Dept. of Civil & Urban Eng.

, IoT Hawassa University

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Definition

A bridge is a structure which carries uninterrupted flow of traffic across any obstacle like, river or any water
body, deep gorges or valleys etc. A fly-over is a structure which allows traffic over any other traffic flow or
conveyance system below it. A viaduct is also synonymous to a bridge. An aqueduct is a water channel over
any traffic flow or obstacle like water stream or deep gorge below it.

1.2 Components of a bridge

The main parts of a bridge structure are,

(a) Decking, consisting of deck slab, girders, trusses, handrails, parapets, guard stones etc.,
(b) Bearings for the decking,
(c) Abutments, wing walls and piers,
(d) Foundations for the abutments and the piers,
(e) River training works, like revetment for slopes for embankment at abutments and
(f) Approaches to the bridge to connect the bridge proper to the roads on either side.

The components above the level of bearings are grouped as superstructure, while the parts below the bearing
level and above the foundation are classed as substructure. The portion below the bed level of the river is
called the foundation.

Post Railing Guard Rail

Earth
fill Approach
Bearing Deck slab

Pier Shelf
Abutment
Water level

Bed level
of River Foundation

1.3 Classification

Bridges can be classified in many ways as below:

(a) According to function as aqueduct, viaduct, pedestrian, highway, railway, road cum railway bridge
(b) According to the material of construction of superstructure as timber, masonry, steel, reinforced
concrete, prestressed concrete, composite bridge

_________________________________________________________________________ 1
Fundamentals of Bridge Design – CEng 552 – Chapter 1 Prepared by: M. K. Chandrasekar
Dept. of Civil & Urban Eng., IoT Hawassa University
(c) According to the form or type of superstructure as slab, girder, truss, arch, cable stayed or suspension
bridge
(d) According to the inter-span relations as simple, continuous or cantilever bridge
(e) According to the position of the bridge floor relative to the superstructure as deck, through, half
through and suspended bridges
(f) According to the road level relative to the highest flood level of the river below, particularly for the
highway bridge, as high level or submersible bridge
(g) According to the method of clearance for navigation as high-level, movable-bascule, movable swing or
vertical lift type of bridge
(h) According to the length of the bridge as culvert (less than 6 m), minor bridge (6 m to 60 m), major
bridge (above 60 m), or long span bridge when the main span of the major bridge is above 120 m.
(i) According to the degree of redundancy as determinate or indeterminate bridge
(j) According to the anticipated type of service and duration of use as permanent, temporary, military
bridge
(k) According to the alignment of the super structure with the formation of the river or gorge as straight
bridge or skew bridge.

1.4 Selection of bridge site

It may not be possible always to have a wide choice of sites for a bridge. This is particularly so in case of bridge
in urban areas and flyovers. For river bridges in rural areas, usually a wider choice may be available.

For selection of a suitable site for a bridge, the investigating engineer should make a reconnaissance survey for
about one km on the upstream side and one km on the down stream side of the proposed bridge site and
should journey along the road for about one km on either side of the road from the bridge site in order to form
the best suited and economical alignment of the road with the suitable bridge site by considering the
topographical features and soil conditions. To the extent possible, it is desirable to align the bridge at right
angles to the river, i.e. to provide a square crossing, which facilitates minimum span length, deck area and pier
lengths, with accompanying economies. Further, a square crossing involves simpler designs and detailing.
Sometimes, a skew crossing which is inclined to the center line of the river at an angle different from a right
angle has to be provided in order to avoid costly land acquisition or sharp curves on the approaches. A skew
bridge usually poses more difficulties in design, construction and maintenance.

Following are the factors to be carefully considered while selecting the ideal site for a proposed bridge.
1. Connection with roads: The bridge site shall be such that, as far as possible, the roads leading to the
bridge on either side may have a shorter component along the obstruction. The bed of approaches
connecting ends of bridge with the roads should be dry and hard. The approaches at the ends of the
bridge site should be such that they do not involve heavy expenditure.
2. Firm embankments: Firm high and solid embankments at the abutment sides could guard the bridge
at the time of heavy floods and they do not allow the course of river to alter.
3. Foundations: The nature of the soil at the bridge site should be such that good, proper and
economical foundation can be provided for the bridge
4. Material and labor: Material and labor shall be available at a least possible expense at the site.
5. Square crossing: Square crossing is preferred as the advantage has been stated earlier.
6. Straight stretch of river: Straight stretch of river ensures smooth and uniform flow of water with out
any whirling. This does not cause much disturbance during construction and also does not cause much
problems of maintenance.
7. Velocity of flow of water: It is better if the bridge site is so selected that the velocity of water flow is to
the acceptable limit to avoid scouring and silting.

_________________________________________________________________________ 2
Fundamentals of Bridge Design – CEng 552 – Chapter 1 Prepared by: M. K. Chandrasekar
Dept. of Civil & Urban Eng., IoT Hawassa University
8. Width of the river: It is quite evident that the width of river indicates length of the bridge. It is
desirable to have minimum width of river at the bridge site. The smaller the width of river, the
cheaper will be the bridge construction cost.

1.5 Economic considerations to be made for bridge design

Structural types, span lengths, and materials shall be selected with due consideration of projected cost. The
cost of future expenditures during the projected service life of the bridge should be considered. Regional
factors, such as availability of material, fabrication, location, shipping, and erection constraints, shall be
considered.
If data for the trends in labor and material cost fluctuation are available, the effect of such trends should be
projected to the time the bridge will likely be constructed. Cost comparisons of structural

alternatives should be based on long-range considerations, including inspection, maintenance, repair, and/or
replacement. Lower first cost does not necessarily lead to lowest total cost.

1.6 General design requirements (from ERA design manual)

Free (clear) opening is the face-to-face distance between supported components.

It shall be measured perpendicular to the supports. If the supports are not parallel, the free opening is the
least distance between them, see Figure 1-1.
Total (overall) bridge length is the distance between the rear ends of the wingwalls or abutments.
It shall be measured parallel to the alignment between the rear ends of the wingwalls or abutments.
Span length should be:
 For simple spans: the distance center to center of supports but need not exceed clear span plus thickness
of slab.
 For members that are not built integrally with their supports: the clear span plus the depth of the
member but need not exceed the distance between centers of supports.
Span length should give the placing of the piers regardless of type or dimensions selected at a later stage.
It is normally measured at the alignment and given as stations.
Theoretical span length is the distance between the center of bearings. At the abutments or at special wide
piers it will be better to give the dimension from face to face of the pier or abutment front wall.

Span length Alignment of Road

Free opening

Overall length of bridge

_________________________________________________________________________ 3
Fundamentals of Bridge Design – CEng 552 – Chapter 1 Prepared by: M. K. Chandrasekar
Dept. of Civil & Urban Eng., IoT Hawassa University
MINIMUM DIMENSIONS
The minimum dimensions listed in table below (As specified in ERA manual) shall be used in bridge design and
construction.

Component Dimension
Footing depth  0.25 m
Stem and Head wall/ballast wall of abutment thickness  0.25 m
Bearing shelf of abutment or pier  0.40 m
Wingwall thickness  0.20 m
Pier columns in water, thickness  0.50 m
Pier walls thickness  0.30 m
Concrete deck depth, excluding any provision for grinding and sacrificial  175 mm
surface
Concrete deck for pedestrians bridge  150 mm
Width of Edge beam of bridge deck  350 mm
Depth of Edge beam of bridge deck  400 mm
Thickness at the crown of arch barrels of stone masonry  500 mm

WIDTH OF BRIDGE DECK

The width is to be measured between the inside of the railings  or the curbs.
Total width of bridge is defined as the distance between the inside of the outer railings including walkways,
island/refuge and similar. If the width will vary along the bridge all dimensions should be given.
A listing of bridge configurations and corresponding widths are given in the following table.

Application Width (m)

Two-lane in “urban” area 10.30
Two-lane in “rural” area 7.30
Single Lane 4.20
Pedestrian Overpass 3.0
Table of Bridge Widths

The dimensions of 7.30m for a two-lane bridge are based on trucks with widths of 2.6m meeting, providing
0.7m clearance between vehicles and at the sides, the greater clearance allowing a higher average speed.
At higher design speed, and/or in the vicinity of densely populated areas, a bridge allowing for the shoulder
width should be considered. Here the bridge width becomes 10.30 meters (7.30 meters plus 2 x 1.5 m
shoulders). This allows for opposing trucks and pedestrians to meet safely. This width is recommended for
bridges nearer than 5 km to a town/village of at least 10,000 inhabitants.
All dimensions are valid regardless of the length of the bridge, due to safety reasons.
For pedestrian overpasses, the minimum width is 3.0 m, which can accommodate three pedestrians, or a
bicycle and a pedestrian in width.

PEDESTRIAN LANE WIDTHS

Segregated pedestrian lane (footway) protected by a barrier (railing) with end treatment having protection for
both pedestrians and vehicles shall not be less than 1.5 m wide. To be safe, a pedestrian walkway should
permit two pedestrians to meet comfortably, which translates to 2 x 0.6 m width plus 0.3m clearance equals
1.5m. For safety considerations, the height of the railings along the footways shall be 1.5m by means of a top
rail made of steel pipes.

_________________________________________________________________________ 4
Fundamentals of Bridge Design – CEng 552 – Chapter 1 Prepared by: M. K. Chandrasekar
Dept. of Civil & Urban Eng., IoT Hawassa University
FREE BOARD HEIGHT
The waterway below the superstructure must be designed to pass the design flood and the floating debris
carried on it. This should apply even after several years of sedimentation under or downstream of the bridge.
Therefore, the freeboard above the design water level should not be less than the values given in the table
below. For arched structures, the clearance shall be measured at the quarter points of the span. The clear
height of roads shall normally be 5.1 meters for underpasses. Light superstructures (i.e. timber, steel trusses,
steel girders, etc) above roadways shall have a clearance height of at least 5.3 m.

Discharge Q (m3/s) Vertical clearance (m)

0 - 3.0 0.3
3.0 - 30.0 0.6
30 to 300 0.9
 300 1.2
Vertical Clearance at Design Flood Level (DFL)

Underpasses for pedestrians and bicycles should not be less than 2.4 m height. For cattle and wildlife
underpasses should be designed as the normal height of the actual kind of animal plus 0.5 m and for horse-
riding the clear height should not be less than 3.4 m. Bridges above railways shall have a clearance height of at
least 6.1 m - if not otherwise stated - to facilitate future electrification.

CROSSFALL
For adequate dewatering while minimizing the use of materials for the bridge deck, a crossfall of 2% (1 to 50),
as well as longitudinal slope/grade of 1% (1 to 100), should be provided. Sometimes this is not achievable at
transitions to skews. In these cases a close cooperation with the road designer should be established in order
to find an acceptable solution.

DEFLECTION
In the absence of other criteria, the following deflection limits shall be considered for concrete, and/or steel
construction:

 Vehicular load, general ............................................................................. Span/500

 Vehicular and/or pedestrian loads............................................................ Span/800
 Vehicular load on cantilever arms............................................................. Span/300
 Vehicular and/or pedestrian loads on cantilever arms.............................. Span/400
 Uplift of a free end of the bridge deck …………………………….. 5 mm.

(ex:. A span of 16.4m may not deflect more than 16400/500=32mm, due to vehicular loads)

DESIGN WORKING LIFE

Concrete, stone and steel bridges shall be designed for 100 years working life. Concrete and Steel culverts with
an opening or diameter less than 2.0 m and all timber bridges shall be designed for 50 years working life.

_________________________________________________________________________ 5
Fundamentals of Bridge Design – CEng 552 – Chapter 1 Prepared by: M. K. Chandrasekar