit” or “soul” and RATIONALISM - The view that regards reason as the
logia meaning “study of” chief source and test of knowledge. Developed by
Rene Descartes known for his “Cogito ergo sum” or
BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY “I think, therefore I am”, along with Gottfried
• Abnormal Psychology Leibniz, and Baruch Spinoza
• Behavioral Psychology
• Biopsychology A PRIORI - literally means “Before knowledge” or
• Cognitive Psychology; “from the earlier”. Knowledge that is held to be
• Comparative Psychology innate or true by definition.
• Cross-cultural Psychology
MAIN THESES
• Developmental Psychology
• The Intuition/Deduction Thesis, Deductive-
• Educational Psychology
Nomological or “Covering Law” Theory
• Experimental Psychology
• The Innate Knowledge Thesis
• Forensic Psychology • The Innate Concept Thesis
• Health Psychology
• Personality Psychology OTHER THESES:
• Social Psychology • The Indispensability of Reason Thesis
• The Superiority of Reason Thesis
DEMOGRAPHY - The science and statistical study of
human population. Came from Greek word demos EMPIRICISM – the theory that all knowledge is
meaning “people” and French graphie meaning derived from sense-experience. Stimulated by the
“image” or “graph” rise of experimental science, it developed in the 17th
and 18th centuries, expounded in particular by, John
Locke, George Berkeley, and David Hume.

A POSTERIORI - Literally means “from the later”.

Justification depends on experience or empirical

2
evidence, as with most aspects of science and • Positivist or Scientific Age - Started from the
personal knowledge. Industrial Revolution. Led by the Industrial
Administrators and Scientific Moral Guide.
MAIN THESIS The entire human race as the dominant social
• John Locke’s Tabula Rasa or “blank tablet” unit.
argument – learning by experience
• George Berkeley’s Subjective Idealism – THREE BELIEFS DURING THEOLOGICAL AGE
learning by perception ACCORDING TO COMTE
• David Hume’s Causality Argument - • Fetishism (Belief in spirits in the non-living
recognizes cause and effect as both a objects)
philosophical relation and a natural relation • Polytheism (Belief in several Gods as well as
the natural and Human forces)
PRAGMATISM - It contends that most philosophical • Monotheism (Belief in one supreme God)
topics—such as the nature of knowledge, language,
concepts, meaning, belief, and science—are all best TYPES OF RESEARCH
viewed in terms of their practical uses and successes. • Qualitative Research – understanding
events by discovering the meanings human
MATERIALISM - Materialism is a form of being attribute to their behavior and the
philosophical monism which holds that matter is the external world.
fundamental substance in nature, and that all things, • Quantitative Research – seeks explanations
including mental aspects and consciousness, are for social outcomes but does not expect to
results of material interactions. It was developed by derive these from universal rules. Rather,
Karl Marx. explanation comes from the interpretation of
people’s motives for their actions.
POSITIVISM - A philosophical theory stating that • Mixed – to understand meaning through
certain ("positive") knowledge is based on natural explanations of vice versa
phenomena and their properties and relations
developed by Auguste Comte. In the social sciences is TYPES OF DATA ANALYSIS
usually characterized by quantitative approaches and For Quantiative:
the proposition of quasi-absolute laws. • Descriptive Statistics
• Inferential Statistics
LOGICAL POSITIVISTS (or 'neopositivists') rejected For Qualitative:
metaphysical speculation and attempted to reduce • Thematic, Content Analysis
statements and propositions to pure logic. • Narrative Analysis
• Discourse Analysis
According to Auguste Comte, the physical sciences • Framework Analysis
had necessarily to arrive first, before humanity could • Grounded Theory
adequately channel its efforts into the most
challenging and complex "Queen science" of human TYPES OF RESEARCH METHODS
society itself. For Quantiative:
• Surveys
THREE AGES ACCORDING TO COMTE • Experiments
• Theological Age - From the dawn of man. • Census
Ruled by Priest or Military. Family as the For Qualitative:
basic or dominant Social Unit • Interviews
• Methaphysical or Abstract Age - Middle • Group Discussions
Ages to Renaissance. Under the sway of • Observation
churchmen and lawyers. State is the • Text or Documents
dominant social unit

3
TYPES OF EPISTEMOLOGY he pointed out the idea of science as a
For Quantiative: mechanism to make social order.
• Positivism • Auguste Comte - A French that established
For Qualitative: the idea of Positivism – using science as a way
• Interpretative (Hermeneutic to understand society. The student of de
Phenomenology) Saint-Simon that developed a comprehensive
scientific approach. He initially called it
TYPES OF ONTOLOGY “social physics” which then became
For Quantiative: “sociology”
• Objective
For Qualitative: THREE DOMINANT SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
• Subjective
CONFLICT THEORY (KARL MARX)
TYPES OF TELEOLOGY Main Assumptions:
For Quantiative: • Modern society has two great classes: the
• Prediction industry-owning bourgeoisie and the
For Qualitative: proletariat (workers).
• Giving meaning • These classes create inequality or unsettling
problem in a society which soon can cause
TYPES OF PRAXEOLOGY social conflict.
For Quantiative: • Class consciousness creates an antithesis to
• Strict present order until a new Thesis will be
• Rule of Scientific Method established and again be challenged. This will
• Rigid set a constant and endless changes.
For Qualitative:
• Creative The basis of this perspective is Materialism, with
emphasis on Material needs – hence Economics.
SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES Social structures and Political Institutions, or the
superstructures, just came after the emphasis on
FOUNDATION OF SOCIOLOGICAL THOUGHT material needs
• Ibn Khaldun - A Tunisian that ascertained the
idea of asabiyyah in his work Kitab al-‘Ibar TWO CLASSES ACCORDING TO MARX
(specifically, in Muqaddimah). Here he • The Bourgeoisie control the means of
decribed the asabiyyah, literally means production. They create solidarity because of
“social solidarity”, as the core of one society. self-interest and unceasing competition
A nation, according to his context, will never makes economic crises.
be brought down through physical defeat • The proletariat owns little and sell labor to
however through psychological defeat. bourgeoisie, yet they remain poor because of
• Adam Ferguson - A Scottish and a member of exploitation – Alienation. Group
the “Select Society” of Edinburgh along with consciousness is necessary for their own
Smith and Hume but criticized capitalism and collective good.
commercialism. He believed that self-interest
will led to the social collapse. He emphasized NOTE: It must be noted that in this paradigm, every
the need of “fellow feeling” member of society is assumed to be in conflict or
• Henri de Saint-Simon - A French that engaging because of materialistic or economic
attempted to achieve social order regardless interests.
of the social change by creating a set of
different stages. In an era of industrialization, It must also be noted that whenever Thesis and Anti-
thesis resolved the conflict through a Synthesis, the

4
Synthesis will now become the Thesis which another
Anti-Thesis will rise. There will always be conflict
regardless of Synthesis. Not unless, according to
Marx, the Proletariat ruled and removed Bourgeoisie
and their ideas.
FIVE HISTORICAL EPOCHS ACCORDING TO MARX
• Early Human History (Classless Society)
• The Ancient World (Social Elite over Slaves)
• Feudalism (Aristocratic Elite over Peasants)
• Capitalism (Bourgeoisie over Proletariat)
• The end of History (Classless Society-
Dictatorship of Proletariat)
STRUCTURAL-FUNCTIONALISM (EMIL
DRUKHEIM)
Main Assumptions:
• Society, understanding it in a collective level,
works on the basis of solidarity
• Humankind evolved from gathering in small,
homogenous communities to forming large
complex societies
• Modern society needs solidarity not based
from collective consciousness but through
interdependence
• Interdependence in modern societies produce
Division of Labor and the society works in
that construct
Notes:
• A philosopher, Herbert Spencer, was inspired
from Darwin’s theory and used the same in
understanding society. He stipulated that
society, like man, is an evolving organism
with functioning parts serving various
purpose
• Emile Durkheim described how society works
in this premise by writing the The Division of
Social Labour
• Durkheim rejects the Individual explanation
of Marx and instead studies society in larger
sense
SOCIAL FACTS - According to Durkheim, “the
realities external to the individual”. Things that exists
without being subject to any individual will upon it.
TWO SOCIETIES ACCORDING TO DURKHEIM
(Evolved)
• Pre-Modern Societies – working under
Mechanical Solidarity or the Collective
Consciusness of the people. In this society,
people have similar values and beliefs making
them create a collective norm which will be
executed through Retributive Law
• Modern Societies – working under Organic
Solidarity or Interdependence. Since the
people in this society have different values
and beliefs, their differences make them
depend on each other since they realized one
cannot do things on its own, or one have
skills/perspectives that he/she doesn’t
possess. Interdependence will be upheld
through Restitutive Law
NOTE: Pre-Modern society evolved to Modern society
because of Dynamic Density or social immigration
since population of a society is growing and people
tend to look for more opportunities.
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM (MAX WEBER)
Main Assumptions
• The modernity of society, specifically
Capitalism, was based on increase of people’s
ideas.
• Social Development can only be achieved
through further increase of rationalization –
Bureaucracy.
• Bureaucratic efficiency has stifled traditional
interactions, trapping us in an “iron cage of
rationality”
NOTE: According to Weber, since the Reformation,
people tend to work hard and be efficient because
they want to make themselves worthy or useful
(starting with an aim to be blessed by God). Weber
again rejected the Social explanation of Durkheim
and gone back to Individual explanation. But, as
opposed to Marx, Weber linked development of
society to development of ideas instead of conflicts.
TENANTS OF RATIONALITY ACCORDING TO
WEBER:
• Calculability
• Methodological Behavior
• Reflexive / Reflective
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THE SPIRIT OF CAPITALISM
Rejecting both assumptions of Durkheim and Marx,
Weber explained that Capitalists engage to business
not because they just want wealth but rather they
want to work hard or develop society/skills. That’s
why Capitalists would rather re-invest their profit
instead of just buying wealth. This thinking can be
attributed to Reformation particularly to Calvinism.
PROTESTANTISM AS FOUNDATION TO
CAPITALISM (PROTESTANT ETHIC)
• Protestantism makes you guilty (Personal
Responsibility)
• God likes hard work (Proof of Election)
• All work is holy
• It’s community, not family.
• There are no Miracles
Because of this, people started thinking about
working hard by calculating their risks by knowing
the cause and effect (Calculability), doing things in a
process (methodological behavior) and started to
review their outputs (Reflective). This rationality,
which was caused by Reformation brought to the
development of Capitalism. Since then, people tend to
aim for more efficiency which eventually lead to rise
of Bureaucracy.
BUREAUCRACY - The peak of rationalization, the
result of Industrialization and to Modern society. To
make this bureaucracy work, an indivudal could lead
to Disenchanment: with little scope for personal
initiative and creativity, a bureaucrat can feel thei lot
is one of monotonous and repetitive paperwork, in
short dehumanization. This may eventually lead to
Iron cage or Rationalization
SOCIAL ACTION – Considering that people have the
ideal, the people will tend to do such action in the
society
FOUR IDEALTYPES OF SOCIAL ACTION
ACCORDING TO WEBER:
• Goal-Oriented (the best idealtype for Weber
which people tries to reach, social action will
depend on the goal)
• Value-Rational (an irrational idealtype for
Weber, social action will depend on values
and on how they are being used to justify
actions or instrumental)
• Affective (an irrational idealtype for Weber,
social action will depend on the emotions of
the society)
• Traditional (an irrational idealtype for
Weber, social action will depend on the
traditon that the society is trying to preserve)
THREE IDEAL POLITICAL LEADERS ACCORDING
TO WEBER:
• Legal-rational (Bureacratic) – the ideal
leader for Weber, the goal-oriented leader
• Charismatic – the either value-rational, or
affective leader
• Traditional – the leader that upholds the
traditions, the one society already expected to
lead
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION ACCORDING TO WEBER
• Social Classes
• Political Parties
• Status Groups
George Herbert Mead explained the idea that the
development of the person was a social process. It
found that individual change because of their
interaction to human beings, objects and events and
they assign meaning to determine next course of
action.
Herbert Blumer further explained this with three
tenants: (1) action depends on meaning we put to
them, (2) people have different meaning to
things, and (3) meanings we gave may change.
SOCIOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES
• Sociology was introduced in the Philippines
during the latter part of the Spanish regime.
Fr. Valentin Marin introduced a course on
criminology at the University of Santo Tomas,
using a social philosophical approach.
• When Americans took over, they fused
anthropology and sociology using western
models to guide the colonial administrators
and settlers. This is attributed to two
significant conditions: the persistence of
traditionalism and the lack of a strong belief
6
 that science can be a strong force in studying
and rendering social realities
• In the 1950s, a scientific orientation started
to seep slowly into sociology with the
increased number of educational exchange
program grantees, the establishment of social
science research centers and councils, the
growing frequency of conferences, and the
publication of professional journals.
• In 1957, the Community Development
Research Council (CDRC) was created to
conduct or support social science researches.
• In 1960, the Institution of Philippine Culture
(IPC) was founded at the Ateneo de Manila
University by Fr. Frank Lynch, S.J. who was
its moving spirit. IPC spearheaded researches
on economic development, modernization,
and problems of education with the aim of
understanding the Filipino way of life using
the interdisciplinary approach.
• In 1968, The Philippine Social Science
Council (PSSC) was formed to improve the
quality and relevance of social sciences.
Hence the different social sciences, through
their respective organizations, set as their
goal the improvement of their performance
through communication and collaboration
ANTHROPOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES
COSMOLOGY - Ideas that present the universe as an
orderly system, including answers to those basic
questions about the place of humankind in the
universe. This became the basis of the question: who
are we?
PERSPECTIVES IN BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
CREATIONISM – believes that humans were creation
of God, according to Bible and/or the Judeo-Christian
perspective. This has become socientific after
Archbishop James Ussher, an Irish Catholic
archbishop, poised that the Genesis started 4,000
years ago. Carolus Linnaeus eventually started the
sicentific approach towards the Genesis.
TWO THEORIES OF CREATIONISM
• CATASTROPHISM – established by Georges
Cuvier (1769 – 1832). He suggested that
many species had dissappeared since the
time of Creation through catastrophes such as
floods, earthquakes, and other major
geological disasters of global proportions.
• UNIFORMITARIANISM – established by
Comte Gorges Louis Leclerc de Buffon
(1774). He proposed that earth was gradually
changing, in a natural process. He suggested
that 6 days stated in the bible was actually 6
epochs each consisting thousand of years.
THEORY OF EVOLUTION – understood human
existence through evolution, Natural Selection and
Principle of Inheritance
NATURAL SELECTION - It refers to a process of
gradual change within species over time. It holds that
existing species of plants and animals emerged over
millions of years. It was developed by Charles
Darwin and Alfred Wallace.
PRINCIPLE OF INHERITANCE – With the
understanding Darwin developed about variation, it
was eventually established that these variations
within population of plants and animals are
associated with patterns of inheritance.
Baptiste de Lamarck (1744-1829) proposed that
species change and adapt to their environment
through physical characteristics acquired in the
course of their lifetime. This is commonly known as
the inheritance of acquired characteristics
GENETICS - the idea of gene which is a discrete unit
of hereditary information that determines specific
physical characteristics of things. Gregor Mendel
(1822-1884) developed this concept which became a
subfield of biology that deals with the inheritance of
different characteristics.
PERSPECTIVES IN CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
CULTURE – is that complex whole which includes
knowledge, belief, arts, morals, law, customs, and any
other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a
member of society (E.B. Taylor, 1871). It is a shared
way of life that includes technology, values, beliefs,
and norms transmitted within a particular society
from generation to generation.
7
NOTE: Culture replaces or substituted for the closed
instincts for nonhuman animals. Culture frees
humans from relying on the slow process of
natural process of natural selection in order to
adapt to specific environments. The capacity of
humans for culture genetically programmed
through human brain and nervous system. Having
culture is inherent to human mind.
INSTINCTS are fixed, complex, genetically based,
unlearned, species-specific behaviors that promote
the survival of different species. It is usually part of
the Animal Kingdom.
TYPES OF LEARNING CULTURE
• Situational Learning or Trial-and-error
happens when an organism adjusts its behavior on
the basis of direct experience.
• Social Learning occurs when one organism
observes another organism respond to a stimulus
and then adds that response to its own collection
or behaviors.
• Symbolic Learning is based on the ability to
understand symbols, arbitrary meaningful units or
models we use to represent reality.
ASPECTS OF CULTURE
• Material Culture means the tangible
products of human society
• Nonmaterial Culture means the intangible
products of human society
COMPONENTS OF CULTURE
• Values are the standards by which members
of a society define what is good or bad,
desirable or undesirable, holy or unholy,
beautiful or ugly. They are the abstract
assumptions that are widely shared within a
society.
• Beliefs are cultural conventions concerning
true or false assumptions, specific
descriptions about the nature of the universe
and humanity’s place in it.
• Norms are shared rules and guidelines that
define how people “ought” to behave under
certain circumstances.
TYPES OF BELIEFS
• Worldview consists of various beliefs and
cosmologies about the reality.
• Ideology consists of cultural symbols and
beliefs that reflect and support the interests
of specific groups within society.
TYPES OF NORMS
• Folkways are norms guiding ordinary usages
and conventions of everyday life.
• Mores are much stronger norms than are
folkways. It is important for society for the
maintenance of a decent and orderly way of
life.
PERSPECTIVES OF CULTURAL ANTHROPOLOGY
EMPIRICISM – John Locke (1632-1704) maintained
his belief on Tabula Rasa or blank tablet. Experiences
leaves it mark.
NATIVISM – posed by Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
asserting that many aspects of our behavior and
perceptions are part of our natural endowment and
do not depend on learning.
INTERACTIONISM – Combination of both
empiricism and nativism which explain
humanbehavior and culture. What is at issue within
many of these interactionist hypotheses is the
relative contribution of the biologically based
(nature) and the learned (nurture) factors.
COUPLES HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEMS
ETHNOCENTRISM is the practice of judging another
society by the values and standards of your own
society.
CULTURAL RELATIVISM is the view that no cultural
traditions are inherently superior or inferior
8
ENCULTURATION or Socialization is the process of
social interaction through which people learn their
culture.
HERMENEUTIC PHENOMENOLOGY defined as the
art and science of understanding and interpreting
texts.
TEXTS are the bodies of ideas embedded in the
written or spoken form of language. They serve as the
focus of examination in unraveling the concealed
meanings in a phenomenon.
DEVELOPMENT OF HERMENEUTIC
PHENOMENOLOGY
• It started as Biblical exegesis in attempt to
answer a “sermon” using Bible. The key
moments that hermeneutics became
indispensible is when (1) Protestant
Reformation, and (2) coincidental invention
of the printing press multiplied its reach to
countless people having different languages.
• Edmund Husserl (1859-1938) is considered
the founding father of phenomenology.
Husserl’s idea lies within lived experiences.
He looks deeply into a subject’s experience of
the world through the objects it encounters. A
first person approach.
• Martin Heidegger (1889-1976), a student
and staunch follower of Husserl, built upon
studying phenomenology as a study with a
notion of being. Being refers to one’s presence
or existence of the world, as-in-the-world.
Father of Hermeneutic Phenomenology.
HERMENEUTIC CIRCLE
PERSPECTIVES IN GEOGRAPHY
APPROACHES IN STUDYING GEOGRAPHY
▪ Systematic – Groups geographical knowledge
into categories that can be explored globally.
▪ Regional – Examines systematic
relationships between categories for a
specific region or location on the planet.
▪ Descriptive – Simply specifies the locations
of features and populations.
▪ Analytical – Asks why we find features and
populations in a specific geographic area.
CARTOGRAPHY studies the representation of the
Earth's surface with abstract symbols (map making).
DEVELOPMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AS A DISCIPLINE
• Erastosthenes calculated the size of the Earth
during the Classical Era.
• Strabo wrote the Geographica, one of the first
books outlining the study of geography.
• Claudius Ptolemy compiled Greek and
Roman knowledge into the book Geographia.
• Gerardus Mercator produced the mercator
projection
• Alexander von Humboldt considered father
of biogeography, published Cosmos
• Carl Ritter considered father of modern
geography, occupied the first chair of
geography at Berlin University.
The FLAT EARTH model is an archaic conception
of Earth's shape as a plane or disk.
ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY has been defined by the
geographers as the study of human's economic
activities under varying sets of conditions which is
associated with production, location, distribution,
consumption, exchange of resources, and spatial
organization of economic activities across the world.
GEOPOLITICS is the study of the effects of geography
(human and physical) on the politics and
international relations
PERSPECTIVES IN GEOPOLITICS
• Alfred Thayer Mahan (1840–1914), a
frequent commentator on world naval
strategic and diplomatic affairs, believed that
9
 national greatness was inextricably
associated with the sea—and particularly
with its commercial use in peace and its
control in war.
• German geopolitics develops the concept
of Lebensraum (living space) that is
thought to be necessary to the development
of a nation like a favorable natural
environment would be for animals. It was
developed by Friedrich Ratzel (1844–1904)
• Sir Halford Mackinder developed the
Heartland concept showing the situation of
the "pivot area" established in the Theory of
the Heartland. He later revised it to mark
Northern Eurasia as a pivot while keeping
area marked above as Heartland.
• Henry Kissinger and Zbigniew Brzezinski,
argued to continue the United States
geopolitical focus on Eurasia and, particularly
on Russia, despite the dissolution of the USSR
and the end of the Cold War – THE
Containment strategy.
PERSPECTIVES IN HISTORY
HISTORIOGRAPHY is the study of the methods
of historians in developing history as an academic
discipline, and by extension is any body of historical
work on a particular subject. Otherwise known as the
History of History
PHILOSOPHY OF HISTORY is a branch of philosophy
concerning the eventual significance, if any, of human
history. Furthermore, it speculates as to a possible
teleological end to its development—that is, it asks if
there is a design, purpose, directive principle, or
finality in the processes of human history.
DEVELOPMENT OF HISTORY
• Herodotus first approached history with a
well-developed historical method in his work
the History of the Peloponnesian War. The
father of History
• Thucydides regarded history as being the
product of the choices and actions of human
beings, cause and effects, rather than as the
result of divine intervention.
• Sima Qian was considered the father of
Historiography with his book Records of the
Grand Historian
• Saint Augustine view history through a
sacred or religious perspective
• Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel brought
philosophy and a more secular approach in
historical study
• Ibn Khaldun approached the past as strange
and in need of interpretation. The father of
Philosophy of History
• Leopold von Ranke was able to implement
the seminar teaching method in his classroom
and focused on archival research and analysis
of historical documents.
HISTORY AS ART
Historians argued that the key to the historians' work
was the power of the imagination, and hence
contended that history should be understood as an
art
HISTORY AS SCIENCE
In the 20th century, academic historians focused less
on epic nationalistic narratives, which often tended
to glorify the nation or great men, to more objective
and complex analyses of social and intellectual forces.
The MARXIST THEORY OF HISTORICAL
MATERIALISM theorizes that society is
fundamentally determined by the material conditions
at any given time – in other words, the relationships
which people have with each other in order to fulfill
basic needs such as feeding, clothing and housing
themselves and their families
ERAS IN WORLD HISTORY
• EARLY MODERN (Early Civilizations,
Classical Era or Hellenistic Period, Medieval
Ages Golden Age of Islamic World, Ancient
Asia, Pre-Colonial Period, Age of Exploration)
• PRE-MODERN (Renaissance, Age of
Enlightenment, European Domination and
Colonization, French Revolution, Napoleonic
Wars, Pre-World War)
• CONTEMPORARY (Industrial Revolution,
World Wars, Cold War, Nationalism and Anti-
Colonialism, Decolonization, Identity
Movements)
10