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victory
R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed.,
PG ASST (PHYSICS)
GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI - 608 502
 6.1 State and explain Kepler’s law 6.2 How Newton obtain Gravitational 6.3 Discuss the important features of 6.4 Derive an expression for
law from Kepler ‘s law law of Gravitation gravitational potential energy
Law 1 - Law of orbits: Gravitational law from Kepler’s law : Important features of law of gravitation : Gravitational potential energy :
 Each planet moves around the Sun in an  Newton assumed the orbit of the planet  Since, force of attraction is inversely
elliptical orbit with the Sun one of the as circle. proportional to square of the distance,
foci  Let “r” be the radius and “ 𝑣 ” be the the force tends to decreases with the
velocity, then centripetal acceleration increase in distance between to masses.  The work done to move “𝑚2 ” through a
𝑣2 It implies that Uranus experience less small distance “𝑑𝑟” against gravitational
𝑎=− gravitational force from the Sum than force is
𝑟
 Let “T” be the time period, then velocity the Earth, since Uranus is at larger 𝐺 𝑚1 𝑚2
𝑑𝑊 = ⃗⃗⃗𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑟 = 𝑟̂ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑟
2𝜋𝑟 distance from the Sun compared to the 𝑟2
𝑣= Earth. 𝐺 𝑚1 𝑚2
𝑇 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑑𝑟
 The closest point of approach of the 4 𝜋 2 𝑟2 4 𝜋2 𝑟  The gravitational forces between two 𝑟2
planet to sun is called “perihelion” and ∴ 𝑎 = − = − masses always constitute an action-  Then the total work done to move from
𝑟 𝑇2 𝑇2
the farthest point is called “aphelion”  Let “m” be the mass of the planet, then reaction pair. It implies that the distance “𝒓 ” to “𝑟” is
𝑟
Law 2 - Law of areas : 4 𝜋2 𝑟 4 𝜋2 𝑚 𝑟 gravitational force (action) exerted by 1𝑟
 The radial vector (i.e.) the line joining 𝐹 = 𝑚 𝑎 = 𝑚 (− ) = − the Sun on the Earth is always towards 𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐺 𝑚1 𝑚2 [− ]
𝑇2 𝑇2 𝑟 𝒓
the Sun to a planet sweeps equal areas  According to Kepler’s third law, the Sun. At the same time, the 𝒓
in equal intervals of time. gravitational force (reaction) exerted by 1 1
𝑟3 𝑟 𝑘 𝑊 = − 𝐺 𝑚1 𝑚2 [ −  ]
= 𝑘 (𝑜𝑟) = 2 the Earth of the Sun is towards the Earth. 𝑟 𝒓
𝑇2 𝑇2 𝑟  The torque experienced by the Earth 𝑮 𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐 𝑮 𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
4 𝜋2 𝑚 𝑘 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑾 = − +
∴ 𝐹 = − due to the gravitational force of the Sun 𝒓 𝒓
𝑟2 is zero. It implies that the angular 
 If 𝒓 > 𝑟,thenthe work done be negative
 But Newton strongly felt that according
 momentum of the Earth about the Sun is
If the time period is equal (1 month), to his third law, if Earth is attracted by
constant throughout the motion.
then, area A1 = area A2 the Sun, then Sun must also be attracted
 If a place an object of mass “m” inside a
by the Earth with the same magnitude of
 Thus the planets travel faster when they hollow sphere of mass “M”, the force
force.
are nearer to the Sun and slower when experienced by this mass “m” will be  If 𝒓 < 𝑟,then the work done be positive
they are farther from it to cover equal  So he included Sun’s mass “M” in this
zero.
area in equal intervals of time. equation by putting, 4 𝜋 2 𝑘 = 𝐺 𝑀
 The triumph of the law of gravitation is
Law 3 - Law of periods :  Hence,
𝑮𝑴𝒎 that it concludes that the mango that is
 The square of the time period of 𝑭 = − falling down and the Moon orbiting the
revolution of a planet around the Sun in 𝒓𝟐  When 𝒓 = ∞, then
Earth are due to the same gravitational
its elliptical orbit is directly  Here negative sign implies that the force 𝐺 𝑚1 𝑚2 𝐺 𝑚1 𝑚2
force. 𝑊= − + 0 = −
proportional to the cube of the semi- is attractive and it act towards the 𝑟 𝑟
major axis of the ellipse. centre.  This work done is the gravitational
 Let “T” be the time period and “a” be the potential energy and it is denoted by
semi major axis, then U(r)
𝑮 𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
𝑇 2 ∝ 𝑎3 𝑼(𝒓) = −
𝑻𝟐 𝒓
(𝑜𝑟) = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕  The gravitational potential energy is
𝒂𝟑 always negative, because when two
massed come together slowly from
infinity, work is done by the system.

Victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS). GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI – 608 502 Page 2
 6.5 Prove that at points near the surface 6.6 Explain the variation of “g” with 6.7 Explain the variation of “g” with 6.8 Explain the variation of “g” with
of the Earth, the gravitational potential altitude depth latitude
energy of the object is U = mgh
Variation of “g” with altitude : Variation of “g” with depth : Variation of “g” with latitude :
Gravitational potential energy near Earth :  Mass of Earth = Me  Mass of Earth = Me
 Mass of Earth =M Radius of Earth = Re Radius of Earth = Re
Radius of Earth = RE Mass of the object =m Mass of the object =m
Mass of the object =m Height above the surface =h Depth below the surface =d
Height above the surface =h Height from the centre of Earth = r
Height from the centre of Earth = r

 Acceleration due to gravity on the  As the Earth spins about its own axis, it
surface of the Earth, is considered to be non - inertial frame.
𝐺 𝑀𝑒  So we must take in to account the
 Acceleration due to gravity on the 𝑔 = − − − − − (1)
𝑅𝑒 2 centrifugal force.
 The Gravitational potential energy of surface of the Earth,
𝐺 𝑀𝑒  At depth “d” below the surface,  If the Earth were not spinning, the force
this system, 𝑔 = − − − − − (1) 𝐺 𝑴 on the object would have been “mg”
𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑅𝑒 2 𝒈 = − − − (2)  However the object experiences an
𝑈 =− = − (𝑅𝑒 − 𝑑)2
𝑟 𝑅𝐸 + ℎ  At height “h” above the earth surface, additional centrifugal force due to
𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝐺𝑀𝑚 ℎ −1 𝐺 𝑀𝑒  Let “𝜌” be the uniform density of Earth,

𝒈 = spinning of the Earth
𝑈=− =− (1 + ) (𝑅𝑒 + ℎ)2 𝑀𝑒 𝑴
ℎ 𝑅 𝑅 =   Consider the Earth spin with an angular
𝑅𝐸 (1 + ) 𝑉𝑒 𝑽
𝑅𝐸 𝐺 𝑀𝑒 𝐺 𝑀𝑒 ℎ −2 velocity “𝜔” about N-S axis.
𝐺𝑀𝑚 ℎ 𝒈 = = (1 + ) 𝑀𝑒 𝑴  Then the centrifugal force = 𝑚 𝜔2 𝑅
𝑈 = − (1 − ) 2 ℎ 2 𝑅𝑒 2 𝑅𝑒 (𝒐𝒓) =
𝑅𝐸 𝑅𝐸 𝑅𝑒 (1 + ) 𝟒 𝟒  If “” be the latitude, then 𝑅 = 𝑅 cos 𝜆
𝑅𝑒 𝝅 𝑅𝑒 𝟑 𝝅 (𝑅𝑒 − 𝑑)𝟑
𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀 𝟑 𝟑  Then the component of centrifugal force
𝑤𝑘𝑡, 𝑔 = (𝑜𝑟) = 𝑔 𝑅𝐸  If ℎ ≪ 𝑅𝑒 , and using Binomial 𝑀𝑒 (𝑅𝑒 − 𝑑)𝟑
𝑅𝐸 2
𝑅𝐸 expansion, we get ∴ 𝑴 = against gravitational force is,
𝐺 𝑀𝑒 2ℎ 𝑅𝑒 𝟑 𝐹𝑐𝑓 = 𝑚 𝜔2 𝑅 cos 𝜆
ℎ
∴ 𝑈 = − 𝑚 𝑔 𝑅𝐸 (1 − ) 𝒈 = 2 (1 − 𝑅 )  Put this in equation (2), 𝐹𝑐𝑓 = 𝑚 𝜔2 𝑅 cos 2 𝜆
𝑅𝐸 𝑅𝑒 𝑒
𝐺 𝑀𝑒 (𝑅𝑒 − 𝑑)𝟑  Therefore resultant force is given by,
𝑈 = − 𝑚 𝑔 𝑅𝐸 + 𝑚 𝑔 ℎ  Using equation (1), 𝒈 =
2ℎ (𝑅𝑒 − 𝑑)2 𝑅𝑒 𝟑 𝑚 𝒈 = 𝑚 𝑔 − 𝑚 𝜔2 𝑅 cos 2 𝜆
 It is clear that the first term in the above 𝒈 = 𝑔 (1 − )
expression is independent of the height 𝑅𝑒 𝐺 𝑀𝑒 (𝑅𝑒 − 𝑑) 𝐺 𝑀𝑒 𝑑 𝒈 = 𝒈 − 𝝎𝟐 𝑹 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝝀

𝒈 = = (1 − )
“h” and it plays no role in the result.  Thus, we find that 𝒈 < 𝑔 𝑅𝑒 𝟐 𝑅𝑒 𝑅𝑒 𝟐 𝑅𝑒
Hence the first term can be omitted.  This means that as altitude “h”  Using equation (1), 1) At equator, =0. Then, 𝒈 = 𝒈 − 𝝎𝟐 𝑹
 Thus the gravitational potential energy increases the acceleration due to 𝒅 (i.e) acceleration due to gravity is
𝒈 = 𝒈 (𝟏 − ) minimum at equator
of the object placed at a height “h” from gravity (g) decreases. 𝑹𝒆
2) At poles,  = 90. Then, 𝒈 = 𝒈
the surface of the Earth is,  Thus, we find that 𝒈 < 𝑔
𝑼 = 𝒎𝒈𝒉 (i.e.) acceleration due to gravity is
 This means that as depth “d” increases
maximum at poles
the acceleration due to gravity (g)
decreases.

Victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS). GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI – 608 502 Page 3
 6.9 Derive an expression for escape 6.10 Derive an expression for orbital 6.11 Derive the time period of 6.12 Derive an expression for Energy
speed speed satellite orbiting the Earth. of the satellite

Escape speed : Orbital speed : Time period of Satellite orbiting Earth: Energy of the satellite :
 The minimum speed of an object  The horizontal speed given to the  The time taken by the satellite for one  Mass of the Earth = 𝑀𝑒
thrown vertically up such that it escapes satellite launched at calculated height complete rotation around the Earth is Radius of the Earth = 𝑅𝑒
from the Earth’s gravity is called escape from the earth surface, in order to called its time period (T). Mass of the satellite =𝑀
speed. orbiting around the Earth is called  During this time, the distance covered Height of the satellite above
Expression for Escape speed : orbital speed. by the satellite is equal to 2 𝜋 (𝑅𝑒 + ℎ) the Earth surface =ℎ
 Mass of Earth = 𝑀𝑒 Expression for Orbital speed :  By definition, the orbital speed (𝑣𝑂 ) is Orbital speed = 𝑣𝑂
Radius of Earth = 𝑅𝑒  Mass of Earth = 𝑀𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 2 𝜋 (𝑅𝑒 + ℎ)  From the derivation, orbital speed is,
Mass of the object =𝑚 Radius of Earth = 𝑅𝑒 𝑣𝑂 = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑇 𝐺 𝑀𝑒
 Let the object is thrown vertically up Mass of the satellite =𝑀 𝑣𝑂 = √
 But expression for orbital speed is, (𝑅𝑒 + ℎ)
with an initial speed 𝑣𝑖 , then the initial Height of the satellite above
total energy of the object is the Earth surface = ℎ 𝐺 𝑀𝑒  Potential Energy of the satellite,
1 𝐺 𝑀𝑒 𝑚 𝑣𝑂 = √ ) 𝐺 𝑀𝑒 𝑀
 For a satellite to move in a circular orbit, (𝑅𝑒 + ℎ)
𝐸𝑖 = 𝑚 𝑣𝑖 2 − 𝑈 = −
2 𝑅𝑒 centripetal force must be acting on the (𝑅𝑒 + ℎ)
 Thus,
 At an infinite height, the total energy satellite.  Kinetic Energy of the satellite,
becomes, 𝐸𝑓 = 0 + 0 = 0  This centripetal force is provided by the 𝐺 𝑀𝑒 2 𝜋 (𝑅𝑒 + ℎ) 1 1 𝐺 𝑀𝑒
√ = 𝐾𝐸 = 𝑀 𝑣𝑂2 = 𝑀
 By law of conservation of energy, Earth’s gravitational force. Hence (𝑅𝑒 + ℎ) 𝑇 2 2 (𝑅𝑒 + ℎ)
𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸𝑓 𝑀 𝑣𝑂 2 𝐺 𝑀𝑒 𝑀  Therefore, total Energy of the satellite,
= (𝑅𝑒 + ℎ)
1 𝐺 𝑀 𝑒 𝑚 (𝑅𝑒 + ℎ) (𝑅𝑒 + ℎ)2 𝐸 = 𝑈 + 𝐾𝐸
𝑚 𝑣𝑖 2 − =0 𝑇 = 2 𝜋 (𝑅𝑒 + ℎ)√
2 𝑅𝑒 𝐺 𝑀𝑒 𝐺 𝑀𝑒 𝐺 𝑀𝑒 𝑀 1 𝐺 𝑀𝑒
𝑣𝑂 2 = 𝐸= − + 𝑀
1 𝐺 𝑀𝑒 𝑚 (𝑅𝑒 + ℎ) 
Squaring on both sides, we get (𝑅𝑒 + ℎ) 2 (𝑅𝑒 + ℎ)
𝑚 𝑣𝑖 2 =
2 𝑅𝑒 𝑮 𝑴𝒆 (𝑅𝑒 + ℎ) 𝑮 𝑴𝒆 𝑴
𝒗𝑶 = √ 𝑇 2 = 4 𝜋 2 (𝑅𝑒 + ℎ)2 𝑬= −
 Let “𝑣𝑒 ” be the escape speed, (i.e.) the (𝑹𝒆 + 𝒉) 𝐺 𝑀𝑒 𝟐 (𝑹𝒆 + 𝒉)
minimum speed required by an object 𝟒 𝝅 𝟐 (𝑹
𝒆 + 𝒉) 𝟑
 The negative sign in the total energy
to escape Earth’s gravitational field,  As “h” increases, the speed of the 𝑻𝟐 = implies that “the satellite is bound to
satellite decreases. 𝑮 𝑴 𝒆
then  If h < < 𝑅𝑒 , then the Earth and it cannot escape from
1 𝐺 𝑀𝑒 𝑚 the Earth”.
𝑚 𝑣𝑒 2 = 4 𝜋 2 𝑅𝑒 3 4 𝜋 2 𝑅𝑒 4 𝜋 2 𝑅𝑒
2 𝑅𝑒 𝑇2 = = =  As “h” approaches to infinity, the total
𝐺 𝑀𝑒 𝐺𝑀 𝑔
2 𝐺 𝑀𝑒 ( 2𝑒 ) energy tends to zero. It means that the
𝑣𝑒 2 = 𝑅𝑒
𝑅𝑒 satellite is completely free from the
 But, 𝑔 =
𝐺 𝑀𝑒 𝑹𝒆 influence of Earth’s gravity and is not
2 ∴ 𝑻=𝟐𝝅√
𝑅𝑒
𝒈 bound to Earth at larger distances.
∴ 𝑣𝑒 2 = 2 𝑔 𝑅𝑒
 For Earth,
𝒗 𝒆 = √ 𝟐 𝒈 𝑹𝒆
𝑔 = 9.8 𝑚 𝑠 −2 & 𝑅𝑒 = 6.4𝑋 106 𝑚
 Thus escape speed depends on, ∴ 𝑻 ≅ 𝟖𝟓 𝒎𝒊𝒏
1) acceleration due to gravity
2) Radius of the Earth
 But escape speed is independent of,
1) Mass of the object
2) direction of projection of the object
For Earth, 𝑔 = 9.8 𝑚 𝑠 −2,𝑅𝑒 = 6400 𝑘𝑚
then, 𝒗𝒆 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟐 𝒌𝒎 𝒔−𝟏

Victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS). GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI – 608 502 Page 4
 6.13 Explain in detail the Geo -
stationary satellite and Polar satellite
Geo - Stationary Satellite :
 The satellite orbiting the Earth have
different time periods corresponding to
different orbital radii.
 Using Kepler’s third law, we can
calculate the orbital radius of the
satellite, whose time period is equal to
spinning time period of Earth
(i.e.) T = 24 hours = 86400 s.
𝟒 𝝅𝟐 (𝑹𝒆 + 𝒉)𝟑
𝑻𝟐 =
𝑮 𝑴𝒆
𝟏 equal to the acceleration due to gravity
𝑮 𝑴𝒆 𝑻𝟐 𝟑
(𝒐𝒓) 𝑹𝒆 + 𝒉 = [ ] of Earth (i.e) a = g and the object is in
𝟒 𝝅𝟐
 By substituting the known values, we
get height of the satellite from the
surface of the Earth, 𝒉 = 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒎.
 The satellites revolving around the
Earth at the height of 36000 km above
the equator are called Geo - stationary
satellites, since they appear to be
stationary when seen from Earth.
 Geo-stationary satellites are basically
used for telecommunications.
Polar Satellites :
 The satellites which orbiting Earth from
north to south at the height of 500 to
800 km from the surface of Earth are
called Polar satellites.
 The time period of a polar satellite is
nearly 100 minutes. So they completes
many revolutions in a day.
 A Polar satellite cover a small strip of
area from pole to pole during one
revolution.
 In the next revolution it covers a
different strip of area, since the Earth
would have moved by a small angle.
 In this way polar satellites cover the
entire surface area of the Earth
Victory
6.14 Discuss the apparent weight of
man standing inside the elevators
Apparent weight in Elevators :
 There are two forces acting on a man
standing on the elevator,
1) Gravitational force (weight) acting
downwards (⃗⃗⃗𝐹𝑔 = − 𝑚 𝑔 𝑗̂ )
2) Normal force exerted by the floor
on the man whicd acts vertically
⃗ = 𝑁𝑗̂ )
upwards (𝑁
Case (1) - Elevator is at rest
 In this case, the acceleration of the man
is zero, therefore
⃗⃗⃗𝐹𝑔 + 𝑁⃗ =0
(𝑜𝑟) − 𝑚 𝑔 𝑗̂ + 𝑁𝑗̂ = 0
(𝑜𝑟) − 𝑚𝑔 +𝑁 =0
∴ 𝑵 =𝒎𝒈=𝑊
Case (2) - Elevator moving uniformly in
the upward or downward direction
 In uniform motion (constant velocity)
the net force on the man is still zero.
 Hence the apparent weight of the man is
equal to his actual weight (N = W)
Case (3) - Elevator is accelerating in the
upward direction :
 Let upward acceleration be, ⃗⃗⃗𝑎 = 𝑎 𝑗̂
with respect to ground, then
⃗⃗⃗𝐹𝑔 + 𝑁 ⃗ = 𝑚 ⃗⃗⃗𝑎
(𝑜𝑟) − 𝑚 𝑔 𝑗̂ + 𝑁𝑗̂ = 𝑚 𝑎 𝑗̂
(𝑜𝑟) − 𝑚𝑔 +𝑁 =𝑚𝑎
∴ 𝑵 = 𝒎 𝒈 + 𝒎 𝒂 = 𝒎 (𝒈 + 𝒂)
 Hence, apparent weight is greater than
his actual weight (𝑵 > 𝑊)
Case (4) - Elevator is accelerating in the
downward direction :
 Let downward acceleration be, ⃗⃗⃗𝑎 =
− 𝑎 𝑗̂ with respect to ground, then
⃗⃗⃗𝐹𝑔 + 𝑁 ⃗ = − 𝑚 ⃗⃗⃗𝑎
(𝑜𝑟) − 𝑚 𝑔 𝑗̂ + 𝑁𝑗̂ = − 𝑚 𝑎 𝑗̂
(𝑜𝑟) − 𝑚𝑔 +𝑁 =−𝑚𝑎
∴ 𝑵 = 𝒎 𝒈 − 𝒎 𝒂 = 𝒎 (𝒈 − 𝒂)
 Hence apparent weight is lesser than his
actual weight (𝑵 < 𝑊)
R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS). GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI – 608 502
6.15 Explain in detail the idea of
weightlessness using lift as an example
Weightlessness:
 Weight of an object is defined as the
downward force whose magnitude (W)
is equal to that of upward force that
must be applied to the object to hold it
or at constant velocity relative to earth.
 When the object is fall freely, they are
not in contact with any surface and
hence the normal force acting on the
object is zero.
 Hence the downward acceleration is
state of weightlessness.
Explanation :
 For example consider a man inside the
elevator (or) lift.
 If ⃗⃗⃗𝒂 = − 𝒂 𝒋̂ is its downward
acceleration, then
⃗⃗⃗𝐹𝑔 + 𝑁
⃗ = − 𝑚 ⃗⃗⃗𝑎
(𝑜𝑟) − 𝑚 𝑔 𝑗̂ + 𝑁𝑗̂ = − 𝑚 𝑎 𝑗̂
(𝑜𝑟) − 𝑚𝑔 +𝑁 = −𝑚𝑎
(𝑜𝑟)
𝑵 = 𝒎 (𝒈 − 𝒂)
 When the lift wire cuts, it freely falls
with downward acceleration a = g
 From the above equation,
𝑵 = 𝒎 (𝒈 − 𝒈) = 𝟎
 Thus the apparent weight becomes zero
and the person in the lift is in the state
of weightlessness or free fall
6.16 Explain how geocentric theory is
replaced by heliocentric theory using
the idea of retrograde motion of planets
Heliocentric system over geocentric system:
 When the motion of the planets are
observed in the night sky, it can be seen
that the planets move eastwards and
reversed their motion for a while and
return to eastward motion again. This is
called “retrograde motion”.
 To explain this retrograde motion,
Ptolemy retained the Earth centric idea
of Aristotle and introduced the concept
of “epicycle” on it
 According to Ptolemy, while the planet
orbited the Earth, it also underwent
another circular motion termed as
epicycle.
 A combination of epicycle and circular
motion around the Earth gave rise to
retrograde motion of the planets with
respect to Earth.
 But Ptolemy’s model became more and
more complex as every planet was
found to undergo retrograde motion.
 In 15th century, Copernicus proposed
the heliocentric theory to explain
retrograde motion in simple manner.
 According to this model, the Sun is at the
centre of the solar system and all
planets orbited the sun.
 The retrograde motion of planets with
respect to Earth is because of the
relative motion of the planet with
respect to Earth.
 The Earth orbits around the Sun faster
than Mars. Because of the relative
motion between Mars and Earth, Mars
appears to move backwards from July to
October. In the same way the retrograde
motion of all other planets was
successfully by the Copernicus model.
Page 5
 6.17 Explain how geometry and 6.18 Explain in detail the Eratosthenes 6.19 Describe the measurement of 7. 1 State Hooke’s Law and verify it
trigonometry is used to calculate the method of finding the radius of Earth Earth’s shadow (umbra) radius during with help of an experiment
distance of a planet from the sun elevaExpltors total lunar eclipse
Eratosthenes method : Hooke’s law :
Distance of Mercury and Venus from Sun :  Eratosthenes who lived in Alexandria Lunar eclipse and measurement of  Within elastic limit, stress and strain are
 Venus and Mercury being inner planets measured the radius of Earth by using shadow of Earth : directly proportional to each other.
with respect to Earth, the maximum lower school geometry and brilliant  If the orbits of the Moon and Earth lie on Experimental verification:
angular distance they can subtend at a insight. the same plane during full moon day of
point on Earth with respect to the Sun is  He observed that during noon time of every month, we can observe lunar
46 for Venus and 22.5  for Mercury. summer solstice the Sun’s rays cast no eclipse.
 When Venus is at maximum elongation shadow in the city Syne which was  It is possible to measure the radius of
(i.e.) 46 with respect to Earth, Venus located 500miles away from Alexandria shadow of the Earth at a point where the
makes 90 to Sun.  At the same day and same time, he found Moon crosses.
 Similarly when Mercury is at maximum that in Alexandria the Sun’s rays made  When the Moon is inside the umbra it
elongation (i.e.) 22.5 with respect to 7.2 with local vertical. appears red in color.
Earth, Mercury makes 90 to Sun.  As soon as the Moon exits from the  A fine spring is suspended at one end
umbra shadow, it appears in crescent and a pan with a pointer is connected at
shape. other end.
 By finding the apparent radii of the  The extension produced on the spring is
Earth’s umbra and the Moon, the ratio of measured using vernier scale
the these radii can be detected. arrangement.
 The distance between Earth and Sun is
 Loads are added in equal steps and the
taken as one Astronomical unit (1 AU)
corresponding extensions are measured.
 Using trigonometry law in the right
 Let initial length of spring = L
angled triangle, we get,
𝒓 Area of cross section = A
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = (𝒐𝒓) 𝒓 = 𝑹 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽  He realized that this difference of 7.2 Volume = V=AL
𝑹
 For Venus,𝜃 = 46 and 𝑅 = 1 𝐴𝑈, was due to the curvature of the Earth.  The apparent radius of Earth’s umbra Extension for a load “F” = L
𝑟 = 𝑅 𝑠𝑖n 𝜃 = (𝟏 𝐴 𝑈) 𝑠𝑖n 46 = 0.77 𝐴 𝑈  In radian, this angle is equivalent to shadow = 𝑅𝑆 = 13.2 𝑐𝑚 A graph is plotted by taking “F” along X-
Hence Venus is at a distance of 1  The apparent radius of Moon = 𝑅𝑀 = axis and “L” along Y-axis
𝜃 = 7.2° = 𝑟𝑎𝑑  This graph is a straight line passing
𝟎. 𝟕𝟕 𝑨𝑼 from Sun. 8 5.15 𝑐𝑚
 For Mercury,𝜃 = 22.5 and R= 1 𝐴𝑈,  If the length of the arc between Syne and  Hence the ratio, through the origin (O).
𝑟 = 𝑅 𝑠in 𝜃 = (1 𝐴 𝑈) 𝑠in 22.5 Alexandria is ; S = 500 miles and R be 𝑅𝑆 13.2  From the graph, the slope (m) is
= 0.38 𝐴 𝑈 the radius of Earth, then = ≈ 2.56 𝐴𝐵 ∆𝐿
𝑅𝑀 5.15 𝑚= =
Hence Mercury is at a distance of 𝑆 = 𝑅𝜃 𝐵𝐶 𝐹
 Therefore the radius of the Earth’s
𝟎. 𝟑𝟖 𝑨𝑼 from Sun. 𝑺 𝟓𝟎𝟎 ∆𝐿 𝐴 𝐿
(𝑜𝑟) 𝑹 = = = 𝟒𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒊𝒍𝒆 umbra, 𝑅𝑆 = 2.56 𝑋 𝑅𝑀 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑚= .
𝜽 𝟏  The Radius of Moon is = 1737 km 𝐹 𝐴𝐿
( ) 𝐹 𝐿 ∆𝐿 ∆𝐿
𝟖
 The Radius of Earth’s umbra shadow is (𝑜𝑟) = ( ) = 𝑘
 Since 1 mile = 1.609 km, the radius of 𝐴 𝐴𝑚 𝐿 𝐿
𝑅𝑆 = 2.56 𝑋 1737 ≅ 4446 𝑘𝑚
Earth to be equal to 𝐹 ∆𝐿
R = 6436 km  The correct radius is 4610 km (𝑜𝑟) ∝
 The percentage of error in calculation, 𝐴 𝐿
 This calculated value is very close to  (i.e.) stress ∝ strain
4610 − 4446
correct value of 6378 km = 𝑋 100 = 3.5 %  Hence stress is directly proportional to
4610
 The error will be reduce if the pictures strain within elastic limit. This is
taken using a high quality telescope are Hooke’s law.
used

Victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS). GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI – 608 502 Page 6
 7.2 Explain stress - strain profile 7. 3 Explain different types of modulus 7.4 Derive an expression for the elastic 7. 5 Derive an equation for the total
of Elasticity energy stored per unit volume of a wire pressure at a depth “h” below the liquid
Stress - Strain profile :
surface
Modulus of Elasticity : Elastic energy:
 Within elastic limit, the ratio between  When a wire is stretched, work is done Pressure due to fluid column at rest:
stress and strain is a constant and it is against the restoring force. This work  Consider a water sample of cross
called modulus of elasticity. done is stored in the wire in the form of sectional area in the form of a cylinder.
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 elastic energy.  Let “ℎ1 ” and “ℎ2 ”be the depth of level 1
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛  Initial length of wire =L and level 2 of the sample respectively
 Its unit is N m-2 (or) pascal Area of cross section =A from air-water interface.
 The elastic characteristics of the 1) Young’s modulus (Y) : Volume of the wire = V=AL
materials can be analyzed from the  When a wire is stretched (or Stretching force =F
stress - strain profile. compressed) the ratio of Tensile Extension produced =𝑙
1) Portion OA : stress (or Compressive stress) to Young’s modulus of the wire = Y
 Here stress is proportional to strain the Tensile strain (or Compressive  The work done in stretching the wire by
which means Hooke’s law is valid. strain) is defined Young’s modulus. "𝑑𝑙 " is, 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹 𝑑𝑙
 The point “A” is called limit of 𝑭
𝝈𝒕 (𝒐𝒓) 𝝈𝒄 [ ] 𝑭𝑳  Then the total work done in stretching
proportionality and the slope of 𝑨
𝒀= = = the wire from 0 to 𝑙 is,
the line “OA” gives the Young’s 𝜺𝒕 (𝒐𝒓) 𝜺𝒄 ∆𝑳 𝑨 ∆𝑳 𝑙 𝑙
[ ]  Let “𝑃1 ” and “𝑃2 ”be the pressure at level
modulus 𝑳 𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹 𝑑𝑙
2) Bulk modulus (K) : 1 and level 2 of the sample.
2) Portion AB : 0 0
 The ratio of volume stress  From the definition of Young’s modulus  The force acting on the level 1 and 2 be,
 Here stress is not proportional to
(pressure) to the volume strain is 𝐹
[ ⁄𝐴] 𝐹 𝐿 𝐹1 = 𝑃1 𝐴 & 𝐹2 = 𝑃2 𝐴
strain. But once the stretching force
is removed, the wire will regain its defined as Bulk modulus. 𝑌= =  The weight of the sample ; 𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚 𝑔
𝝈𝒄 ∆𝑷 [𝑙⁄𝐿] 𝐴 𝑙
 At equilibrium, 𝐹2 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹𝑔
original length. 𝑲=− = −
 Point “B” is called yield point 𝜺𝒄 ∆𝑽 𝑌𝐴𝑙 𝑃2 𝐴 = 𝑃1 𝐴 + 𝑚𝑔
[ ] (𝑜𝑟) 𝐹 =
(elastic limit) and OAB refers elastic 𝑽 𝐿  If “” be the density of water, then
 Here negative sign indicates as 𝑙
𝑌𝐴𝑙 𝑌𝐴 𝑙 𝑚 = 𝜌 𝑉 = 𝜌 𝐴 (ℎ2 − ℎ1 )
behaviour.
pressure increases, the volume ∴ 𝑊=∫ [ ] 𝑑𝑙 = ∫ 𝑙 𝑑𝑙 ∴ 𝑃2 𝐴 = 𝑃1 𝐴 + 𝜌 𝐴 (ℎ2 − ℎ1 )𝑔
3) Portion BC : 𝐿 𝐿
decreases. 0 0
(𝑜𝑟) 𝑃2 = 𝑃1 + 𝜌 (ℎ2 − ℎ1 )𝑔
 Beyond “B”, the wire will not regain 3) Rigidity modulus ( 𝜼𝑹 ) : 𝑌 𝐴 𝑙2 1 𝑌𝐴𝑙 1
its original length after the removal 𝑊= = [ ]𝑙 = 𝐹 𝑙  If we choose the level 1 at the surface of
 The ratio of shearing stress to the 2𝐿 2 𝐿 2
of stretching force.  This work done is called elastic liquid and the level 2 at a depth “h”
shearing strain (angle of shear) is below the surface, then ℎ1 = 0 and
4) Portion CD : potential energy (U).
known as Rigidity modulus. ℎ2 = ℎ
 Beyond “C”, for small increase in 𝑭 𝑭 𝟏
stress produces rapid increase in 𝝈𝒔 [ 𝒕] [ 𝒕] ∴ 𝑼 = 𝑭𝒍  Let, 𝑃1 = 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑃𝑎
𝜼𝑹 = ∆𝑨
= 𝒙 = ∆𝑨 𝟐
strain and reaches the point “D” 𝜺𝒔 𝜽  Energy per unit volume is called Energy and 𝑃2 = 𝑃 (𝑠𝑎𝑦), then
[ ] 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑎 + 𝜌 (ℎ − 0)𝑔
 Beyond “D”, the strain increases 𝒉 density (u)
even when the load is removed and 𝟏 𝑷 = 𝑷𝒂 + 𝝆 𝒉 𝒈
𝑼 𝑭𝒍 𝟏 𝑭 𝒍 𝑃𝑎 = 1.013 𝑋 105 → 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
breaks at the point “E” 𝒖= = 𝟐 = [ ][ ]
 The maximum stress (D) beyond 𝑨𝑳 𝑨𝑳 𝟐 𝑨 𝑳  It means, pressure at the depth “h” is
𝟏 greater than the pressureont the surface
which the wire breaks is called 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 = [ 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝑿𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏]
breaking stress or tensile 𝟐 of liquid (atmospheric pressure)
strength.  If atmospheric pressure is neglected,
 Here “D” is called fracture point. then 𝑷 = 𝝆 𝒉 𝒈
 BCDE represents plastic behaviour.  Thus the height of the fluid column is
more important to decide the pressure.

Victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS). GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI – 608 502 Page 7
 7.6 State Pascal’s law and explain its 7. 7 Derive the expression for the 7.8 Derive Poiseuille’s formula for the 7. 9 Explain surface tension of liquid on
application (Hydraulic lift) terminal velocity of a sphere moving in a volume of a liquid flowing per second the basis of molecular theory.
high viscous fluid using stokes force through a pipe under streamlined flow
Pascal’s law : Surface tension - Molecular theory:
 If the pressure in a liquid is changed at Terminal velocity : Poiseuille’s formula:  Consider three different molecules A, B
a particular point, the change is  The maximum constant velocity  Poiseuille derived an expression for the and c in a given liquid.
transmitted to the entire liquid without acquired by a body while falling freely volume of the liquid flowing per second  The sphere of influence of “A” is well
being diminished in magnitude. through a viscous medium is called the through the capillary tube. inside the liquid and hence the net force
Application - Hydraulic lift : terminal velocity (𝑣𝑡 )  We can derive Poiseuille’s equation experienced by “A” is zero.
Expression for Terminal velocity : using dimensional analysis.  Three - fourth of the sphere of influence
 Consider a sphere falls freely through a  Consider a liquid flowing steadily of “B” lies below the liquid surface and
highly viscous liquid. through a horizontal capillary tube. hence “B” experience net downward
 Let radius of sphere = r 𝑉 force because it has more molecules
 Let v = be the volume of liquid
Density of sphere = 𝜌 𝑡 towards its lower side than the upper
flowing out per second (i.e.) rate of flow side
Density of liquid = 𝜎
which depends on
Coefficient of viscosity of liquid = 𝜂  Half of the sphere of influence of “C” lies
 A practical application of Pascal’s law is 1) Coefficient of viscosity (𝜂) of liquid
Terminal velocity = 𝑣𝑡 below the liquid surface, and hence “C”
the hydraulic lift which is used to lift a 2) Radius (𝑟) of the tube
𝑃
experiences a maximum downward
heavy load with a small force. 3) The pressure gradient ( ) force due to the availability of more
𝑙
 It consists two cylinder A and B 𝑧 number of liquid molecules on the
𝑃
connected to each other by a horizontal ∴ v ∝ 𝜂𝑥 𝑟𝑦 ( ) lower part.
pipe filled with a liquid. 𝑙
𝑧
𝑃
 They are fitted with frictionless pistons (𝑜𝑟) v = 𝑘 𝜂 𝑥 𝑟 𝑦 ( ) − − − (1)
of cross sectional areas 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 . Here 𝑙
 Gravitational force (weight) acting  Dimensional formula for various factors
𝐴1 < 𝐴2 𝑉
downwards on the sphere v = ⇒ [𝐿3 𝑇 −1 ]
 Let a downward force 𝐹1 applied on the
𝟒 𝑡
smaller piston A, then the pressure 𝑭𝒈 = 𝒎 𝒈 = 𝝆 𝑽 𝒈 = 𝝆 𝝅 𝒓𝟑 𝒈 𝜂 ⇒ [𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 ]
exerted on liquid by this piston A is, 𝟑  Therefore any molecule is brought
 Up thrust on the sphere due to displaced 𝑟 ⇒ [𝐿]
𝐹1 𝑃 towards the surface from the interior of
𝑃= liquid, ⇒ [𝑀𝐿−2 𝑇 −2 ]
𝐴1 𝟒 𝑙 the liquid, work is done against the
 But according to Pascal’s law, this 𝑈 = 𝒎 𝒈 = 𝝈 𝑽 𝒈 = 𝝈 𝝅 𝒓𝟑 𝒈  Put this in equation (1) cohesive force among the molecules of
𝟑
increased pressure P is transmitted  At terminal stage, the viscous force on [𝐿3 𝑇 −1 ] = [𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 ]𝑥 [𝐿]𝑦 [𝑀𝐿−2 𝑇 −2 ]𝑧 the surface. This work is stored as
undiminished in all directions. 𝑀0 𝐿3 𝑇 −1 = 𝑀 𝑥+𝑧 𝐿−𝑥+𝑦−2𝑧 𝑇 −𝑥−2𝑧 potential energy in molecules.
the sphere in upward direction,
 So the pressure is exerted on piston B 𝑭 = 𝟔 𝝅 𝜼 𝒓 𝒗𝒕  comparing powers on both sides, we get  So the molecules on the surface will
and the upward force on piston B is 𝒙 = −𝟏 , 𝒚 = 𝟒, 𝒛 = 𝟏 have greater potential energy than that
 At equilibrium, 𝐹𝑔 = 𝑈 + 𝐹
𝐹1 𝑨𝟐 of molecules in the interior of the liquid.
𝐹2 = 𝑃 𝐴2 = 𝐴2 = [ ] 𝑭𝟏 (𝑜𝑟) 𝐹𝑔 − 𝑈 = 𝐹  Equation (1) becomes
𝐴1 𝑨𝟏 𝑃 1  But for a system to be under stable
4 4
 Since 𝐴1 < 𝐴2 , then 𝐹1 < 𝐹2 𝜌 𝜋 𝑟3 𝑔 − 𝜎 𝜋 𝑟 3 𝑔 = 6 𝜋 𝜂 𝑟 𝑣𝑡 v = 𝑘 𝜂 −1 𝑟 4 ( ) equilibrium, its potential energy
3 3 𝑙 (surface energy) must be a minimum.
 Thus if the force applied on the smaller 4 4
𝑟 𝑃
piston A , the force on the piston B has 𝜋 𝑟 3 (𝜌 − 𝜎) 𝑔 = 6 𝜋 𝜂 𝑟 𝑣𝑡 v=𝑘  Thus in order to maintain stable
𝑨𝟐 3 𝜂𝑙 equilibrium, the liquid tend to occupy a
been increased by the factor [ ] and 4 𝜋 𝑟 3 (𝜌 − 𝜎) 𝑔  Experimentally the value of k is shown
𝑨𝟏
𝑣𝑡 = 𝜋
minimum surface area and hence the
this factor is called the mechanical 3 6𝜋𝜂𝑟 to be , we have, surface behaves like a stretched
8
advantage of the lift. 𝟐 𝒓 𝟐 (𝝆
− 𝝈) 𝒈 𝝅𝒓 𝑷𝟒 membarane. This property of liquid is
𝒗𝒕 = 𝐯= called surface tension.
𝟗 𝜼 𝟖𝜼𝒍
 Hence, 𝒗𝒕 ∝ 𝒓𝟐

Victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS). GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI – 608 502 Page 8
 7.10 Obtain the relation between
surface tension and surface energy
Relation between surface tension (T) and Excess pressure across a liquid surface:
surface energy (U):
 Consider a rectangular frame of wire
ABCD in a soap solution. Here AB be the
movable wire.
 Here a soap film is formed which pulls
the wire AB inwards due to surface Figure (1) :
tension.
 Let, Length of wire AB = 𝑙
Surface tension =T
Force due to surface tension = F
 Since soap film has two free surfaces,
𝐹 = (2 𝑇) 𝑙
 Suppose AB is moved to new position
AB through a small distance Δ𝑥.
 Since the area increases, some work has
to be done against the inward force due
to surface tension. So
Work done = Force X Distance
𝑊 = 𝐹 𝑋 Δ𝑥
𝑊 = (2 𝑇) 𝑙 𝑋 Δ𝑥
 Increase in area of the film,
Δ𝐴 = 2 𝑙 𝑋 Δ𝑥
 Therefore surface energy,
𝑊 (2 𝑇) 𝑙 𝑋 Δ𝑥
𝑈= =  For convex surface (fig 3) the resultant
∆𝐴 2 𝑙 𝑋 Δ𝑥
𝑼=𝑻
 Hence the surface energy per unit area
of a surface is numerically equal to the
surface tension.
Victory
7. 11 Write a note on excess pressure
across a liquid surface.
 When the liquid surface is plane, the
forces due to surface tension (T, T) act
tangentially to the liquid surface in
opposite directions.
 Hence the resultant force on the
molecule is zero.
 Thus for plane liquid surface, the
pressure on the liquid side is equal to
the pressure on the vapour side.
Figure (2) and Figure (3):
 When the liquid surface is curved
(either convex or concave), every
molecule on the liquid surface
experience forces due to surface tension
(T, T) along the tangent to the surface.
 Resolving these forces in to rectangular
components, we find that the horizontal
components cancel out each other,
while vertical components get added
up.
 Therefore, the resultant force (R) acts
normal to the curved surface.
 For concave surface (fig 2) the
resultant force is directed outwards
from the centre of curvature.
force is directed inwards towards the
centre of curvature.
 Thus for a curved liquid surface in
equilibrium, the pressure on its concave
side is greater than the pressure on its
convex side.
R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS). GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI – 608 502
7.12 Obtain an expression for the 7.13 Obtain an expression for the excess
excess of pressure inside a liquid drop. of pressure inside a liquid(soap) bubble
Excess pressure inside a liquid drop : Excess pressure inside a liquid bubble :
 Consider a liquid drop of radius “R” and  Consider a liquid (soap) bubble of
surface tension “T” radius “R” and surface tension “T”
 A soap bubble has two liquid surfaces in
 The various forces acting on the contact with air, one inside the bubble
hemispherical liquid drop are and other outside the bubble.
1) Force due to surface tension
 The various forces acting on the
towards right ; 𝑭𝑻 = 𝟐 𝝅𝑹 𝑻 hemispherical liquid bubble are
2) Force due to outside pressure 1) Force due to surface tension
towards right ; 𝑭𝑷𝟏 = 𝑷𝟏 𝝅𝑹𝟐 towards right ; 𝑭𝑻 = 𝟐(𝟐 𝝅𝑹 𝑻)
3) Force due to inside pressure 2) Force due to outside pressure
towards left ; 𝑭𝑷𝟐 = 𝑷𝟐 𝝅𝑹𝟐 towards right ; 𝑭𝑷𝟏 = 𝑷𝟏 𝝅𝑹𝟐
 As the drop is in equilibrium, 3) Force due to inside pressure
𝐹𝑇 + 𝐹𝑃1 = 𝐹𝑃2 towards left ; 𝑭𝑷𝟐 = 𝑷𝟐 𝝅𝑹𝟐
2 𝜋𝑅 𝑇 + 𝑃1 𝜋𝑅2 = 𝑃2 𝜋𝑅2  As the bubble is in equilibrium,
(𝑜𝑟) 𝑃2 𝜋𝑅2 − 𝑃1 𝜋𝑅2 = 2 𝜋𝑅 𝑇
𝐹𝑇 + 𝐹𝑃1 = 𝐹𝑃2
(𝑜𝑟) ( 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) 𝜋𝑅2 = 2 𝜋𝑅 𝑇
2( 2 𝜋𝑅 𝑇) + 𝑃1 𝜋𝑅2 = 𝑃2 𝜋𝑅2
2 𝜋𝑅 𝑇 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑃2 𝜋𝑅2 − 𝑃1 𝜋𝑅2 = 4 𝜋𝑅 𝑇
(𝑜𝑟) ( 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) =
𝜋𝑅2 (𝑜𝑟) ( 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) 𝜋𝑅2 = 4 𝜋𝑅
2𝑇
(𝑜𝑟) ( 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) = 4 𝜋𝑅 𝑇
(𝑜𝑟) ( 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) =
𝑅 𝜋𝑅2
 Here ( 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) = ∆𝑃 → 4𝑇
(𝑜𝑟) ( 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) =
𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑅
 Therefore, Here ( 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) = ∆𝑃 → 𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝟐𝑻  Therefore,
∆𝑷 = 𝟒𝑻
𝑹 ∆𝑷 =
𝑹
Page 9
 7.14 Obtain an expression for the 7. 15 Obtain an expression for the 7.16 Obtain an equation of continuity 7. 17 What are the energies possessed
excess of pressure inside air bubble. surface tension of a liquid by capillary for a flow of fluid on the basis of by the liquid in steady flow. Explain?
rise method. conservation of mass
Excess pressure inside an air bubble : Energy possessed by the liquid :
 Consider an air bubble of radius “R” and Surface tension by capillary rise method Equation of continuity :  A liquid in a steady flow can possess
surface tension “T”  The rise or fall of liquid inside the  Consider a pipe AB of varying cross three kinds of energy. They are,
narrow tube is called capillarity. sectional area. 1) Kinetic energy
 It is due surface tension of the liquid.  Let a non-viscous and incompressible 2) Potential energy
 Consider a capillary tube which is held liquid flows steadily through the pipe. 3) Pressure energy
vertically in a beaker containing water.  Cross sectional area of “A” = 𝑎1 1) Kinetic energy
 Let, radius of capillary tube = r Velocity at “A” = 𝑣1  The kinetic energy of a liquid of mass “m”
Height of liquid rises in the tube = h Cross sectional area of “B” = 𝑎2 moving with a velocity “𝑣 ” is given by
1
Surface tension of liquid = T Velocity at “B” = 𝑣2 𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚 𝑣 2
2
Angle of contact = 𝜃 Density of the fluid = 𝜌
Kinetic energy per unit mass
Density of liquid = 𝜌  Assume that 𝑎1 > 𝑎2 𝟏
 The various forces acting on the Acceleration due to gravity = g 𝑲𝑬 𝒎 𝒗𝟐 𝟏
= 𝟐 = 𝒗𝟐
hemispherical air bubble are  The surface tension “T” acts along the 𝒎 𝒎 𝟐
1) Force due to surface tension tangent at the point of contact  Kinetic energy unit volume,
towards right ; 𝑭𝑻 = 𝟐 𝝅𝑹 𝑻 downwards and its reaction force “N” 𝟏
2) Force due to outside pressure 𝑲𝑬 𝒎 𝒗𝟐 𝟏
upwards = 𝟐 = 𝝆 𝒗𝟐
towards right ; 𝑭𝑷𝟏 = 𝑷𝟏 𝝅𝑹𝟐 𝑽 𝑽 𝟐
3) Force due to inside pressure  Let 𝑚1 be the mass of fluid flowing 2) Potential energy :
towards left ; 𝑭𝑷𝟐 = 𝑷𝟐 𝝅𝑹𝟐 through section “A” in time ∆𝑡  The potential energy of a liquid of mass
 As the air bubble is in equilibrium, 𝑚1 = 𝜌 𝑉1 = 𝜌 𝑎1 𝑣1 ∆𝑡 “m” at a height “h” above the ground
𝐹𝑇 + 𝐹𝑃1 = 𝐹𝑃2  Let 𝑚2 be the mass of fluid flowing level is given by, 𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚 𝑔 ℎ
2 𝜋𝑅 𝑇 + 𝑃1 𝜋𝑅2 = 𝑃2 𝜋𝑅2 through section “B” in time ∆𝑡  Potential energy per unit mass,
(𝑜𝑟) 𝑃2 𝜋𝑅2 − 𝑃1 𝜋𝑅2 = 2 𝜋𝑅 𝑇 𝑚2 = 𝜌 𝑉2 = 𝜌 𝑎2 𝑣2 ∆𝑡 𝑷𝑬 𝒎𝒈𝒉
= =𝒈𝒉
(𝑜𝑟) ( 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) 𝜋𝑅2 = 2 𝜋𝑅 𝑇  For an incompressible liquid, mass is 𝒎 𝒎
2 𝜋𝑅 𝑇 conserved. so  Potential energy per unit volume
(𝑜𝑟) ( 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) = 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 𝑷𝑬 𝒎𝒈𝒉
𝜋𝑅2  Here “T” can be resolved in to two = = 𝝆𝒈𝒉
2𝑇 components viz., 𝑇 cos 𝜃 & 𝑇 sin 𝜃 𝜌 𝑎1 𝑣1 ∆𝑡 = 𝜌 𝑎2 𝑣2 ∆𝑡 𝑽 𝑽
(𝑜𝑟) ( 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) =  Total upward force along the 𝒂 𝟏 𝒗𝟏 = 𝒂 𝟐 𝒗𝟐 3) Pressure energy :
𝑅
circumference = 2 𝜋 𝑟 𝑋 𝑇 cos 𝜃 (𝒐𝒓) 𝒂 𝒗 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕  The energy acquired by a fluid by
 Here ( 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) = ∆𝑃 →
 Weight of the liquid column in the tube  (i.e.) the volume flux or flow rate applying pressure on the fluid.
𝐸𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝐹
𝑟 remains constant throughout the pipe.
 Therefore, 𝑊 = 𝑚 𝑔 = 𝜌 𝑉 𝑔 = 𝜌 𝜋𝑟 2 (ℎ + ) 𝑔 𝑃= (𝑜𝑟) 𝐹 = 𝑃 𝐴
𝟐𝑻 3  This is called equation of continuity 𝐴
, the smaller the cross  Hence pressure energy is,
∆𝑷 = 1
 The upward force, balance the weight  Since 𝑣 ∝
𝑹 𝑎 𝐸𝑃 = 𝑊 = 𝐹 𝑑 = 𝑃 𝐴 𝑑 = 𝑃 𝑉
of the liquid column, then we have
𝒓 section, greater will be the velocity of  Pressure energy per unit mass
𝝆 𝒓 (𝒉 + ) 𝒈 the fluid.
𝑻= 𝟑 𝑬𝑷 𝑷𝑽 𝑷 𝑷
𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = = 𝒎 =
𝒓 𝒎 𝒎 ( ) 𝝆
 If 𝒓 < < 𝒉 , then neglecting 𝑽
𝟑
𝝆𝒓𝒉𝒈  Pressure energy per unit volume
∴ 𝑻= 𝑬𝑷 𝑷𝑽
𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = = 𝑷
1
 Since, ℎ ∝ , smaller the radius of the 𝑽 𝑽
𝑟
tube, greater the capillarity.

Victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS). GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI – 608 502 Page 10
 7.18 State and prove Bernoulli’s 𝑬𝑨 = 𝑬𝑩 7.19 Describe the construction and 1 2 𝐴2
𝑚 𝑃𝐴 1 ∆𝑃 = 𝜌 𝑣 ( − 1)
theorem for a flow of incompressible, + 𝑚 𝑣𝐴2 + 𝑚 𝑔 ℎ𝐴 working of venturimeter and obtain an 2 1 𝑎2
non - viscous and streamlined flow of 𝜌 2 equation for the volume of liquid 1 (𝐴2 − 𝑎2 )
𝑚 𝑃𝐵 1 ∆𝑃 = 𝜌 𝑣12
fluid = + 𝑚 𝑣𝐵2 + 𝑚 𝑔 ℎ𝐵 flowing per second through a wider 2 𝑎2
𝜌 2 entry of the tube. 2 ∆𝑃 𝑎 2
Bernoulli’s theorem : 𝑃𝐴 1 2 ∴ 𝑣12 =
 According to Bernoulli’s theorem, the (𝒐𝒓) + 𝑣𝐴 + 𝑔 ℎ𝐴 Venturimeter: 𝜌 (𝐴2 − 𝑎2 )
𝜌 2
sum of pressure energy, kinetic energy 𝑃𝐵 1 𝟐 ∆𝑷
and potential energy per unit mass of an = + 𝑣𝐵2 + 𝑔 ℎ𝐵 (𝑜𝑟) 𝒗𝟏 = 𝒂√
𝜌 2 𝝆 (𝑨𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 )
incompressible, non - viscous fluid in a 𝑷 𝟏 𝟐
streamlined flow remains a constant. (𝒐𝒓) + 𝒗 + 𝒈 𝒉 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕  The above equation gives the speed of
𝝆 𝟐
Proof: flow of fluid at the wide end of the tube,
 This is known as Bernoulli’s theorem.
 Hence the volume of the liquid flowing
 The another form of this equation is, out per second is
𝑷 𝟏 𝒗𝟐
+ + 𝒉 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝟐 ∆𝑷
𝝆𝒈 𝟐 𝒈 𝑽 = 𝑨 𝒗𝟏 = 𝑨 𝒂√
 When the liquid flows through 𝝆 (𝑨𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 )
 This device is used to find the rate of
horizontal pipe, then 𝒉 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 flow of the incompressible fluid flowing
 Consider a flow of liquid through a pipe Therefore, through a pipe.
AB. 𝑷 𝟏 𝒗𝟐  It works on the principle of Bernoulli’s
+ = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
 Let “V” be the volume of the liquid when 𝝆𝒈 𝟐 𝒈 theorem.
it enters “A” in a time “t” which is equal Pressure head + velocity head = constant  From equation of continuity, velocity of
to the volume of the liquid leaving “B” in  Thus according to Bernoulli’s theorem, fluid is smaller in wider area than in
the same time. if the velocity increases, the pressure narrow area. (i.e.) A > a, then 𝑣1 < 𝑣2
 The work done on the liquid at “A” decreases and vice versa.  According to Bernoulli’s equation,
𝑊 = 𝐹𝐴 𝑑 = 𝑃𝐴 𝑎𝐴 𝑣𝐴 𝑡 = 𝑃𝐴 𝑎𝐴 𝑑 = 𝑃𝐴 𝑉 increase in speed is accompanied by a
 This work done is the pressure energy. decrease in the fluid pressure at narrow
 Hence pressure energy of liquid at “A” tube. (i.e.) 𝑃1 > 𝑃2
𝑚 𝑃𝐴  Therefore this pressure difference is
𝐸𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃𝐴 𝑉 = =
𝜌 measured from the height difference
 Potential energy of liquid at “A” between the surface of the manometer
𝑃𝐸𝐴 = 𝑚 𝑔 ℎ𝐴 liquid.
 Kinetic energy of liquid at “A”  From the equation of continuity,
1 𝐴
𝐾𝐸𝐴 = 𝑚 𝑣𝐴2 𝐴 𝑣1 = 𝑎 𝑣2 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑣2 = 𝑣
2 𝑎 1
 Therefore the total energy due to the  Using Bernoulli’s equation for
flow of liquid at “A”. horizontal tube,
𝐸𝐴 = 𝐸𝑃𝐴 + 𝐾𝐸𝐴 + 𝑃𝐸𝐴 𝑃1 1 𝑃2 1
+ 𝑣12 = + 𝑣22
𝒎 𝑷𝑨 𝟏 𝜌 2 𝜌 2
𝑬𝑨 = + 𝒎 𝒗𝑨𝟐 + 𝒎 𝒈 𝒉𝑨 1 2 1
𝝆 𝟐 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑃1 + 𝜌 𝑣1 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌 𝑣22
 Similarly the total energy due to the 2 2
1 2 1
flow of liquid at “B”. 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝜌 𝑣2 − 𝜌 𝑣12
𝐸𝐵 = 𝐸𝑃𝐵 + 𝐾𝐸𝐵 + 𝑃𝐸𝐵 2 2
2
𝒎 𝑷𝑩 𝟏 1 𝐴 1 2
𝑬𝑩 = + 𝒎 𝒗𝑩𝟐 + 𝒎 𝒈 𝒉𝑩 ∴ 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝜌 ( 𝑣1 ) − 𝜌 𝑣1
𝝆 𝟐 2 𝑎 2
 From law of conservation of energy,

Victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS). GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI – 608 502 Page 11
 8.1 Obtain an ideal gas law from
Boyle’s law and Charles’ law
Boyle’ law :
 When the gas is kept at constant
temperature, the pressure of the gas is
inversely proportional to the volume.
𝟏 1) Linear Expansion :
𝑷 ∝
𝑽  The increase in length due to the
Charles’ law :
 When the gas is kept at constant
pressure, the volume of the gas is
directly proportional to absolute
temperature.
𝑽∝ 𝑻
Ideal gas equation :
 By combining these two laws, we get
𝑻 ∆𝑳
𝑽 ∝ (𝒐𝒓) 𝑷 𝑽 = 𝑪 𝑻
𝑷 𝐿 ∆𝑻
 Where, 𝑪 → positive constant
 Here the constant “C” is proportional to
the number of particles in the gas
container.
 Hence we can write the constant “C” as
“𝑘” times the number of particles “N”
(i.e.) 𝐶 = 𝑁 𝑘
 Here “ 𝑘 ” is the Boltzmann constant
(𝑘 = 1.381 𝑋 10−23 𝐽 𝐾 −1 )
 So the ideal gas law can be stated as
follows,
𝑷𝑽=𝑵𝒌𝑻
Ideal gas equation in terms of moles :
 Suppose if a gas contains “” mole of
particles, then the total number of
particles can be written as 𝑁 = 𝜇 𝑁𝐴
 Here, 𝑵𝑨 is Avogadro number (𝑁𝐴 =
6.626 𝑋 1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 )
 Thus the above equation becomes,
, 𝑷 𝑽 = 𝝁 𝑵𝑨 𝒌 𝑻
 Here 𝑁𝐴 𝑘 = 𝑅 → universal gas constant
(𝑅 = 8.314 𝐽 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 𝐾 −1 )
 So the ideal gas law can be written as
for “” mole of gas as
𝑷𝑽=𝝁𝑹𝑻
Victory
8.2 Explain in detail the thermal 8.3 Describe the anomalous expansion 8.4 Explain calorimetry and derive an
expansion of water. How is it helpful in our lives? expression for final temperature when
two thermodynamic systems are mixed.
Thermal Expansion : Anomalous expansion of water :
 It is the tendency of matter to change in  Normally liquids expand on heating and Calorimetry:
length, area and volume due to a change contract on cooling at moderate  The measurement of the amount of
in temperature. temperature. heat released or absorbed by
 But water exhibits an anomalous thermodynamic system during the
behaviour that it contract on heating heating process is called calorimetry.
increase in temperature is called between 0C and 4C  The heat lost or gain is measured using
linear expansion.  The volume of the given amount of calorimeter.
 For small change in temperature water decreases (density increases) as  Consider a sample at high temperature
∆𝑇, the fractional change in length it is cooled from room temperature (𝑇1 ) is immersed in to a water at room
∆𝐿 until it reaches 4C. temperature (𝑇2 ) in the calorimeter.
is directly proportional to ∆𝑇
𝐿
 Below 4C, the volume increases and so  After some time, both sample and water
∆𝐿
∴ = 𝛼𝐿 ∆𝑇 the density decreases. reach final equilibrium temperature
𝐿  This means the water has a maximum (𝑇𝑓 ).
𝜶𝑳 = density at 4C. This behaviour of water  Here hot sample lost heat, whereas
𝛼𝐿 → coefficient of linear expansion is called anomalous expansion of water. water gains heat
Use of anomalous expansion of water :  Heat lost by the hot sample is,
2) Area Expansion :
 The increase in area due to the  In cold countries, during the winter 𝑸𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒕 = 𝑚1 𝑠1 ( 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇1 )
season the surface of the lakes will be at
increase in temperature is called  Heat gained by the water,
area expansion. lower temperature than the bottom . 𝑸𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏 = 𝑚2 𝑠2 ( 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇2 )
 Since the solid water (ice) has lower
 For small change in temperature  Here 𝑠1 & 𝑠2 are the specific heat
∆𝐴 density than its liquid form, below 4C, capacities of sample and water
∆𝑇, the fractional change in area
𝐴 the frozen water will be on the top respectively.
is directly proportional to ∆𝑇 surface above the liquid water (ice
 Since the calorimeter is insulated,
∆𝐴 floats)
∴ = 𝛼𝐴 ∆𝑇 𝑸𝒈𝒂𝒊𝒏 = − 𝑸𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒕
𝐴  This is due to the anomalous expansion
∆𝑨 𝑚2 𝑠2 ( 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇2 ) = − 𝑚1 𝑠1 ( 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇1 )
𝜶𝑨 = of water.
𝐴 ∆𝑻 𝑚2 𝑠2 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑚2 𝑠1 𝑇1 = − 𝑚1 𝑠1 𝑇𝑓 + 𝑚1 𝑠1 𝑇1
 As water in lakes and ponds freeze only
𝛼𝐴 → coefficient of area expansion at the top the species living in the lakes 𝑚2 𝑠2 𝑇𝑓 + 𝑚1 𝑠1 𝑇𝑓 = 𝑚1 𝑠1 𝑇1 + 𝑚2 𝑠2 𝑇2
3) Volume Expansion : will be safe at the bottom. [𝑚1 𝑠1 + 𝑚2 𝑠2 ] 𝑇𝑓 = 𝑚1 𝑠1 𝑇1 + 𝑚2 𝑠2 𝑇2
 The increase in volume due to the 𝒎𝟏 𝒔 𝟏 𝑻 𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒔 𝟐 𝑻 𝟐
increase in temperature is called ∴ 𝑻𝒇 =
𝒎𝟏 𝒔 𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒔 𝟐
volume expansion.
 It is the final temperature of the mixture
 For small change in temperature
∆𝑇, the fractional change in volume
∆𝑉
is directly proportional to ∆𝑇
𝑉
∆𝑉
∴ = 𝛼𝑉 ∆𝑇
𝑉
∆𝑽
𝜶𝑽 =
𝑉 ∆𝑻
𝛼𝑉 → coefficient of volume expansion
 The unit of coefficient of linear, area or
volume expansion is K-1 (or) C -1
R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS). GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI – 608 502 Page 12
 8.5 Discuss various modes of heat
transfer
Heat transfer :
 Heat is the energy in transit which is
transferred from one body to another
body due to temperature difference.
 There are three modes of heat transfer;
Conduction, Convection and Radiation
1) Conduction :
 It is the process of direct transfer of
heat from hotter part to colder part
through matter due to temperature
difference.
 The matter which allow heat to
travel easily through them are
called conductor. (e.g.) metals
2) Convection :
 It is the process in which heat
transfer is by actual movement of
molecules in fluids (liquids and
gases)
 In convection, molecules moves
freely from one place to another
which happens naturally or
forcefully. (e.g.) back and forth
motion of molecules of boiling
water in a cooking pot.
3) Radiation :
 It is the process of heat transfer
from one body to another by
electromagnetic waves without any
medium. (e.g.) Solar energy from
the Sun
 But conduction and convection
requires medium to transfer the
heat,
Victory
8.6 Explain in detail Newton’s law of 8.7 Discuss (1) thermal equilibrium, 8.8 Explain Joule’s experiment of the
cooling (2) mechanical equilibrium, mechanical equivalent of heat
(3) chemical equilibrium,
Newton’s law of cooling : (4) thermodynamic equilibrium Joule’s mechanical equivalent of heat :
 Newton’s law of cooling states that the  James Prescott Joule showed that
rate of loss of heat of a body is directly 1) Thermal equilibrium : mechanical energy can be converted
proportional to the difference in the  Two systems are said to be in thermal into internal energy and vice versa.
temperature between that body and its equilibrium with each other if they are  His experiment consists of two masses
surroundings. at same temperature, which will not which are attached with a rope and a
𝒅𝑸 change with time paddle.
− ∝ 𝑻 − 𝑻𝑶
𝒅𝒕  (e.g.) When hot cup of tea is kept in
Explanation : room, heat flows from tea to the
 Let us consider an object of mass “m” surrounding and after some time the tea
and specific heat capacity “s” at reaches the same temperature as the
temperature “T”. Let “ 𝑇𝑂 ” be the surrounding air which implies that the
temperature of surroundings. tea and surrounding air are in thermal
 If the temperature falls by a small equilibrium with each other.
amount “dT” in time “dt”, then the 2) Mechanical equilibrium :
amount of heat lost is,  A system is said to be in mechanical
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑚 𝑠 𝑑𝑇 equilibrium if no unbalanced force acts
𝒅𝑸 𝒅𝑻 on the thermodynamic system or on the
(𝑜𝑟) = 𝒎𝒔 surrounding by thermodynamic
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
 From Newton’s law of cooling, system.  When the two masses fall through a
𝑑𝑄  (e.g.) When a mass is placed on the distance “h” due to gravity, both lose
− ∝ 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑂 piston in a gas container, it will move
𝑑𝑡 potential energy equal to “2 mgh” and
𝒅𝑸 downward due to gravitational force the paddle wheel turns.
(𝑜𝑟) = − 𝒂 [𝑻 − 𝑻𝑶 ]
𝒅𝒕 and come to rest at a new position at  Due to this turning effect, frictional
Where, a  positive constant which the downward gravitational force comes in between the water and
𝑑𝑇 force is balanced by the upward force the paddle wheel which caused a rise in
∴ − 𝑎 [𝑇 − 𝑇𝑂 ] = 𝑚 𝑠
𝑑𝑡 exerted by the gas. temperature of the water.
𝑑𝑇 𝑎 3) Chemical equilibrium :
(𝑜𝑟) = − 𝑑𝑡  That is the gravitational potential
𝑇 − 𝑇𝑂 𝑚𝑠  If there is no net chemical reaction energy is converted in to internal
 Integrate on both sides, between two thermodynamic systems energy of water.
𝑑𝑇 𝑎 in contact with each other then it is said  Here the temperature of water
∫ = − ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 − 𝑇𝑂 𝑚𝑠 to be in chemical equilibrium, increased due to the work done by the
𝑎 4) Thermodynamic equilibrium :
log 𝑒 [𝑇 − 𝑇𝑂 ] = − 𝑡 + 𝑏1 masses .
𝑚𝑎 𝑠  If two systems are set to be in  Joule found that to raise 1 gram of an
(𝑜𝑟) 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑂 = 𝑒 − 𝑚 𝑠 𝑡+ 𝑏1 thermodynamic equilibrium, then the object by 1C, requires 1 cal (or) 4.186 J
𝑎 systems are at thermal, mechanical and of energy.
(𝑜𝑟) 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑂 = 𝑒 − 𝑚 𝑠 𝑡 𝑒 𝑏1
𝑎 chemical equilibrium with each other.  This is called Joule’s mechanical
(𝑜𝑟) 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑂 = 𝑏2 𝑒 − 𝑚 𝑠 𝑡  In thermodynamic equilibrium, the
𝒂 equivalent of heat.
∴ 𝑻 = 𝑻𝑶 + 𝒃𝟐 𝒆− 𝒎 𝒔 𝒕 macroscopic variables such as pressure,
𝑏1
Where , 𝑒 = 𝑏2 −→ 𝑎 constant volume and temperature will have fixed
values and do not change with time.
R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS). GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI – 608 502 Page 13
 8.9 Derive the expression for the
work done in a volume change in
a thermodynamic system
Work done in volume change:
 Consider a gas contained in the cylinder
fitted with a movable piston.
 Suppose the gas expand quasi-statically  When the gas is heated at constant
by pushing up the piston by a small
distance “𝒅𝒙”
 The small work done by the gas on the
piston is, 𝒅𝑾 = 𝑭 𝒅𝒙
 The force exerted by the gas on the
piston is, 𝑭 = 𝑷𝑨
 Hence the work done is rewritten as
𝒅𝑾 = 𝑷 𝑨 𝒅𝒙 = 𝑷 𝒅𝑽
 Here, 𝑨 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒅𝑽  change in volume
 Since the volume increases, the work is
positive.
 So the total work done by the gas by
increasing the volume from 𝑽𝟏 to 𝑽𝟐
𝑽𝟐
𝑾 = ∫ 𝒅𝑾 = ∫ 𝑷 𝒅𝑽
𝑽𝟏
 Suppose if the work is done on the gas
by the piston, volume decreases and
hence work is negative
 Here pressure P is inside the integral,
which implies that it need not be a
constant in this process.
Victory
8.10 Derive Mayer’s relation for ideal
gas
Mayer’s relation :
 Consider “𝜇” mole of an ideal gas in a
container with volume “V”, pressure “P”
and temperature “T”
volume, the temperature increased by
“dT” and the given heat “Q” will increase
only the internal energy .(i.e.) no work is
done (W=0)
 If “𝐶𝑉 ” is the molar specific heat capacity
at constant volume, then
𝑄 = 𝜇 𝐶𝑉 𝑑𝑇
 Let the change in internal energy be
“dU”, then from first law of
thermodynamics,
𝑑𝑈 = 𝑄 − 𝑊 = 𝑄
𝒅𝑼 = 𝝁 𝑪𝑽 𝒅𝑻
 Suppose the gas is heated at constant
pressure and the temperature increases
by”dT”
 Let Q be the heat given, “dV” be the
change in volume, “W” be the work done
and “ 𝐶𝑃 ” be the molar specific heat
capacity at constant pressure, then
𝑄 = 𝜇 𝐶𝑃 𝑑𝑇
and 𝑊 = 𝑃 𝑑𝑉
 Then from first law of thermodynamics,
𝑑𝑈 = 𝑄 − 𝑊
(𝑜𝑟) 𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑊
𝝁 𝑪𝑷 𝒅𝑻 = 𝝁 𝑪𝑽 𝒅𝑻 + 𝑷 𝒅𝑽
 For “𝜇” mole of gas, the equation of state
is given by
𝑃𝑉= 𝜇𝑅𝑇
differentiate on both sides
𝑷 𝒅𝑽 = 𝝁 𝑹 𝒅𝑻
∴ 𝜇 𝐶𝑃 𝑑𝑇 = 𝜇 𝐶𝑉 𝑑𝑇 + 𝜇 𝑅 𝑑𝑇
𝐶𝑃 = 𝐶𝑉 + 𝑅
𝑪𝑷 − 𝑪𝑽 = 𝑹
 This is known as Meyer’s relation.
 Here 𝑪𝑷 is equal to the sum of 𝑪𝑽 and
R. So 𝑪𝑷 > 𝑪𝑽
R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS). GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI – 608 502
8.11 Explain in detail the isothermal 8.12 Derive the work done in
process. isothermal process.
Isothermal process : Work done in isothermal process :
 It is a process in which the temperature  Consider an ideal gas which is allowed
remains constant, but the pressure and to expand quasi-statically at constant
volume of a thermodynamic system will temperature “T”
change.  Let its initial state be 𝑃𝑖 & 𝑉𝑖 and final
 The equation for isothermal process is, state be 𝑃𝑓 & 𝑉𝑓
𝑷 𝑽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕  The work done during this process be,
 Thus “P” is inversely proportional to 𝑉𝑓
volume “V” and it implies that PV-graph 𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃 𝑑𝑉
is a hyperbola.
𝑉𝑖
 The PV - graph for constant temperature
 As this process occurs quasi-statically.
is called isotherm.
from ideal gas equation, we can write
𝜇𝑅𝑇
𝑃 𝑉 = 𝜇 𝑅 𝑇 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑃 =
𝑉
𝑉𝑓 𝑉𝑓
𝜇𝑅𝑇 𝑑𝑉
∴ 𝑊= ∫ 𝑑𝑉 = 𝜇 𝑅 𝑇 ∫
𝑉 𝑉
𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖
𝑉
𝑊 = 𝜇 𝑅 𝑇 [log 𝑒 𝑉]𝑉𝑓
𝑖
𝑊 = 𝜇 𝑅 𝑇 [log 𝑒 𝑉𝑓 − log 𝑒 𝑉𝑖 ]
 We know that for an ideal gas, the 𝑽𝒇
internal energy is a function of 𝑾 = 𝝁 𝑹 𝑻 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒆 [ ]
𝑽𝒊
temperature only. For isothermal
 During isothermal expansion, 𝑉𝑓 > 𝑉𝑖 .
process, since the temperature remains
constant, the internal energy is also So work done by the gas is positive.
constant. Thus change in internal energy  During isothermal compression, 𝑉𝑓 < 𝑉𝑖
during isothermal process is zero (i.e.) So work done on the gas is negative.
𝒅𝑼 = 𝟎  In PV - diagram, the work done during
 For an isothermal process, the first law isothermal expansion or compression is
of thermodynamics can be written as, equal to the area under the graph.
𝑸 = 𝑾
 It implies that. heat supplied to a gas is
used to do only external work.
Examples :
 When water is heated at the boiling
point (100C), even when heat flows to
water, the temperature will not
increase.
 All biological processes occur at
constant body temperature (37C)
Page 14
 8.13 Explain in detail the adiabatic 8.14 Derive the work done in 8.15 Explain the isobaric process and 8.16 Explain in detail the isochoric
process. adiabatic process. derive the work done in this process process.
Adiabatic process : Work done in adiabatic process: Isobaric process : Isochoric process :
 This is a process in which no heat flows  Consider an ideal gas enclosed in a  This is a thermodynamic process that  This is a thermodynamic process in
into or out of the system. (i.e.) 𝑸 = 𝟎 cylinder having perfectly insulating occurs at constant pressure. But in this which the volume of the system is kept
 But the gas can expand by spending its walls and base fitted with frictionless process temperature, volume and constant. But in this process
internal energy or compressed by some and insulating piston. internal energy are not constant. temperature, pressure and internal
external work.  Let its initial state be 𝑃𝑖 & 𝑉𝑖 and final  The equation of state for this process, energy are not constant.
 So the pressure, volume and state be 𝑃𝑓 & 𝑉𝑓 𝝁𝑹  (e.g.) When food is cooked using vessel
𝑽= [ ]𝑻 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑽 ∝ 𝑻
temperature of the system may change  The work done during this process be, 𝑷 by closing with a lid
in an adiabatic process. 𝑉𝑓  The PV - diagram for an isobaric process Explanation :
 For an adiabatic process, the first law of is a horizontal lint parallel to volume  The equation of state for an isochoric
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃 𝑑𝑉
thermodynamics becomes ∆𝑼 = 𝑾 axis. process is given by
𝑉𝑖 𝝁𝑹
 The adiabatic process can be achieved  Most of the cooking process in our
 As this process occurs quasi-statically. 𝑷= [ ] 𝑻 = [𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕] 𝑻
by the following methods, kitchen are isobaric process, 𝑽
from ideal gas equation, we can write Work done in isobaric process :  Thus the pressure is directly
1) Thermally insulating the system, so 𝐾
that no heat enters in or out of the 𝑃 𝑉 𝛾 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝐾) (𝑜𝑟) 𝑃 = 𝛾  The work done by the gas is proportional to the temperature (𝑷 ∝
system. 𝑉 𝑉𝑓 𝑻)
𝑉𝑓 𝑉𝑓
2) If the process occurs so quickly that 𝐾 𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃 𝑑𝑉  The P-T graph for an
there is no time to exchange heat ∴ 𝑊 = ∫ 𝛾 𝑑𝑉 = 𝐾 ∫ 𝑉 −𝛾 𝑑𝑉 isochoric process is a
𝑉 𝑉𝑖
with surroundings even though 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖 straight line passing
−𝛾+1 𝑉𝑓
 In isobaric process, pressure “P” is
there is no thermal insulation. 𝑉 through origin.
𝑊 = 𝐾[ ] constant, hence
 The equation of state for an adiabatic −𝛾 + 1 𝑉 𝑉𝑓  For an isochoric
process is given by, 𝑖
𝑉 process, ∆𝑽 = 𝑉𝑓 −
𝐾 𝑊 = 𝑃 ∫ 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑃 [𝑉]𝑉𝑓 = 𝑃 [𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑖 ]
𝑷 𝑽𝜸 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑊 = [𝑉
1−𝛾 1−𝛾
− 𝑉𝑖 ] 𝑖 𝑉𝑖 = 𝟎 and W = 0
𝑻 𝑽−𝜸 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 1−𝛾 𝑓 𝑉𝑖  Then the first of thermodynamics
1  If 𝑉𝑓 < 𝑉𝑖 , then W is negative which
𝑻𝜸 𝑷𝟏−𝜸 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑊 = [𝐾 𝑉𝑓
1−𝛾 1−𝛾
− 𝐾 𝑉𝑖 ] becomes, ∆𝑼 = 𝑸
 Here “ 𝜸 ” is called adiabatic exponent 1−𝛾 implies work is done on the gas.  This implies that, the heat given is used
𝑪 1 𝛾 1−𝛾 𝛾 1−𝛾  If 𝑉𝑓 > 𝑉𝑖 , then W is positive which
(𝜸 = 𝑷 ) which depends on the nature 𝑊 = [𝑃 𝑉 𝑉 − 𝑃𝑖 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖 ] to increase only the internal energy. As
𝑪𝑽 1−𝛾 𝑓 𝑓 𝑓 implies work is done by the gas. a result the temperature and pressure
of the gas. 1
𝑊 = [𝑃 𝑉 − 𝑃𝑖 𝑉𝑖 ]  For isobaric process, we have increases.
 The PV -diagram for an adiabatic 1−𝛾 𝑓 𝑓 𝑃 𝑉𝑖 = 𝜇 𝑅𝑇𝑖 and 𝑃 𝑉𝑓 = 𝜇 𝑅𝑇𝑓  Suppose a system loses heat to the
process is also called adiabat. 1
𝑊= [𝜇 𝑅𝑇𝑓 − 𝜇 𝑅𝑇𝑖 ]  Put this in above equation, we get surroundings through conduction walls
 The PV - diagram for adiabatic curve is 1−𝛾 𝑊 = 𝑃 [𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑖 ] = 𝜇 𝑅 [𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖 ] by keeping the volume constant, then its
steeper than isothermal curve. 𝝁𝑹 𝝁𝑹
𝑾= [ 𝑻𝒇 − 𝑻𝒊 ] = [ 𝑻𝒊 − 𝑻𝒇 ] 𝑻𝒊 internal energy decreases.
𝟏−𝜸 𝜸−𝟏 𝑾 = 𝝁 𝑹 𝑻𝒇 [𝟏 − ]  So the temperature and pressure
 In adiabatic expansion, W is positive. So 𝑻𝒇
decreases.
𝑻𝒊 > 𝑻𝒇 and hence the gas cools during  In PV - diagram, the area under the
adiabatic expansion. isobaric curve is
 In adiabatic compression, W is negative. equal to the work
So 𝑻𝒊 < 𝑻𝒇 and hence the temperature done in isobaric
process.
of the gas increases during adiabatic
expansion.  The first law of
thermodynamics for
 The area under adiabatic curve gives
isobaric process
the total work done
∆𝑼 = 𝑸 + 𝑾 = 𝑸 + 𝑷 ∆𝑽
Victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS). GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI – 608 502 Page 15
 8.17 Define cyclic process. Explain the
PV - diagram for cyclic process
Cyclic process :
 This is a thermodynamic process in
which the thermodynamic system
returns to its initial state after
undergoing a series of changes.
 Since the system comes back to the
initial state, the change in the internal
energy is zero (∆𝑼 = 𝟎)
 In Cyclic process, heat can flow in to
system ad heat flow out of the system.
 So from the first law of
thermodynamics, the net heat
transferred to the system is equal to
work done by the gas. (i.e.)
𝑸𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑸𝒊𝒏 − 𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 = 𝑾
PV - diagram for a cyclic process :
 In the PV - diagram, the cyclic process is
represented by a closed curve.
 In Cyclic process, the gas returns to the
initial stage after an expansion and
compression.
 Let 𝑊1 be the work done by the gas
during expansion, and it is equal to area
under the curve “CBA”
 Let 𝑊2 be the work done on the gas
during compression, and it is equal to
area under the curve “ADC”
 Total work done in the cyclic process =
𝑾𝟏 − 𝑾𝟐 = 𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
 Thus the net work done during cyclic
process is not zero. It may be either
positive or negative
Victory
8.18 What are the limitations of the
first law of thermodynamics.
Limitations of 1st law of thermodynamics
 The first law of thermodynamics
explains well the inter convertibility of
heat and work.
 But it does not indicate the direction of
change.
 For example,
1) When hot and cold bodies are
brought in contact, heat always
flows from the hot body to cold
body, but not in the reverse
direction. According to first law of
thermodynamics, it is possible for
the energy to flow from hot body to
cold body or cold body to hot body.
But in nature, the direction of heat
flow is always from higher
temperature to lower temperature.
2) When breaks are applied, a car
stops due to friction and the work
done against friction is converted in
to heat. But this heat is not
reconverted to the kinetic energy of
the car.
 So the first law is not sufficient to
explain many natural phenomena.
R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS). GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI – 608 502
8.19 Explain the heat engine and
obtain its efficiency.
Heat engine :
 Heat engine is a device which takes heat
as input and converts this heat in to
work by undergoing a cyclic process.
 A heat engine has three parts,
1) Hot reservoir (or) source :
 It supplies heat (𝑸𝑯 ) to the engine
 It is maintained at high
temperature (𝑇𝐻 )
2) Working substance :
 It is a substance like gas or liquid
which converts heat in to work
3) Cold reservoir (or) sink :
 After doing work, the heat engine
ejects some heat (𝑸𝑳 ) to the sink.
 It is maintained at a low
temperature (𝑇𝐿 )
Expression for efficiency of heat engine :
 The heat engine works in a cyclic
process. Hence ∆𝑼 = 𝟎
 The efficiency of heat engine is defined
as the ratio of the work done W (output)  During isothermal compression, the
to the heat absorbed 𝑸𝑯 (input) in one
cyclic process.
 The work done : 𝑾 = 𝑸𝑯 − 𝑸𝑳
 By definition, the efficiency is
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑊
𝜂= = 𝑾𝑪→𝑫 = − 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒗𝒆 𝑪𝑫
𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑄𝐻
𝑄𝐻 − 𝑄𝐿
𝜂=
𝑄𝐻
𝑸𝑳
𝜼= 𝟏−
𝑸𝑯
 Since 𝑄𝐿 < 𝑄𝐻 , the efficiency ( 𝜼 )
always less than one
8.20 Explain in detail Carnot ideal heat
engine.
Carnot ideal heat engine:
 A reversible heat engine operation in a
cycle between two temperatures in a
particular way is called a Carnot Engine.
Set up : It has four main parts. They are,
1) Heat reservoir or source
2) Cold reservoir or sink
3) working substance
4) Insulation stand
Carnot cycle :
 The working substance is subjected to
four successive reversible processes
called Carnot’s cycle.
1) Quasi-static isothermal expansion
2) Quasi-static adiabatic expansion
3) Quasi-static isothermal compression
4) Quasi-static adiabatic compression
 During isothermal expansion, the work
done by the substance (gas) is
𝑉2
𝑉2
𝑄𝐻 = 𝑊𝐴→𝐵 = ∫ 𝑃 𝑑𝑉 = 𝜇 𝑅 𝑇𝐻 log 𝑒 [ ]
𝑉1
𝑉1
𝑾𝑨→𝑩 = 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒗𝒆 𝑨𝑩
 During adiabatic expansion, the work
done by the substance (gas) is
𝑉3
𝜇𝑅
𝑊𝐵→𝐶 = ∫ 𝑃 𝑑𝑉 = [ 𝑇 − 𝑇𝐿 ]
𝛾−1 𝐻
𝑉2
𝑾𝑩→𝑪 = 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒗𝒆 𝑩𝑪
work done on the substance (gas) is
𝑉4
𝑉3
𝑄𝐿 = 𝑊𝐶→𝐷 = ∫ 𝑃 𝑑𝑉 = − 𝜇 𝑅 𝑇𝐿 log 𝑒 [ ]
𝑉4
𝑉3
 During adiabatic compression, the work
done on the substance (gas) is
𝑉1
𝜇𝑅
𝑊𝐷→𝐴 = ∫ 𝑃 𝑑𝑉 = − [ 𝑇 − 𝑇𝐻 ]
𝛾−1 𝐿
𝑉4
𝑾𝑫→𝑨 = − 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒖𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒗𝒆 𝑫𝑨
Page 16
 Then the net work done (W) by the 𝑉
𝑄𝐿 𝑇𝐿 log 𝑒 [ 3 ] 8.22 Explain the second law of 8.23 Explain in detail the working of
working substance in one cycle, 𝑉4
 = − − − (1) thermodynamics in terms of entropy refrigerator
𝑊 = 𝑊𝐴→𝐵 + 𝑊𝐵→𝐶 − 𝑊𝐶→𝐷 − 𝑊𝐷→𝐴 𝑄𝐻 𝑉
𝑇𝐻 log 𝑒 [ 2 ]
𝑊 = 𝑊𝐴→𝐵 − 𝑊𝐶→𝐷 (∵ 𝑊𝐵→𝐶 = 𝑊𝐷→𝐴 )
𝑉1 Entropy and 2nd law of thermodynamics : Refrigerator :
 By applying adiabatic conditions, 𝑄
 Thus the net work done (W) by the 𝛾−1  The quantity [ ] is called entropy and  A refrigerator is a Carnot’s engine
working substance in one cycle is equal 𝑇𝐻 𝑉2 = 𝑇𝐿 𝑉3 𝛾−1 𝑇 working in the reverse order.
to the area enclosed by ABCD of the PV & 𝑇𝐻 𝑉1
𝛾−1
= 𝑇𝐿 𝑉4 𝛾−1 it is a very important thermodynamic  Here the working substance absorbs a
property of a system and it is also a state quantity of heat “𝑄𝐿 ” from the sink at a
diagram. 𝑉2 𝛾−1 𝑉3 𝛾−1 variable.
∴ [ ] = [ ] lower temperature “𝑇𝐿 ”.
𝑉1 𝑉4 𝑄𝐻
𝑉2 𝑉3  [ ] is the entropy received by the  A certain amount of work W is done on
𝑇𝐻 the working substance by the
(𝑜𝑟) =
𝑉1 𝑉4 𝑄𝐿
Carnot engine from source and [ ] is compressor and a quantity of heat “𝑄𝐻 ”
 Therefore equation (1) becomes 𝑇𝐿
is rejected to the source (i.e.) the
𝑄𝐿 𝑇𝐿 the entropy given out by the Carnot atmosphere “𝑇𝐻 ”
= engine to the sink
𝑄𝐻 𝑇𝐻
 For reversible engines (Carnot engine)
 Then the efficiency is written as, both entropies should be same, so the
𝑸𝑳 𝑻𝑳
𝜼 =𝟏− =𝟏− change in entropy of the Carnot engine
𝑸𝑯 𝑻𝑯 in one cycle is zero.
Important Results :  But practical engines like petrol or
 Here 𝑻𝑳 < 𝑻𝑯 . So 𝜼 < 1. It implies that diesel engines are not reversible, and
the efficiency cannot be 100% 𝑄𝐿 𝑄
 𝜼 = 𝟏 (𝟏𝟎𝟎%) only when 𝑇𝐿 = 0 𝐾 hence > 𝑇𝐻
𝑇𝐿 𝐻
which is impossible to attain practically  Thus for all the natural process
8.21 Derive the expression for Carnot  The efficiency of Carnot engine is (irreversible process) the entropy  From the first law of thermodynamics,
engine efficiency. independent of the working substance. always increases. For reversible 𝑸𝑳 + 𝑾 = 𝑸𝑯
Efficiency of Carnot engine : It depends only on 𝑇𝐿 & 𝑇𝐻 . The greater process entropy will not change. Coefficient of performance (COP) :
the difference between the two  Entropy determines the direction in
 Efficiency is defined as the ratio of work  COP is the measure of efficiency of a
temperatures, higher the efficiency, which the natural process should occur.
done by the working substance in one refrigerator.
cycle to the amount of heat extracted  When 𝑇𝐿 = 𝑇𝐻 , then 𝜂 = 0. No engine  Heat always flows from state of higher
 It is defined as the ratio of heat
from the source. can work having source and sink at the temperature to lower temperature, extracted from the sink “ 𝑸𝑳 ” to the
 By definition, the efficiency is same temperature. because entropy increased when heat external work done “W” by the
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑊  The entire cycle is reversible in the flows from hot object to cold object. compressor
𝜂= = Carnot engine cycle. So Carnot engine is  If heat were to flow from a cold to hot 𝑄𝐿 𝑄𝐿
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑄𝐻 𝐶𝑂𝑃 = 𝛽 = =
itself a reversible engine and has object, entropy will decrease leading to
 From first law of thermodynamics, 𝑊 𝑄𝐻 − 𝑄𝐿
𝑊 = 𝑄𝐻 − 𝑄𝐿 . Therefore, efficiency maximum efficiency. violation of second law of 1 1
𝑸𝑯 − 𝑸𝑳 𝑸𝑳 thermodynamics. 𝛽= =
𝑄𝐻 − 𝑄𝐿 𝑄𝐻
𝜼= = 𝟏−  Entropy is also called ‘measure of [ ] [ − 1]
𝑸𝑯 𝑸𝑯 𝑄𝐿 𝑄𝐿
disorder’. All the natural process occur  But we know that, 𝑄𝐿 = 𝑇𝐿
 Applying isothermal conditions, we get
𝑉2 such that the disorder should always 𝑄𝐻 𝑇𝐻
𝑄𝐻 = 𝜇 𝑅 𝑇𝐻 log 𝑒 [ ] increases.  Therefore we get
𝑉1 𝟏 𝑻𝑳
𝑉3  A drop of ink has less disorder (low 𝜷= =
𝑄𝐿 = 𝜇 𝑅 𝑇𝐿 log 𝑒 [ ] entropy) and when it diffused in to 𝑻 𝑻 𝑯 − 𝑻𝑳
𝑉4 [ 𝑯 − 𝟏]
water it spreads it leads to more 𝑻 𝑳
disorder and its entropy increases. The
diffused ink can never become a drop
again.
Victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS). GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI – 608 502 Page 17
 9.1 Write down the postulates of molecule rebounds with same speed and
9.3 Explain in detail the kinetic 9.4 Obtain the relation between
kinetic theory of gases. its x - component is reversed.
interpretation of temperature average kinetic energy and pressure.
 Hence the change in momentum of the
Postulates of kinetic theory of gases : molecule along x - axis Kinetic interpretation of temperature : Average KE and pressure - Relation :
 All the molecules of a gas are identical, = − 𝑚 𝑣𝑥 − 𝑚 𝑣𝑥 = − 2 𝑚 𝑣𝑥  Pressure exerted by the gas molecules  The internal energy of the gas,
elastic spheres.  According to law of conservation of 1 𝑁 3 3
𝑃 = 𝑚 ̅̅̅
𝑣2 𝑈 = 𝑁𝑘𝑇 = 𝑃𝑉
 The molecules of different gases are momentum, the change in momentum of 3 𝑉 2 2
different. wall = + 2 𝑚 𝑣𝑥 1 2𝑈 2
(𝑜𝑟) 𝑃 𝑉 = 𝑁 𝑚 ̅̅̅
𝑣2 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑃= = 𝑢
 The number of molecules in a gas is very  Let area of the wall be “A” and number of 3 3𝑉 3
large and average separation between molecules per unit volume be “n  From the ideal gas equation, Here 𝑢 → internal energy per unit volume
them is larger than size of the gas (=
𝑁
) ” , then number of molecules 𝑃𝑉 =𝑁𝑘𝑇  But the pressure exerted by the gas is
molecules. 𝑉
 Comparing these two equations, 1 1
hitting the right side wall in time t 1 𝑃 = 𝑛 𝑚 ̅̅̅
𝑣2 = 𝜌 ̅̅̅
𝑣2
 The molecules of a gas are in a state of 𝑛 𝑛 3 3
𝑁𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑋 𝑉 = 𝐴 𝑣𝑥 ∆𝑡 𝑁𝑘𝑇 = 𝑁 𝑚 ̅̅̅
𝑣2  Multiply and divide by 2 on RHS, we get
continuous random motion. 2 2 3
 The molecules collide with one another 1 𝟐 𝟏 ̅̅̅𝟐 𝟐
 In the same interval of time t, the total (𝑜𝑟) 𝑘 𝑇 = 𝑚 ̅̅̅
𝑣2 𝑷 = [ 𝝆 𝒗 ] = ∈
and also with the walls of the container. momentum transferred by the 3 𝟑 𝟐 𝟑
3
 These collisions are perfectly elastic, so molecules,  Divide by on both sides,  Thus pressure is equal to 2/3 of average
2
that there is no loss of kinetic energy 𝑛 3 3 1 kinetic energy per unit volume.
during collisions.
∆𝑝 = 𝑁𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑋 2 𝑚 𝑣𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑣𝑥 ∆𝑡 𝑋 2 𝑚 𝑣𝑥
2 𝑘𝑇 = 𝑋 𝑚 ̅̅̅
𝑣2
2 2 3
 Between two successive collisions, a ∆𝒑 = 𝑨 𝒗𝒙𝟐 𝒎 𝒏 ∆𝒕 3 1 9.5 Deduce Boyle’s law, Charles law
 From Newton’s second law, the change 𝑘𝑇 = 𝑚 ̅̅̅
𝑣2
molecule moves with uniform velocity 2 2 and Avogadro’s law based on
 The molecules do not exert any force of in momentum in a small interval of time  Here RHS represents average kinetic kinetic theory
attraction or repulsion on each other gives rise to force. Thus ̅̅̅̅ ) of a molecule, Hence
energy (𝐾𝐸
except during collision. The molecules ∆𝑝 𝐴 𝑣𝑥2 𝑚 𝑛 ∆𝑡 𝟑 Boyle’s law :
𝐹= = = 𝐴 𝑚 𝑛 𝑣𝑥2 ∈ = 𝑲𝑬 ̅̅̅̅ = 𝒌𝑻
do not possesses any potential energy ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 𝟐  Internal energy of the gas,
and the energy is wholly kinetic.  By definition, pressure exerted by the  The above equation implies that, the 3
𝑈 = 𝑁𝑘𝑇
 The collisions are instantaneous. molecules on the wall of area “A” is, temperature of a gas is a measure of 2
𝟐 the average translational kinetic
 These molecules obey Newton’s laws of 𝑭 𝑨 𝒗𝒙 𝒎 𝒏  From the ideal gas equation,
𝑷= = = 𝒎 𝒏 𝒗𝒙𝟐 energy per molecule of the gas 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝑘𝑇
motion even though they move 𝑨 𝑨
randomly.  Since all molecules moves in random  The average kinetic energy of a 3
motion, they do no have same speed. molecule is directly proportional to the ∴ 𝑈 = 𝑃𝑉
2
 So we can replace the term 𝒗𝒙 by the 𝟐 absolute temperature of the gas (∈ ∝ 2
9.2 Derive the expression of pressure (𝑜𝑟) 𝑃𝑉= 𝑈
̅̅̅̅
𝟐
average 𝒗𝒙 and we get, 𝑃 = 𝑚 𝑛 𝑣𝑥 ̅̅̅̅
2 𝑻) 3
exerted by the gas on the walls of
 Neglecting gravity on the molecules,  Also, average kinetic energy of a  The internal energy of the ideal gas is
the container
they have same average speed in all molecule is independent of its mass. 𝑈=𝑁 ∈
Pressure exerted by the gas : directions. So ̅̅̅ 𝑣𝑥 = ̅̅̅
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣̅𝑧 . Hence  The internal kinetic energy of the gas is 2
𝟑 ∴ 𝑃𝑉= 𝑁∈
 Consider a mono atomic gas of “N” ̅̅̅
𝑣 2 = ̅̅̅̅
𝑣𝑥2 + ̅̅̅̅
𝑣𝑦2 + ̅̅̅̅
𝑣𝑧2 = 3 ̅̅̅̅
𝑣𝑥2 𝑼= 𝑵∈= 𝑵𝒌𝑻 3
molecules each of mass “m” in a cubical 1 𝟐  At constant temperature, average
container of side "𝑙" (𝑜𝑟) ̅̅̅̅
𝑣𝑥2 = ̅̅̅
𝑣2  Thus the internal energy depends only kinetic energy (∈) is constant. Hence
3 on absolute temperature and is 𝑷 𝑽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
 As the molecules collides with each 1
other and with the walls, their ∴ 𝑃 = 𝑛 𝑚 ̅̅̅ 𝑣2 independent of pressure and volume. 𝟏
3 (𝒐𝒓) 𝑷 ∝
momentum changes. 𝟏 𝑵 𝑽
 Let the velocity of a molecule be ⃗⃗⃗𝑣 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑷 = 𝒎 ̅̅̅
𝒗𝟐  Thus at constant temperature, pressure
𝟑 𝑽
having components 𝑣𝑥 , 𝑣𝑦 , 𝑣𝑧 of the gas is inversely proportional to its
volume. This is Boyle’s law.
 Let the molecule hits the right side wall,
since the collision is elastic , the
Victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS). GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI – 608 502 Page 18
Charles law : 9.8 Derive the ratio of two specific heat
9.6 Describe the total degrees of 9.7 Define law of equipartition of
 Internal energy of the gas, freedom for mono atomic, diatomic and energy. Deduce the average kinetic capacities of mono atomic, di
3
𝑈 = 𝑁𝑘𝑇 tri atomic molecule. energy for mono, di and triatomic atomic and tri atomic molecules.
2 molecule
 From the ideal gas equation, Degrees of freedom: 1) Mono atomic molecules :
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝑘𝑇  The minimum number of independent Law of equipartition of Energy:  Average kinetic energy of mono atomic
3 coordinates needed to specify the  According to kinetic theory, the average molecule,
∴ 𝑈 = 𝑃𝑉 position and configuration of a thermo- kinetic energy of system of molecules in 3
2 [𝐾𝐸]𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑜 = 𝑘 𝑇
𝟐 𝟐 dynamical system in space is called the thermal equilibrium at temperature T is 2
(𝑜𝑟) 𝑷 𝑽 = 𝑼= 𝑵 ∈=𝑵𝒌𝑻 degree of freedom of the system. uniformly distributed to all degrees of  Total energy of a mole of gas,
𝟑 𝟑 3 3
𝑽 freedom (x or y or z), so that each
(𝑜𝑟) 𝑈 = 𝑘 𝑇 𝑋 𝑁𝐴 = 𝑅 𝑇
𝑽 ∝ 𝑻 (𝒐𝒓) = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 Number of 1 2 2

Example
𝑻 Type of degree of freedom will get 𝑘 𝑇 of
degree of 2  For one mole, the molar specific heat at
 At constant pressure, the volume of the molecule energy. This is called equipartition of constant volume and constant pressure
freedom
gas is directly proportional to the energy. 𝑑𝑈 𝑑 3 𝟑
absolute temperature.. This is Charles 𝐶𝑉 = = [ 𝑅 𝑇] = 𝑹
He, Average Kinetic energy of mono , di and 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝟐
law. Mono atomic
f = 3 Ne, tri atomic molecules : 3 𝟓
molecule 𝐶𝑃 = 𝐶𝑉 + 𝑅 = 𝑅+𝑅 = 𝑹
Ar 1) For mono atomic molecule, 𝒇 = 𝟑 2 𝟐
Avogadro’s law : At normal temperature So the average kinetic energy is ,
 Consider two different gases.  The ratio of two molar specific heats,
Translational motion (3) 𝟏 𝟑
O2, [𝑲𝑬]𝒎𝒐𝒏𝒐 = 𝟑 𝑿 𝒌 𝑻 = 𝒌 𝑻 5
 Let 𝑁1 and 𝑁2 are the number of gas Rotational motion (2) 𝟐 𝟐 𝐶𝑃 𝑅 𝟓
molecules in two gases respectively. Di atomic f=5 2) For di atomic molecule, at low 𝛾= = 2 = = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟕
H2 𝐶𝑉 3 𝟑
 Let ̅̅̅̅
𝑣12 and ̅̅̅̅𝑣22 are the mean square molecule At High temperature temperature, 𝒇 = 𝟓 . So the average 2
𝑅
Translation motion (3)
speed for the two gases respectively. N2 kinetic energy is 2) Di atomic molecules :
Rotation motion (2)
 For two different gases at the same 𝟏 𝟓  At low temperature,[𝑲𝑬𝒍𝒐𝒘 ]𝒅𝒊𝒂 = 𝑘 𝑇
5
Vibration motion (2) [𝑲𝑬𝒍𝒐𝒘 ]𝒅𝒊𝒂 = 𝟓 𝑿 𝒌 𝑻 = 𝒌 𝑻 2
temperature and pressure, according to 𝟐 𝟐 5 5
f=7 For di atomic molecule, at high ∴ 𝑈 = 𝑘 𝑇 𝑋 𝑁𝐴 = 𝑅 𝑇
kinetic theory of gases,
1 1
At normal temperature
temperature, 𝒇 = 𝟕 . So the average 2 2
𝑃𝑉= 𝑁 𝑚 𝑣 = ̅̅̅̅
2 ̅̅̅̅
𝑁 𝑚 𝑣 2 Translational motion (3) 𝑑𝑈 𝑑 5 𝟓
3 1 1 1 3 2 2 2 Rotational motion (2) kinetic energy is 𝐶𝑉 = = [ 𝑅 𝑇] = 𝑹
 Hence, Tri atomic 𝟏 𝟕 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝟐
molecule
f=5 [𝑲𝑬𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉 ] = 𝟕 𝑿 𝒌 𝑻 = 𝒌 𝑻 5 𝟕
1 ̅̅̅̅ =
2
1 ̅̅̅̅
2 At High temperature CO2 𝒅𝒊𝒂 𝟐 𝟐 𝐶𝑃 = 𝐶𝑉 + 𝑅 = 𝑅+𝑅 = 𝑹
𝑁 𝑚 𝑣 𝑁 𝑚 𝑣 3) For Linear tri atomic molecule, 𝒇 = 𝟕 . 2 𝟐
3 1 1 1 3 2 2 2 Translation motion (3)
(Linear type) 7
𝑁1 𝑚1 ̅̅̅̅
𝑣12 = 𝑁2 𝑚2 ̅̅̅̅ 𝑣22 − −(1) Rotation motion (2) So the average kinetic energy is 𝐶𝑃 𝑅 𝟕
 At the same temperature, average Vibration motion (2) 𝟏 𝟕 ∴ 𝛾= = 2 = = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟎
[𝑲𝑬𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 ]𝒕𝒓𝒊 = 𝟕 𝑿 𝒌 𝑻 = 𝒌 𝑻 𝐶𝑉 5 𝟓
kinetic energy per molecule is the same f = 7 𝟐 𝟐 2
𝑅
for two gases, (i.e.) Tri atomic Translational motion (3)
For Non - Linear tri atomic molecule,  At high temperature[𝑲𝑬𝒉𝒊𝒈𝒉 ] = 𝑘 𝑇
7

1 molecule 𝒇 = 𝟔 . So the average kinetic energy is 𝒅𝒊𝒂 2

𝑚1 𝑣 ̅̅̅̅2 = 1 𝑚 𝑣 ̅̅̅̅2 Rotational motion (3) H2O 7 7
2 1
2 2 2 (Non Linear 𝟏 𝑈 = 𝑘 𝑇 𝑋 𝑁𝐴 = 𝑅 𝑇
f=6 [𝑲𝑬𝒏𝒐𝒏−𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 ]𝒕𝒓𝒊 = 𝟔 𝑿 𝒌 𝑻 = 𝟑 𝒌 𝑻 2 2
(𝑜𝑟) ̅̅̅̅
2 ̅̅̅̅
2
𝑚1 𝑣1 = 𝑚2 𝑣2 − − − (2) type) 𝟐 𝑑𝑈 𝑑 7 𝟕
 Dividing equation (1) by (2), we get 𝐶𝑉 = = [ 𝑅 𝑇] = 𝑹
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝟐
𝑵𝟏 = 𝑵𝟐 7 𝟗
 Thus at constant temperature and 𝐶𝑃 = 𝐶𝑉 + 𝑅 = 𝑅+𝑅 = 𝑹
2 𝟐
pressure, equal volumes of all gases 9
contain the same number of molecules. 𝐶𝑃 𝑅 𝟗
∴ 𝛾= = 2 = = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟖
This is Avogadro’s law. 𝐶𝑉 7 𝟕
𝑅
2

Victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS). GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI – 608 502 Page 19
3) Tri atomic molecules :  That molecule collides with any 9.10 Describe Brownian motion. 10.1 What is meant by simple
 For linear tri atomic molecule, The molecule and the number of collisions is harmonic motion? Give examples and
average kinetic energy is equal to the number of molecules in the Brownian motion : explain why every simple harmonic
7 volume of the imaginary cylinder.  The random motion or zig - zag path of
[𝐾𝐸𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 ]𝑡𝑟𝑖 = 𝑘 𝑇 motion is a periodic motion whereas
2  Thus the mean free path () is given by pollen suspended in a liquid is called the converse need not be true?
7 7 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 Brownian motion.
∴ 𝑈 = 𝑘 𝑇 𝑋 𝑁𝐴 = 𝑅 𝑇 𝜆=
2 2 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 Explanation : Simple harmonic motion (SHM) :
𝑑𝑈 𝑑 7 𝟕 𝒗𝒕 𝟏  Wiener and Gouy proposed that  SHM is a special type of oscillatory
𝐶𝑉 = = [ 𝑅 𝑇] = 𝑹 𝝀 = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝟐 𝟐
𝝅𝒅 𝒗𝒕𝒏 𝝅 𝒅𝟐 𝒏 Brownian motion is due to the motion in which the acceleration or
7 𝟗  We assume that, only one molecule is in bombardment of suspended particles force on the particle is directly
𝐶𝑃 = 𝐶𝑉 + 𝑅 = 𝑅+𝑅 = 𝑹
2 𝟐 motion, but in practice all the molecules by molecules of the surrounding fluid. proportional to its displacement from a
9 are in random motion.  But at that time, people did not accept fixed point and is always directed
𝐶𝑃 𝑅 𝟗
∴ 𝛾= = 2 = = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟖  So the average relative speed of one that every matter is made up of small towards that fixed point
𝐶𝑉 7 𝟕 (e.g.) Simple pendulum, heartbeat,
𝑅 molecule with respect to other atoms or molecules.
2 swinging motion of wings of an insect,.
 For Non - linear tri atomic molecule, The molecules has to be taken in to account  In 1905, Einstein gave systematic
 Hence the correct expression for mean theory of Brownian motion based on Reason :
average kinetic energy is
6 free path, kinetic theory and deduced the average  The time period (i.e.) time taken for one
[𝑲𝑬𝒏𝒐𝒏−𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒂𝒓 ]𝒕𝒓𝒊 = 𝑘 𝑇 = 3 𝑘 𝑇 𝟏 size of molecules. complete oscillation is a constant for
2 𝝀 =
∴ 𝑈 = 3 𝑘 𝑇 𝑋 𝑁𝐴 = 3 𝑅 𝑇 𝟐
𝝅 𝒅 𝒏 √𝟐  According to kinetic theory, any particle SHM.
𝑑𝑈 𝑑 𝟏 suspended in liquid or gas is  We know that any motion which
𝐶𝑉 = = [3 𝑅 𝑇] = 𝟑 𝑹  Thus, 𝝀 ∝ . It implies that, when repeats itself in a fixed time interval is
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝒏 continuously bombarded from all the
number density increases, the directions, so that the mean free path is known as periodic motion.
𝐶𝑃 = 𝐶𝑉 + 𝑅 = 3 𝑅 + 𝑅 = 𝟒 𝑹
molecular collisions also increases, so it almost negligible.  Thus the oscillatory motion of simple
𝐶𝑃 4𝑅 𝟒
∴ 𝛾= = = = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟑 decreases mean free path.  This leads to the motion of particles in a pendulum, heartbeat, etc., are periodic
𝐶𝑉 3𝑅 𝟑  The above equation is rewritten as random and zig-zag motion. motion.
𝑚
𝜆 = Factors affecting Brownian Motion :  But the periodic motions like motion of
𝜋 𝑑 2 𝑚 𝑛 √2 1) Brownian motion increases with Earth around the Sun, waxing - waning
𝒎 increasing temperature. of Moon etc., do not have to and fro
𝝀 =
9.9 Derive an expression for mean 𝝅 𝒅𝟐 𝝆 √𝟐 2) Brownian motion decreases with motion (i.e.) oscillatory motion.
free path of the gas  But, 𝑃 𝑉 = 𝑁 𝑘 𝑇 bigger particle, size, high viscosity  Thus every SHM are periodic , but every
𝑁 𝑃
 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑃 = 𝑘 𝑇 = 𝑛 𝑘 𝑇 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑛 = and density of the liquid (or) gas periodic motion is not SHM
Mean free path: 𝑉 𝑘𝑇
 The average distance travelled by the  Substituting this, we get,
molecule between collisions is called 𝒌𝑻
𝝀 =
mean free path based on kinetic theory. 𝟐
𝝅 𝒅 𝑷 √𝟐
Expression for mean free path :  Thus.
 Consider a system of molecules each 1) Mean free path increases with
with diameter “d” and assume that only increasing temperature.
one molecule is in motion. 2) Mean free path increases with
 Number of molecules/volume = n decreasing in pressure and
Average speed of molecule = 𝑣 diameter of the molecule.
Distance travelled in time “t” =𝑣𝑡
In this time “t” the molecule to move in
imaginary cylinder of volume = 𝜋𝑑 2 𝑣𝑡
The number of molecules in this
imaginary cylinder, = 𝜋𝑑 2 𝑣𝑡𝑛

Victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS). GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI – 608 502 Page 20
 10.2 Describe simple harmonic 10.3 What is meant by angular 10.4 Explain the horizontal oscillations 10.5 Explain the vertical oscillation of
motion as a projection of harmonic oscillation? Compute the of a spring a spring
uniform circular motion time period of angular harmonic
oscillation Horizontal oscillations of spring : Vertical oscillations of spring :
Projection of uniform circular motion :
 Consider a particle of mass “m” moving Angular harmonic oscillation:
with uniform speed “𝑣” along a circle of  When a body is allowed to rotate freely
radius “r” in anti-clock wise direction. about a give axis, then the oscillation is
known as the angular oscillation.
 If the body is displaced from its men
position, the resultant torque acts on it
is directly proportional to the angular
displacement and it always has a  Consider a system containing mass “m”
 Consider a system containing mass “m” attached to a mass less spring with
tendency to bring the body towards the
attached to a mass less spring with spring constant “k” which is suspended
mean position, then it is known as
spring constant “k” placed on a smooth freely from the ceiling.
angular harmonic oscillation.
horizontal surface.  Length of the spring before loading = L
Expression for time period (T) :
 Suppose the mass is displaced through Elongation of spring due to mass = 𝑙
 Then by definition angular SHM,
a distance “x” towards right from its  Let “𝐹1 ” be the restoring force, then
 ⃗⃗𝜏 ∝ ⃗⃗⃗𝜃 (𝑜𝑟) ⃗⃗𝝉 = − 𝒌 ⃗⃗⃗𝜽 equilibrium position and then released, 𝐹1 ∝ 𝑙 (𝑜𝑟) 𝐹1 = −𝑘 𝑙
 Here, 𝑘 is called restoring torsion It will oscillate back and forth about its
constant which is defined as torque per  The gravitational force : 𝐹𝑔 = 𝑚 𝑔
mean position.
 Let “𝜔” be the angular velocity, then the unit angular displacement.  At equilibrium,
 Let “F” be the restoring force due to 𝐹1 + 𝐹𝑔 = 0
angular displacement of the particle at  But torque is given by stretching of the spring, then
any instant “t” is 𝜽 = 𝝎 𝒕 ⃗
𝒅𝟐 𝜽 −𝑘 𝑙 + 𝑚 𝑔 = 0
𝐹 ∝ 𝑥 (𝑜𝑟) 𝐹 = −𝑘 𝑥
⃗⃗𝝉 = 𝑰 ⃗⃗⃗
𝜶 = 𝑰 (𝑜𝑟) 𝑚𝑔 =𝑘𝑙
 Let us project the position of the particle 𝒅𝒕𝟐  From Newton’s second law, 𝒎 𝒍
moving on a circle, on to a line parallel 𝑑 𝜃 2
𝑑2𝑥 ∴ =
to vertical diameter or horizontal axis, ∴ I = − 𝑘 ⃗⃗⃗𝜃 𝐹=𝑚 𝒌 𝒈
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2  If the mass is further displaced
the projection traces a straight line 𝑑2𝜃 𝑘 𝑑2𝑥
motion which is simple harmonic in = − ⃗⃗⃗𝜃 𝑚 = −𝑘𝑥 downward through a small distance “𝑦”
𝑑𝑡 2 I 𝑑𝑡 2 and then released, it will oscillate up
nature. 2
𝑑 𝑥 𝑘
𝒅𝟐 ⃗𝜽 𝒌 = − 𝑥 and down.
 This means we can associate a + ⃗⃗⃗𝜽 = 𝟎 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚
relationship between uniform circular 𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝐈 𝟐
 Let “ 𝐹2” be the new restoring force, then
 It is similar to differential equation for 𝒅 𝒙 𝒌 𝐹2 ∝ (𝑙 + 𝑦)
motions to oscillatory motion. + 𝒙 =𝟎
𝒅𝟐 𝒚
⃗ 𝒅𝒕 𝟐 𝒎 (𝑜𝑟)
 The circle is known as reference circle SHM. [ 𝟐 + 𝝎𝟐 ⃗⃗⃗𝒚 = 𝟎 ]. Hence 𝐹2 = −𝑘 (𝑙 + 𝑦) = −𝑘 𝑙 − 𝑘 𝑦
𝒅𝒕  This is similar to differential equation of  Then the total force.,
of SHM. 𝒅𝟐 𝒙
⃗
 Thus the SHM can also be defined as the 𝑘 𝒌 SHM . [ + 𝝎𝟐 ⃗⃗⃗𝒙 = 𝟎 ], then 𝐹 = 𝐹2 + 𝑚 𝑔
𝜔2 = (𝒐𝒓) 𝝎 = √ 𝒅𝒕𝟐
motion of projection of a particle on an I 𝐈 𝐹 = −𝑘 𝑙 − 𝑘 𝑦 + 𝑚 𝑔
𝑘 𝒌  But, 𝑚 𝑔 = 𝑘 𝑙 . ∴ 𝐹 = −𝑘 𝑦
diameter of a circle of reference.  Then time period of angular SHM 𝜔2 = (𝒐𝒓) 𝝎=√
m 𝐦  From Newton’s second law,
𝟐𝝅 𝐈  Then the time period is 𝑑2 𝑦
𝑻= = 𝟐𝝅√ 𝑚 = −𝑘𝑦
By 𝝎 𝐤 𝟐𝝅 𝐦 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑻= = 𝟐𝝅√ 2
𝑑 𝑦 𝑘
 Frequency is given by 𝝎 𝐤 = − 𝑦
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚
 Its frequency,
𝟏 𝟏 𝒌 𝟐
𝒅 𝒚 𝒌
𝒇= = √ 𝟏 𝟏 𝒌 + 𝒚=𝟎
𝑻 𝟐𝝅 𝐈 𝒇= = √ 𝒅𝒕 𝟐 𝒎
𝑻 𝟐𝝅 𝐦

Victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS). GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI – 608 502 Page 21
 This is similar to differential equation of  If “n” springs are connected in series, the 
(i.e.) the effective spring constant  The restoring force is
SHM . [
𝒅𝟐 𝒙
⃗ 𝟐
+ 𝝎 ⃗⃗⃗𝒙 = 𝟎 ], then effective spring constant is increases by the factor “n” 𝑑2𝑠
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒏 𝑚 = − 𝑚 𝑔 sin 𝜃
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 
Thus for springs in parallel connection, 𝑑𝑡 2
𝒌 𝒌 = + + + …+ = ∑ the effective spring constant is greater 2
𝑑 𝑠
𝝎𝟐 = (𝒐𝒓) 𝝎=√ 𝒌𝒔 𝒌𝟏 𝒌𝟐 𝒌𝟑 𝒌𝒏 𝒌𝒊 (𝑜𝑟) = − 𝑔 sin 𝜃
𝐦 𝐦
𝒊=𝟏 than individual spring constant. 𝑑𝑡 2
 If 𝑘1 = 𝑘2 = 𝑘3 … … = 𝑘𝑛 = 𝑘, then  From the figure , 𝑠 = 𝑙 𝜃 . Hence
 Then the time period is 𝟏 𝒏 𝒌
= (𝒐𝒓) 𝒌𝒔 = 10.8 Discuss the simple pendulum in 𝑑2𝑠 𝑑2𝜃
𝟐𝝅 𝐦 𝒍 𝒌𝒔 𝒌 𝒏 = 𝑙
detail. 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑻= = 𝟐𝝅√ =𝟐𝝅√  (i.e.) the effective spring constant
𝝎 𝐤 𝐠  Therefore,
reduces by the factor “n” Simple pendulum : 𝑑2𝜃
 The acceleration due to gravity “g” can  Thus for springs in series connection, 𝑙 = − 𝑔 sin 𝜃
be computed from the above formula, 𝑑𝑡 2
the effective spring constant is lesser 2
𝑑 𝜃 𝑔
𝒍 = − sin 𝜃
𝒈 = 𝟒 𝝅𝟐 [ 𝟐 ] than the individual spring constants. 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑙
𝑻
 If θ is small, then sin 𝜃 = 𝜃
𝑑2𝜃 𝑔
10.6 Deduce the effective spring 10.7 Deduce the effective spring ∴ = − 𝜃
constant when the springs are 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑙
constant when the springs are 𝒅𝟐 𝜽 𝒈
connected in series. connected in parallel. (𝑜𝑟) + 𝜽 =𝟎
𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒍
Springs connected in series :  This is similar to differential equation of
Springs connected in parallel :  Simple pendulum is a mechanical 𝒅𝟐 𝒙
⃗
system which exhibits periodic motion. SHM . [ + 𝝎𝟐 ⃗⃗⃗𝒙 = 𝟎 ] . So the
𝒅𝒕𝟐
 It has a bob with mass “m” suspended motion of simple pendulum is a simple
by a long inextensible string fixed on a harmonic. Then
stand. 𝑔 𝑔
𝜔2 = (𝒐𝒓) 𝝎 = √
 At equilibrium, the pendulum hangs l l
 Let two springs of spring constants “𝑘1 ” vertically downwards and this is called  Thus the time period is given by
 Let two springs of spring constants “𝑘1 ” and “𝑘2 ” are connected in parallel. its mean position.
and “𝑘2 ” are connected in series.  Let “𝑘𝑃 ” be the effective spring constant  When the pendulum is displaced 𝟐𝝅 𝒍
𝑻= = 𝟐𝝅√
 Let “𝑘𝑠 ” be the effective spring constant in series. through a small distance and then 𝝎 𝒈
in series.  Let “F” be the applied force towards released, the bob executes oscillatory  The frequency is given by,
 Let “F” be the applied force towards right , then both the springs stretch by motion about its mean position. 𝟏 𝟏 𝒈
right , then the springs stretch different same displacements. Let it be “𝑥”  Let “𝑙” be length of the pendulum 𝒇= = √
lengths. Let it be 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 𝑻 𝟐𝝅 𝒍
 From Hooke’s law,  At any displaced position, the forces
 The net displacement of the mass “m” is 𝐹 = − 𝑘𝑃 𝑥 acts on the bob are,
; 𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2  But 𝐹1 = − 𝑘1 𝑥 and 𝐹2 = − 𝑘2 𝑥 , 1) The gravitational force ⃗⃗⃗𝐹 = 𝑚 ⃗⃗⃗𝑔
 From Hooke’s law therefore net force is acting vertically downwards
𝐹 = − 𝑘𝑠 (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ) 𝐹 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2
𝐹 2) The tension ⃗⃗⃗𝑇 along the string to
(𝑜𝑟) 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = − − 𝑘𝑃 𝑥 = − 𝑘1 𝑥 − 𝑘2 𝑥 the point of suspension
𝑘𝑠 𝒌 𝑷 = 𝒌𝟏 + 𝒌𝟐  Resolving the gravitational force in to
 Also, 𝐹 = − 𝑘1 𝑥1 = − 𝑘2 𝑥2 , then  If “n” springs are connected in paralle, its components.
𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 the effective spring constant is
− − = − 𝒏 1) Normal component ; 𝐹𝑎𝑠 = 𝑚 𝑔 cos 𝜃
𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘𝑠 2) Tangential component ; 𝐹𝑝𝑠 = 𝑚 𝑔 sin 𝜃
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝒌𝑷 = 𝒌𝟏 + 𝒌𝟐 + 𝒌𝟐 + . . + 𝒌𝒏 = ∑ 𝒌𝒊
= +  Then the centripetal force (normal
𝒊=𝟏
𝒌 𝒔 𝒌𝟏 𝒌𝟐 component ) along the string,
 If 𝑘1 = 𝑘2 = 𝑘3 … … = 𝑘𝑛 = 𝑘, then
𝒌𝟏 𝒌𝟐 𝒎 𝒗𝟐
(𝑜𝑟) 𝒌𝒔 = 𝒌𝑷 = 𝒏 𝒌 = 𝑻 − 𝒎 𝒈 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
𝒌𝟏 + 𝒌𝟐 𝒍
Victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS). GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI – 608 502 Page 22
10.9 State and explains laws of simple  Initial time period of simple pendulum,  If the liquid and the tube is not 2) Expression for kinetic energy (KE) :
pendulum 𝑙𝑜
disturbed, the level of liquids in the two  The kinetic energy is given by,
𝑇𝑜 = 2 𝜋 √ − − − (1) arms are equal and in equilibrium 1 2
1 𝑑𝑥 2
Laws of simple pendulum : 𝑔 position “O” 𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑚 [ ]
2 2 𝑑𝑡
 The time period of simple pendulum is  The new time period due to change in  It means the pressure at any point on  For SHM, 𝑥 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 , then
𝒍 temperature, the liquid is the same and also at the 𝑑𝑥
𝑻=𝟐𝝅√ surface of the liquid surface on the arm. ∴ 𝑣𝑥 = = 𝐴 𝜔 cos 𝜔𝑡 = 𝜔√𝐴2 − 𝑥 2
𝒈 𝑙 𝑙𝑜 (1 + 𝛼 ∆𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑇= 2𝜋√ = 2𝜋√  By blowing air in one arm, the level of  Therefore kinetic energy is,
1) Law of length : 𝑔 𝑔 liquid get disturbed from equilibrium 𝟏
 For a given value of “g”, the time position “O” which means the pressure 𝑲𝑬(𝒙) = 𝒎 𝝎𝟐 [𝑨𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐 ]
𝑙0 𝟐
period of a simple pendulum is 𝑇 = 2 𝜋 √ √(1 + 𝛼 ∆𝑡) at blown arm is higher than the other 𝟏
𝑔 (𝒐𝒓) 𝑲𝑬(𝒕) = 𝒎 𝑨𝟐 𝝎𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝝎𝒕
directly proportional to the square arm. 𝟐
root of length “𝑙” the pendulum. 1
 This creates difference in pressure 3) Expression for total energy (E) :
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑜 (1 + 𝛼 ∆𝑡)2
𝑻 ∝ √𝒍 1 which will cause the liquid to oscillate  It is the sum of potential and kinetic
2) Law of acceleration : 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑜 [1 + 𝛼 ∆𝑡] for a very short duration of time about energy and it is given by,
2 𝑬 = 𝑲𝑬(𝒙) + 𝑼(𝒙)
 For a fixed “𝑙”, the time period of a 1 the equilibrium position and finally
simple pendulum is inversely 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑜 + 𝑇𝑜 𝛼 ∆𝑡 comes to rest. 1 1
2 𝐸 = 𝑚 𝜔2 [𝐴2 − 𝑥 2 ] + 𝑚 𝜔2 𝑥 2
proportional to the square root of 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑜 1  Time period of the oscillation is, 2 2
acceleration due to gravity. = 𝛼 ∆𝑡 𝟏 𝟐 𝟐
𝑇𝑜 2 𝒍 𝑬= 𝒎 𝝎 𝑨 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
1 𝑻= 𝟐𝝅√ 𝟐
𝑇 ∝ ∆𝑇 1 𝟐𝒈  Alternatively, we have
√𝑔 = 𝛼 ∆𝑡
𝑬 = 𝑲𝑬(𝒕) + 𝑼(𝒕)
𝑇𝑜 2
3) Law of mass of the bob : 𝟏 1
 The time period of oscillation of ∆𝑻 = 𝑻𝒐 [ 𝜶 ∆𝒕] 𝐸 = 𝑚 𝜔2 𝐴2 cos 2 𝜔𝑡
𝟐 2
simple pendulum is independent of  Here “∆𝑻” is the change in time period 1
mass of the simple pendulum. + 𝑚 𝜔2 𝐴2 sin2 𝜔𝑡
due to the effect of temperature. 2
4) Law of amplitude of oscillation: 𝟏
 For small angular displacement, the 𝑬 = 𝒎 𝝎𝟐 𝑨𝟐 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝟐
time period of simple pendulum is
independent of amplitude of the 10.12 Discuss in detail the energy in
oscillation. 10.11 Write short notes on the simple harmonic motion
oscillations of liquid column in U-tube
1) Expression for potential energy (U):
Oscillations of liquid column in U- tube :  For SHM, byHooke’ s law, ⃗⃗⃗𝑭 = − 𝒌 ⃗⃗𝒓
10.10 Explain the variation of time
 In one dimension, 𝑭 = − 𝒌 𝒙
period of simple pendulum due
 Then the work done is given by,
to change in temperature  Thus the amplitude of simple harmonic
𝑑𝑊 = −𝐹 𝑑𝑥 = −(−𝑘 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
oscillator can be expressed in terms of
Effect of temperature in time period :  Thus the total potential energy is,
𝑥 total energy.
 If temperature changes, the length of 1
𝑈(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑘 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 𝑥2 𝟐𝑬 𝟐𝑬
suspension wire also changes (linear 2 𝑨𝟐 = =
expansion) 0 𝒎 𝝎𝟐 𝒌
 Consider a U - shaped glass tube which 𝑘
 Let initial length of wire = 𝑙𝑜  But 𝜔2 = , then 𝑘 = 𝑚 𝜔2 . So 𝟐𝑬 𝟐𝑬
consists of two open arms. m (𝒐𝒓) 𝑨= √ =√
Change in temperature = ∆𝑡 𝟏 𝒎 𝝎 𝟐 𝒌
 Let us pour a non-viscous uniform 𝑼(𝒙) = 𝒎 𝝎𝟐 𝒙𝟐
Coefficient of linear expansion= 𝛼 𝟐
incompressible liquid of density “” in
 Then the final length of wire due to  For SHM, 𝑥 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 . So
the U - tube to a height “h”
increase in temperature, 𝟏
𝑙 = 𝑙𝑜 (1 + 𝛼 ∆𝑡) 𝑼(𝒕) = 𝒎 𝝎𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝝎𝒕
𝟐
Victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS). GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI – 608 502 Page 23
11.1 Discuss how ripples are formed in
still water.
Ripples formed in still water :
 If we drop a stone in a trough of still
water, we see the disturbance produced Velocity of transverse waves in string :
at the place where the stone strikes the  When a jerk is given at one end of the
water surface.
 This disturbance spreads out in the
form of concentric circles of ever
increasing radii called ripples.
 This is because some of the kinetic
energy of the stone is transmitted to the
water molecules on the surface.
 Actually the medium will not move
outward with this disturbance but it
undergo vibratory motion about their
mean position.
 The ripples are propagated as
transverse waves which is
characterized by crests and troughs
11.2 Briefly explain the difference
between travelling waves and
standing waves.
Travelling waves (Progressive waves) :
 These waves are move forward or
backward in a medium (i.e.) they will
advance in a medium with a definite
velocity.
 All particles in the medium vibrate such
that the amplitude of vibration for all
particles is same
 These energy carry momentum and
energy while propagation.
Standing waves (Stationary waves) :
 These waves neither move forward nor
move backward in a medium (i.e.) they
will not advance in a medium
 Except at nodes, all particles vibrate
with different amplitudes. The
amplitude of vibration is zero at nodes
and maximum at anti nodes.
 These waves do not transport energy
Victory
11.3 Show that the velocity of a and B. It can be resolved in two  Let “𝜌” be the density of the fluid which
travelling wave produced in a components. is initially at rest.
𝑻
1) Horizontal components  Let “𝑢” be the velocity of the piston and
string is 𝒗 = √ − 𝑇 cos 𝜃, 𝑇 cos 𝜃 “𝑣” be the velocity of the elastic wave.
𝝁
2) Vertical components  In time interval "𝑡" the distance
− 𝑇 s𝑖𝑛 𝜃, 𝑇 s𝑖𝑛 𝜃 moved by the piston = ∆𝑑 = 𝑢 𝑡
 The horizontal components are equal in  The distance moved by the elastic
string or rope, the wave pulse moves magnitude but opposite in direction, disturbance = ∆𝑥 = 𝑣 𝑡
towards the other end with a velocity therefore cancel each other.  The mass of the air moved in time “∆𝑡”
“𝑣”  The vertical components are in same ∆𝑚 = 𝜌 𝑉 = 𝜌 𝐴 ∆𝑥 = 𝜌 𝐴 𝑣 ∆𝑡
direction and hence they add up. So the  Then the momentum imparted due to
net radial force, motion of piston with velocity “u” is
𝐹𝑅 = 𝑇 s𝑖𝑛 𝜃 + 𝑇 s𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = 2 𝑇 sin 𝜃 ∆𝑝 = ∆𝑚 𝑢 = (𝜌 𝐴 𝑣 ∆𝑡 ) 𝑢
 If 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙, sin 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃  But the change in momentum (i.e.)
𝑑𝑙 impulse is
∴ 𝐹𝑅 = 𝑇 2 𝜃 = 𝑇
𝑅 𝐼 = ∆𝑝 = [∆𝑃 𝐴] ∆𝑡 = 𝜌 𝐴 𝑣 ∆𝑡 𝑢
 Under equilibrium, the radial ∴ ∆𝑃 = 𝜌 𝑣 𝑢
component of the force is equal to the  But when sound wave travels through
centripetal force. Hence air, there occur pressure - volume
𝑑𝑙 (𝜇 𝑑𝑙) 𝑣 2 change . Let “B” be the bulk modulus of
𝑇 =
𝑅 𝑅 the medium, then
𝑇 = 𝜇 𝑣2 ∆𝑃 𝑉 ∆𝑃 [𝐴 ∆𝑥] ∆𝑃 𝑣 𝑡 ∆𝑃
𝑇 𝐵= = = =
𝑣2 = ∆𝑉 ∆𝑉 [𝐴 ∆𝑑] 𝑢 𝑡
 Consider an elemental segment in the 𝜇 𝑉
string. 𝑣 ∆𝑃
𝑻 𝐵 =
 Let “A” and “B” be two points on the 𝒗= √ 𝑢
strings at an instant of time and let, 𝝁 𝑢
∴ ∆𝑃 = 𝐵
𝐴𝐵 = 𝑑𝑙 𝑣
11.4 Derive the expression for velocity 𝑢
 Let “𝜇 ” be the mass per unit length (i.e.) (𝑜𝑟) 𝜌𝑣𝑢 = 𝐵
of longitudinal waves in an elastic 𝑣
linear mass density, then mass of this
medium 𝐵
segment, 𝑑𝑚 = 𝜇 𝑑𝑙 ∴ 2
𝑣 =
 Consider this segment as an arc of Velocity of longitudinal waves : 𝜌
radius “R” with centre “O”, then  Consider an elastic medium (air) having 𝐵
𝐴𝐵 𝑑𝑙 a fixed mass contained in a cylinder 𝑣 =√
2𝜃 = = 𝜌
𝐴𝑂 𝑅 whose cross sectional area is “A” and
 The centripetal acceleration supplied maintained under a pressure “P”  In general, if “E” be the modulus of
by the tension in the string is, elasticity of the medium, then the
𝑣2 velocity of longitudinal waves is
𝑎𝑐𝑝 =
𝑅 𝑬
 Then the centripetal force is 𝒗 =√
𝝆
𝐹𝑐𝑝 = (𝑑𝑚) 𝑎𝑐𝑝
(𝑑𝑚) 𝑣 2 (𝜇 𝑑𝑙) 𝑣 2
𝐹𝑐𝑝 = =
𝑅 𝑅
 The tension “T” acts along the tangent of  By displacing the fluid using piston, the
the elemental segment of the sting at A longitudinal waves can be generated.
R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS). GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI – 608 502 Page 24
 𝑑𝑃
11.5 Describe Newton’s formula for 𝑃𝛾 =− = 𝐵𝐴 11.7 Write short notes on reflection of 11.8 List the characteristics of
velocity of sound waves in air and 𝑑𝑉 sound waves from plane and progressive waves.
( )
also discuss Laplace correction. 𝑉 curved surfaces
where, 𝐵𝐴 → Adiabatic bulk modulus of air Characteristics of progressive waves :
Newton’s formula :  The speed of sound in air is, Reflection of sound at plane surface :  Particles in medium vibrate about their
 Sir Isaac Newton assumed that, when 𝑩𝑨 𝑷𝛾  When the sound waves hit the plane mean positions with the same
sound propagates in air, the formation 𝒗𝑨 =√ = √ = 𝒗𝑻 √ 𝛾 wall, they bounce off in a manner amplitude.
𝝆 𝝆
of compressions and rarefactions takes similar to light.  The phase of every particle ranges from
𝐶
place in a very slow manner so that the  Here, 𝛾 = 𝑃  Suppose a loud speaker is kept at an “0” to “2”
𝐶𝑉
process is isothermal in nature. angle with respect to a wall, then the  No particle remains at rest
 For air, 𝛾 = 1.47 .Hence speed of sound
 For isothermal process, the gas obeys waves coming from the source can be permanently. During wave propagation,
in air is,
Boyle’s law (i.e.) 𝑷 𝑽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 treated as spherical wave fronts. particles come to the rest position only
 Differentiate, 𝑃 𝑑𝑉 + 𝑉 𝑑𝑃 = 0 𝒗𝑨 = 𝟐𝟖𝟎 √𝟏. 𝟒𝟕 = 𝟑𝟑𝟏. 𝟑 𝒎 𝒔−𝟏
 Therefore the reflected wave front on twice at the extreme points.
 This value is very much closer to the
𝑃 𝑑𝑉 = − 𝑉 𝑑𝑃 the plane surface is also spherical such  Transverse progressive waves are
experimental value.
𝑉 𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑃 that its centre of curvature can be characterized by crests and troughs
𝑃=− =− = 𝐵𝑇 treated as the image of the sound source where as longitudinal progressive
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 11.6 Discuss the effect of temperature
( ) which can be assumed to be at a waves are characterized by
𝑉 on the speed of sound in air.
where, 𝐵𝑇 → Isothermal bulk modulus of air position behind the plane surface. compression and rarefactions.
Effect of temperature :
 The speed of sound in air,  When the particles pass through the
 Speed of sound in air,
Reflection of sound at curved surface : mean position they always move with
𝑩𝑻 𝑷
𝒗𝑻 = √ = √ 𝑃𝛾  The sound reflected from a convex same maximum velocity.
𝝆 𝝆 𝑣 =√ = √𝛾 𝑐 𝑇 surface is spread out and so it is easily  The displacement, velocity and
𝜌
 At NTP, 𝜌 = 1.293 𝑘𝑔 𝑚−3 attenuated and weakened. acceleration of particles separated from
(𝑜𝑟) 𝑣 ∝ √𝑇 each other by “𝑛 𝜆” are the same, where
𝑃 = 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 1.013 𝑋 105 𝑁 𝑚−2  But the sound reflected from a concave
 Thus the speed of sound air is directly surface, it will converge at a point and “ 𝑛" is an integer and “ 𝜆" is the
𝑷 𝟏. 𝟎𝟏𝟑 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟓 proportional to the square root of the this can be easily amplified. wavelength.
∴ 𝒗𝑻 = √ = √ ≈ 𝟐𝟖𝟎 𝒎 𝒔 −𝟏
𝝆 𝟏. 𝟐𝟗𝟑 absolute temperature.  The parabolic reflector which is used to
 Let “𝑣𝑜 ” be the speed of sound at 0C focus the sound precisely to a point is
 But the speed of sound in air at 0C is (273 K), and “𝑣𝑡 ” be the speed of sound
experimentally observed as 𝟑𝟑𝟐 𝒎 𝒔 −𝟏 used in designing the parabolic mics
at tC (273 + t), then Âirntf« 𝑣𝑜 which are known as high directional
 It is about 16% more than the
vdΫ, tC (273 + t) microphones.
theoretical value.
Laplace correction : 𝑣𝑜 ∝ √273  Any surface can absorb sound which
 Laplace corrected this discrepancy by 𝑣𝑡 ∝ √273 + 𝑡 caused energy loss.
assuming when sound propagates in air, 1  To avoid such losses , a curved sound
𝑣𝑡 273 + 𝑡 𝑡 2 1 𝑡 board is kept in front of the speaker, so
the formation of compressions and =√ = [1 + ] = [1 + ( )]
rarefactions takes place rapid manner 𝑣𝑜 273 273 2 273 that the board reflects the sound waves
so that the process is adiabatic in 𝑣𝑡 𝑡 of the speaker towards the audience.
≅ 1+
nature. 𝑣𝑜 546
 For adiabatic process, the gas obeys 𝑡
𝑣𝑡 = 𝑣𝑜 [1 + ]
Poisson’s law (i.e.) 𝑷 𝑽𝜸 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 546
 Differentiate, 𝑡 331
𝑣𝑡 = 331 [1 + ] = 331 + 𝑡
𝑉 𝛾 𝑑𝑃 + 𝑃 𝛾 𝑉 𝛾−1 𝑑𝑉 = 0 546 546
 Divide by 𝑉 𝛾−1 on both sides 𝒗𝒕 = (𝟑𝟑𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏 𝒕 ) 𝒎 𝒔−𝟏
𝑃 𝛾 𝑑𝑉 = −𝑉 𝑑𝑃  Thus the speed of sound in air increases
𝑉 𝑑𝑃 by 0.61 ms-1 per degree rise in
𝑃𝛾 = −
𝑑𝑉 temperature.
Victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS). GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI – 608 502 Page 25
11.9 Briefly explain the concept of
superposition principle.
Superposition principle:
 When a jerk is given to a stretched
string which is tied at one end, a wave
pulse is produced and it travels along
the string.
 Suppose the jerk is given at either ends
simultaneously, then the two wave
pulses move towards each other, meet
at some point and move away from each
other with their original identity.
 Their behavior is different only at the
meeting point which depends on their
shape.
 When the pulses have the same shape at
the meeting, the total displacement is
the algebraic sum of their individual
displacements and hence its net
amplitude is higher than the amplitudes
of the individual pulses.
 Whereas if the two pulsed have same
amplitude but shapes are 180 out of
phase at the meeting point, the net
amplitude vanishes at that point and
the pulses will recover their identities
after crossing.
 Imax = 𝐈𝟏 + 𝐈𝟐 + 𝟐 √𝐈𝟏 𝐈𝟐 = [√𝐈𝟏 + √𝐈𝟐 ]
 This property is called superposition of
waves.
 Then according to superposition
principle, when to two or more waves
in a medium move simultaneously,
when they overlap, the total
displacement is the vector sum of the
individual displacements.
 If ⃗⃗⃗
𝑌1 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑌2 , ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑌3 , ….are the displacements of
individual waves, then the resultant
displacement is,
⃗𝒀 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒀𝟏 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒀𝟐 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒀𝟑 + … ….
 The principle of superposition explains,
1) Interference (Space intefernce_ 
2) Beats (Time interference)
3) Stationary waves
Victory
11.10 Explain the interference of waves 11. 11 What are stationary waves? 11.12 write down the characteristics
formed. Explain the formation of of stationary waves
stationary waves
Interference : Characteristics of stationary waves :
 It is the phenomenon in which two Stationary waves :  It is characterized by the confinement of
waves superimpose to form a resultant  Two waves of same amplitude, same wave disturbance between two rigid
wave of greater, lower or the same velocity and same frequency boundaries. (i.e.) this wave does not
amplitude. superimpose in opposite direction, the move forward or backward in a medium
Theory : resulting pattern is called standing and remain steady at its place. Hence
 Consider two harmonic waves waves or stationary waves. they are called standing waves or
𝑦1 = 𝐴1 sin (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) Theory : stationary waves.
𝑦2 = 𝐴2 sin (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)  Consider two harmonic progressive  In certain points the amplitude is
 From superposition principle, waves having displacement equations, maximum called as anti-nodes and
𝒚 = 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐 = 𝑨 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒌𝒙 − 𝝎𝒕 + 𝜽) 𝑦1 = 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) certain points the amplitude is
 The resultant amplitude and intensity 𝑦2 = 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡) minimum or zero called as nodes
 From superposition principle, the  The distance between two consecutive
𝑨 = √𝑨𝟏𝟐 + 𝑨𝟐𝟐 + 𝟐 𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝋 resultant displacement, 𝝀
nodes (or) anti-nodes is
𝐈 = 𝐈𝟏 + 𝐈𝟐 + 𝟐 √𝐈𝟏 𝐈𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛗 𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 𝟐
𝑦 = 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) + 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑥 + 𝜔𝑡)  The distance between a node and its
Constructive interference : 𝝀
 When crest of one wave meets crest of  By solving , we get neighbouring anti-node is
𝒚 (𝒙, 𝒕) = 𝟐 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒌𝒙 𝟒
another wave (or) trough meets  The transfer of energy along the
troughs, their amplitude will added up 𝒚 (𝒙, 𝒕) = 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕
standing wave is zero.
and the resultant amplitude and  where, 𝐴 = 2 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥
intensity becomes maximum. 
𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋
If sin 𝑘𝑥 = 1 (or) 𝑘𝑥 = , , , …
2 2 2
 Thus for constructive interference, then amplitude in this position is
𝜑 = 0, 2𝜋, 4𝜋, 6𝜋, … = 2𝑛𝜋 maximum and it is known as antinode.
 It means that, cos 𝜑 = +1 , then  The mth anti nodal position is
𝟐
𝟐𝒎 + 𝟏 𝝀
𝒙𝒎 = [ ]
Imax = [𝐀𝟏 + 𝐴2 ]𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
 If sin 𝑘𝑥 = 0 (or) 𝑘𝑥 = 0, 𝜋, 2𝜋, 3𝜋, …
 And the resultant amplitude is
𝑨 = 𝐀 𝟏 + 𝑨𝟐 then amplitude in this position is zero
and it is known as node.
Destructive interference :
 the nth nodal position is
 When crest of one wave meets trough of
𝝀
another wave, their amplitude will 𝒙𝒏 = 𝒏
cancel each other and resultant 𝟐
 The distance between two successive
amplitude and intensity becomes
anti-nodes or nodes can be computed
minimum (even zero) 𝝀
 Thus for destructive interference, by
𝟐
𝜑 = 𝜋, 3𝜋, 5𝜋, … = (2𝑛 − 1) 𝜋
 It means that, cos 𝜑 = −1 , then
𝟐
Im𝑖𝑛 = 𝐈𝟏 + 𝐈𝟐 − 𝟐 √𝐈𝟏 𝐈𝟐 = [√𝐈𝟏 − √𝐈𝟐 ]
Imin = [𝐀𝟏 − 𝐴2 ]𝟐
 And the resultant amplitude,
𝑨 = 𝐀 𝟏 − 𝑨𝟐
R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS). GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI – 608 502 Page 26

11.13 What is Sonometer? Give its
construction and working. Explain how
to determine the frequency of tuning
fork using sonometer.
Sonometer :
 Sono means sound related and
sonometer implies sound related
measurements.
 Using sonometer, we can determine
1) the frequency of the tuning fork or
frequency of alternating current
2) the tension in the string
3) the unknown hanging mass
Construction :
 It is made up of a hollow box and a thin
string is attached to it.
 One end of the string is connected to the
hook and the other end is to a weight
hanger through a pulley.
 Weights are added to the hanger to
increase the tension on the wire.
 Two adjustable knife edges are put over 2) Law of tension :
the board and using this the vibrating
length of the string can be varied.
Working :
 A transverse stationary wave is
produced so that nodes are formed at
the knife edges and anti - nodes are
formed in between them.
 Length of vibrating string =𝑙
Diameter of the string =𝑑
Tension on the string = 𝑇 = 𝑀𝑔
Mass per unit length of the
𝑚 root of the mass per unit length
sting (i.e.)linear mass density = 𝜇 =
𝐿 (i.e.)
 Let “𝜌” be the density of the material,
then
Victory
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
𝜌= = = 11.15 Explain the concept of 11.16 Write a short note on Intensity
𝑉 𝐿𝐴 𝜋𝑑 2 fundamental frequency,
𝐿 ( ) and loudness
4
harmonics and overtones in detail.
 The distance between to consecutive Intensity of sound :
𝜆 Fundamental frequency, harmonics and  When a sound wave is emitted by a
nodes is , then
2 overtones : source, energy is carried to all possible
𝜆  Let standing waves with a specific surrounding points.
𝑙= (𝑜𝑟) 𝜆 = 2 𝑙
2 wavelength are produced in the string  The average sound energy emitted or
 Then the frequency of vibrating element of length “L” transmitted per unit time is called
is  We know that, the distance between sound power.
𝝀  Therefore the sound power transmitted
𝑣 1 𝑇 two successive nodes is
𝑓= = √ 𝟐 per unit area taken normal to the
𝜆 2𝑙 𝜇  If there are “n” number of nodes formed propagation of the sound wave is
𝑚 𝜋𝑑 2 between two boundaries, then defined as the intensity of sound.
 Here, 𝜇 = = 𝜌 ( ), then 𝝀𝒏 𝟐𝑳
𝐿 4
𝑳=𝑛 (𝒐𝒓) 𝝀𝒏 =  For fixed source, the sound intensity is
1 𝑇 𝟏 𝑻 𝟐 𝒏 proportional to the square of the
𝑓= = √  Therefore not all wavelengths are distance from the source. (i.e.)
2𝑙√ 𝜋𝑑 2 𝒍𝒅 𝝆𝝅
𝜌 ( ) allowed. 𝟏
4 𝑰 ∝ 𝟐
 For n = 1 (first mode) ; 𝝀𝟏 = 𝟐 𝑳 𝒓
𝟐𝑳  This is known as inverse square law of
11.14 State the laws of transverse For n = 2 (second mode) ; 𝝀𝟐 = sound intensity.
𝟐
vibrations in a stretched string 𝟐𝑳 Loudness of sound :
For n = 3 (third mode) ; 𝝀𝟑 =  Two sounds with same intensities need
𝟑
Laws of transverse vibrations : not have the same loudness.
 Then the frequency,
1) Law of length : 𝑣 𝑣  Loudness depends on both intensity of
 For a given wire with fixed tension 𝑓𝑛 = =𝑛 [ ]
𝜆𝑛 2𝐿 sound wave and sensitivity of the ear.
“T” and fixed mass per unit length  Thus the loudness of sound is defined as
 The lowest natural frequency (n = 1) is
“𝜇”, the frequency varies inversely the degree of sensation of sound
called fundamental frequency.
with the vibrating length. (i.e.) produced in the ear or the perception of
𝟏 𝑪  The second natural frequency (n=2) is
𝒇 ∝ (𝒐𝒓) 𝒇 = called first over tone. sound by the listener.
𝒍 𝒍 Relation between intensity and loudness
 The third natural frequency (n=3) is
called second over tone.  According to Weber-Fechner’s law,”
 For a fixed vibrating length “𝒍”, and
 Therefore, the nth natural frequency loudness (L) is proportional to the
fixed mass per unit length “𝜇”, the
𝒇𝒏 = 𝒏 𝒇𝟏 logarithm of the actual intensity (I)
frequency varies directly with the
 If natural frequencies are written as measured with an accurate non -
square root of the tension (i.e.)
integral multiple of fundamental human instrument. (i.e.)
𝒇 ∝ √𝑻 (𝒐𝒓) 𝒇 = 𝑨 √𝑻 𝐿 ∝ ln I (𝑜𝑟) 𝐿 = 𝑘 ln I
frequencies, then the frequencies are
called harmonics.  The sound intensity level is given by
3) Law of mass : ∆ 𝐿 = 𝐿1 − 𝐿𝑜 = 𝐾 ln I1 − 𝐾 ln Io
 Thus,
 For a fixed vibrating length “” and I1
first harmonic = 𝒇𝟏 = fundamental ∆ 𝐿 = 𝑘 ln
fixed tension “”, the frequency Io
frequency
varies inversely with the square 𝐈𝟏
second harmonic = 𝒇𝟐 = 𝟐 𝒇𝟏
∆ 𝑳 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 [ ] 𝒃𝒆𝒍 [𝒌 = 𝟏]
= first over tone 𝐈𝐨
𝐈𝟏
𝟏 𝑩 third harmonic = 𝒇𝟑 = 𝟑 𝒇𝟏
∆ 𝑳 = 𝟏𝟎 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 [ ] 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒃𝒆𝒍 [𝒌 = 𝟏𝟎]
𝒇 ∝ (𝒐𝒓) 𝒇= = second over tone 𝐈𝐨
√𝝁 √𝝁 and so on
R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS). GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI – 608 502 Page 27
11.17 Explain how overtones are 11.18 Explain how overtones are 11.19 How will you determine the  Since the anti-nodes are not exactly
produced in a closed organ pipe. produced in a closed organ pipe. velocity of sound using Resonance formed at the open end, we have to
column apparatus include a correction called end
Closed organ pipe : Open organ pipe : correction “e”
 It is a pipe with one end closed and the  It is a pipe with both ends open (e.g.) Resonance column apparatus :
other end open. (e.g.) Clarinet Flute  It consists of a cylindrical glass tube of
 Thus the incoming wave from open end  The incoming wave from both open one metre length whose end “A” is open
and reflected wave at closed end are ends superpose results stationary and “B” is connected to the water
superpose results stationary waves. waves; reservoir “R” through a rubber tube.
 Here node is formed at closed end and  Here anti-nodes are formed at open  This cylindrical glass tube is mounted
anti-node is formed at open end. ends and nodes are between them. on a vertical stand with a scale attached
on it.
 The tube is partially filled with water,  Let first resonance occur at length “𝐿1 ”
and the level of water can be adjusted by  Including this correction, in the first
lowering or raising the reservoir “R” resonance,
 The surface of water will act as a closed 𝜆
= 𝐿1 + 𝑒
end and other as open end. Therefore it 4
behaves like a closed organ pipe.  Let second resonance occur at length
“𝐿2 ”
 At fundamental mode,  At fundamental mode of vibration,  With end correction in the second
𝜆1 𝜆1
𝐿= (𝑜𝑟) 𝜆1 = 4 𝐿 𝐿= (𝑜𝑟) 𝜆1 = 24 𝐿 resonance,
4 2 3𝜆
𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 = 𝐿2 + 𝑒
∴ 𝑓1 = = ∴ 𝑓1 = = 4
𝜆1 4𝐿 𝜆1 2𝐿 3𝜆 𝜆
It is fundamental frequency or first It is fundamental frequency or first ∴ − = 𝐿2 + 𝑒 − 𝐿1 − 𝑒
harmonic 4 4
harmonic
3𝜆− 𝜆
 During second mode,  During second mode, = 𝐿2 − 𝐿1
3 𝜆2 4𝐿 2 𝜆2 2𝐿 4
𝐿= (𝑜𝑟) 𝜆2 = 𝐿= (𝑜𝑟) 𝜆1 = 𝜆
4 3 2 2 = 𝐿2 − 𝐿1 = Δ𝐿
𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 2
∴ 𝑓2 = = 3 [ ] = 3 𝑓1 ∴ 𝑓2 = = 2 [ ] = 2 𝑓1 ∴ 𝜆 = 2 ∆𝐿
𝜆2 4𝐿 𝜆2 2𝐿
It is first overtone or third harmonic It is first overtone or second harmonic Working :  The speed of the sound in air at room
 During third mode,  When a vibrating tuning fork is brought temperature can be computed by
 During third mode,
5 𝜆3 4𝐿 3 𝜆3 2𝐿 near the open end of the tube, 𝒗 = 𝒇 𝝀 = 𝟐 𝒇 ∆𝑳
𝐿= (𝑜𝑟) 𝜆3 = 𝐿= (𝑜𝑟) 𝜆1 = longitudinal waves are formed inside  And the end correction be
4 5 2 3
𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 the air column. 𝑳 𝟐 − 𝟑 𝑳 𝟏
∴ 𝑓3 = = 5 [ ] = 5 𝑓1 ∴ 𝑓3 = = 3 [ ] = 3 𝑓1 𝒆=
𝜆3 4𝐿 𝜆3 2𝐿  These waves get reflected at surface of 𝟐
It is second overtone or fifth harmonic It is second overtone or third harmonic water and produce standing waves.
 In general, for nth mode of vibration  In general, for nth mode of vibration  Here node is formed at water surface
𝒇𝒏 = (𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏) 𝒇𝟏 𝒇𝒏 = 𝒏 𝒇𝟏 and anti-node is at open end of the tube
 Thus the frequencies of harmonics are  Thus the frequencies of harmonics are  The length of air column is varied by
in the ratio in the ratio changing the water level, until a loud
𝒇𝟏 ∶ 𝒇𝟐 ∶ 𝒇𝟑 ∶ 𝒇𝟒 ∶ … . = 𝟏 ∶ 𝟑 ∶ 𝟓 ∶ 𝟕 ∶ … … 𝑓1 ∶ 𝑓2 ∶ 𝑓3 ∶ 𝑓4 ∶ … . = 1 ∶ 2 ∶ 3 ∶ 4 ∶ …. sound is produced due to resonance in
the air column.
 Thus the closed organ pipe has only  Thus the open organ pipe has all the
 At resonance the frequency of sound
odd harmonics harmonics.
waves produced is equal to the
frequency of the tuning fork.

Victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS). GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI – 608 502 Page 28
11.20 What is meant by Doppler effect? Case (1) - Source in motion and Case (2) - Observer in motion and Case (3) - Source and observer both are
Discuss its various cases. Observe at rest Source at rest in motion :
1) Source moves towards the observer : 1) Observer moves towards the source : 1) Source and observer approach each
Doppler effect :  Frequency of sound source = 𝑓  Frequency of sound source = 𝑓 other :
 When the source and the observer are Velocity of sound source = 𝑣𝑆 Velocity of observer = 𝑣𝑂  Frequency of sound source = 𝑓
in relative motion with respect to each Velocity of sound in medium = 𝑣 Velocity of sound in medium = 𝑣 Velocity of sound source = 𝑣𝑆
other and to the medium in the sound Original wavelength of sound=  Original wavelength of sound=  Velocity of observer = 𝑣𝑂
propagates, the frequency of sound  Let 𝝀 be the apparent wavelength  Here observer moves opposite to Velocity of sound in medium = 𝑣
wave observed is different from the observed by the stationary observer sound, relative velocity of sound Original wavelength of sound= 
frequency of the source. when source moves through a distance 𝑣𝑟 = 𝑣 + 𝑣𝑂  Then the apparent frequency seen by
 The frequency perceived by the 𝑥 = 𝑣𝑆 𝑡 , then the change in wavelength  Then the apparent frequency observed the observer,
observer is known as apparent 𝜆 − 𝜆 = 𝑣𝑆 𝑡 by the observer, 𝒗 + 𝒗𝑶
𝑣𝑟 𝑣 + 𝑣𝑂 𝑣 + 𝑣𝑂 𝒇 = 𝒇 [ ]
frequency and this phenomenon is 𝜆 = 𝜆 − 𝑣𝑆 𝑡 𝒗 − 𝒗𝑺
𝑓 = = =𝑓 [ ]
called Doppler Effect. 𝜆 𝜆 𝑣 𝑣  Since(𝒗 + 𝒗𝑶 ) > (𝒗 − 𝒗𝑺 ) , 𝒇 > 𝑓
 But, 𝑡 = then, we have, [ ]
Explanation : 𝑣 𝑓 (i.e.) the apparent frequency increases
 Let frequency of the source = 𝑓𝑆 𝜆 𝑣𝑆 𝒗𝑶 2) Source and observer receed from
𝜆 = 𝜆 − 𝑣𝑆 = 𝜆 [1 − ] 𝒇 = 𝒇 [𝟏 + ]
The observed frequency = 𝑓𝑂 𝑣 𝑣 𝒗 each other
 When both sound source and observer  Since frequency is inversely  Since 𝒗𝑶 < 𝑣 , then 𝒇 > 𝑓  The apparent frequency seen by the
are at a fixed distance, the observer proportional to wavelength (i.e.) the apparent frequency increases observer
observes the sound of frequency as 𝒗 𝒗𝑺 2) Observer moves away from the 𝒗 − 𝒗𝑶
𝒇 = = 𝒇 [𝟏 + ] source 𝒇 = 𝒇 [ ]
same as the frequency of sound source. 𝝀  𝒗 𝒗 + 𝒗𝑺
(i.e.) 𝒇𝑶 = 𝒇𝑺  Since 𝒗𝑺 < 𝑣 , then 𝒇 > 𝑓  When the observer moves away from  Since(𝒗 + 𝒗𝑶 ) < (𝒗 − 𝒗𝑺 ) , 𝒇 < 𝑓
Hence no Doppler effect is observed. (i.e.) the apparent frequency increases the source, then 𝑣𝑂 and 𝑣 are in same (i.e.) the apparent frequency decreases
 When sound source moves towards 2) Source moves away from the direction. So the relative velocity, 3) Source chased the observer :
stationary observer or observer move observer 𝑣𝑟 = 𝑣 − 𝑣𝑂  The apparent frequency seen by the
towards the stationary source or both  When source moves in opposite  Then the apparent frequency becomes, observer
𝑣𝑟 𝑣 − 𝑣𝑂 𝒗𝑶 𝒗 − 𝒗𝑶
moves towards each other, the direction , its velocity becomes 𝒇 = = 𝑓 [ ] = 𝒇 [𝟏 − ]
negative. Hence the above equation 𝜆 𝑣 𝒗 𝒇 = 𝒇 [ ]
apparent frequency increases. 𝒗 − 𝒗𝑺
becomes,  Since 𝒗𝑶 < 𝑣 , then 𝒇 > 𝑓
(i.e.) 𝒇𝑶 > 𝒇𝑺 4) Observer chases the source :
(−𝑣𝑆 𝒗𝑺 (i.e.) the apparent frequency decreases
 When sound source moves away from 𝒇 = 𝑓 [1 + ] = 𝒇 [𝟏 − ]  The apparent frequency seen by the
stationary observer or observer moves 𝑣 𝒗 observer
away the stationary source or both  Since 𝒗𝑺 < 𝑣 , then 𝒇 < 𝒇 𝒗 + 𝒗𝑶
(i.e.) the apparent frequency decreases 𝒇 = 𝒇 [ ]
moves away from each other, then the 𝒗 + 𝒗𝑺
apparent frequency decreases.
(i.e.) 𝒇𝑶 < 𝒇𝑺 .

Victory R. SARAVANAN. M.Sc, M.Phil, B.Ed., PG ASST (PHYSICS). GBHSS, PARANGIPETTAI – 608 502 Page 29