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1.WIND LOADS

1.1 Introduction
A structure is a system of connected parts used to support a load.

Design of structure

The design of a structure should satisfy the following :- safety, aesthetic, serviceability,
economy, environmental.

Analysis of structure

The analysis should consider strength and rigidity.

The aim of structural design is to ensure that, with an acceptably high probability, a structure
will remain fully functional during its intended life. The expected life time of a structure is
formally known as its design life and is usually a period of at least 50 years. During its design
life, a structure must be capable of safely sustaining all applied loads and other stress-inducing
actions that might reasonably be expected to occur. Thus, it is necessary to identify and , more
importantly, quantify the various types of load which act on its members.

It is worth pointing out at this stage that in contrast to construction procedure, in which the
structure is erected from ground upwards, a building structure are generally designed from the
top downwards. This is because the magnitudes of the internal forces in members at any level
depend on the forces being transferred from the levels above as well as the loads applied
directly at that level.

Wind loads

Wind loads have a great deal of influence on building design and the design of other kinds of
civil engineering structures. Many whole structures or parts of structures that fail, do so
because inadequate thought was given to wind actions at the design stage.

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Tower collapse failure a of tower

Uprooted tree damages nearby building roof blown away

Figure1.1 Typical wind-storm damage

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What is wind load?

Wind is air in motion. Structure deflects or stops the wind, converting the wind’s kinetic energy
into potential energy of pressure, thus create wind loads.

Wind forces are variable loads which act directly on the internal and external surfaces of
structures. The intensity of wind load on structure is related to the square of the wind velocity
and the dimensions of the members that are resisting the wind (frontal area).

The intensity of the wind pressure depends on

• Shape of structure.

• Angle of the induce wind.

• Velocity of air.

• Density of air.

• Stiffness of structure.

 Wind velocity increases with the power of the structural height.

o Because of friction effect on the ground surface.

Because of friction effect on the ground surface and the wind strongly influences the wind
velocity. Near the ground surface, the friction between the air and ground reduces the velocity,
whereas at higher elevations above the ground, friction has little influence and wind velocities
are much higher.

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Figure 1.2 Variation of wind velocity with height

 Air flow

o The more the air is streamed, the less the reaction force exerted by the structure.

Wind pressure also depends on the shape of the structure that the wind strikes.
Pressures are smallest when the body has a streamlined cross-section and greatest
for blunt or concave cross-sections that do not allow the wind to pass smoothly
around.

Figure 1.3 Influence of shape on pressure.

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Wind effects

→ Direct positive pressure

Surface facing the wind and perpendicular to its path receive a direct impact effect from the
moving mass of air.

wind ward

→ Drag
Because the wind does not stop upon striking the object but flows around it like a liquid,
there is a drag effect on surfaces that are parallel to the direction of the wind.

→ Negative pressure
On the leeward side of the object there is usually a suction effect consisting of pressure
out ward on the surface of the object.

leeward

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1.2 Wind Pressure on Structures Based on EBCS-1

1.2.1 Wind Pressures

External pressure
The wind pressure acting on external surfaces of a structure, we, shall be obtained from

we = qref Ce(ze)Cpe (1.1)

Where qref is the reference wind pressure

Ce(ze) is the external exposure coefficient accounting for the terrain and reference
height

Cpe is the external pressure coefficient.

Internal Pressure
The wind pressure acting on internal surfaces of a structure, wi, shall be obtained from

Wi = qref Ce(zi)Cpi (1.2)

Ce(zi) is the internal exposure coefficient

Cpi is the internal pressure coefficient.

Net Pressure
The net wind pressure across a wall or an element is the difference of the pressures on each
surfaces taking due account of their signs. (Pressure, directed towards the surface is taken as
positive, and suction, directed away from the surface as negative.)

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Wind ward leeward

i. External pressure ii. Internal pressure

+ve
-ve

+ve
+ve
-ve

-ve

Figure 1.4 Wind pressure on buildings

1..2.2 Reference Wind Pressure

The reference wind pressure is given by:

1
qref = ρ Vref2 [N/m2] (1.3)
2
where ρ is air density, and Vref is the reference wind velocity.

The air density varies with temperature, elevation and the expected atmospheric pressure in
the region during storms. A temperature of 20oc has been selected as appropriate for Ethiopia
and the variation of mean atmospheric pressure with altitude is given in table 1.1.

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Site altitude in ρ
meters (ASL) (kg/m3)
0 1.2

500 1.12

1000 1.06

1500 1.00

2000 0.94

Table 1.1 Values of Air Density, ρ

Reference wind Velocity

The reference wind velocity Vref is defined as the mean velocity at 10m above farmland
averaged over a period of 10 minutes with a return period of 50 years. The reference wind
velocity is taken as 22m/sec.

1.2.3 Exposure Coefficient

Wind velocity tends to decrease near ground level owing to frictional forces between the wind
and the ground. If the terrain is rugged, the decrease in velocity can be quite substantial. The
exposure coefficient takes account of the variation from the reference wind velocity due to the
ground roughness around the structure ,the local topography and the height of the structure
above the ground.
Exposure coefficient is given in by
7k r
Ce(z) = Cr2 (z) Ct2 (z)[ 1 + ] (1.4)
C r ( z )C t ( z )

Where Cr(z) is the roughness coefficient

Ct(z) is topography coefficient
KT is the terrain factor

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Roughness coefficient
The roughness coefficient, Cr(z), accounts for the variability of mean wind speed velocity at the
site of the structure due to:

The height above the ground level

The roughness of the terrain depending on the wind
The roughness coefficient at height z is defined by the logarithmic relationship:

Cr(z) = kTln(z/z0) for zmin ≤ z ≤ 200m (1.5)

Cr(z) = Cr(zmin) for z< zmin

Where KT is the terrain factor

Z0 is the roughness length

Zmin is the minimum height

These parameters depend on the terrain category in table 1.2

Terrain Categories
The terrain category attempts to take into account the effect of the land coverage. The terrain
type is classified in to 4 groups as given in table 1.2

Exposure I Exposure II Exposure III Exposure IV

Edge of large Open terrain Urban and Large city centers
Bodies of water suburban areas

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Table 1.2 Terrain Categories and related parameters used

Topography coefficient
The topography coefficient Ct(z) accounts for the increase in mean wind speed over isolated
hills and escarpments. It is defined by

(1.6)

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1.2.4 Pressure coefficient
1.2.4.1 External pressure coefficients, Cpe
The external pressure coefficient Cpe for buildings and individual parts of building depend on
the size of the loaded area A. They are given for loaded area A of 1m2 and 10m2 in the relevant
tables for the appropriate building configuration as Cpe,1 and Cpe,10, respectively. For areas
between 1m2 and 10m2 , values are obtained by linear interpolation. This is:

(1.7)
The values of pressure coefficient are applicable to buildings.

a) Pressure Coefficient for Vertical Walls

Reference heights ,Ze
Reference heights for the calculation of external pressure coefficients depend on the
breadth to height ratio (h/b) of the structure.

Figure 1.5 Reference heights for rectangular building

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a). Buildings whose h<b → the reference height equals the actual height (fig. 1.5a)
b). When h exceeds b but less than 2b → the building is considered in two parts(fig. 1.5b)
c). When h>2b → the building is considered in multiple parts. A lowest part extends upwards
from the ground a distance b. An upper part extends down wards a distance b. The rest of the
building can be divided into any number of parts, with the reference height in each case
calculated as the distance from the ground to the top of the part.

The external pressure coefficient, Cpe, accounts for the variation in dynamic pressure on
different zones of the structure due to its geometry, area and proximity to other structures. For
instance, the wind acting on the structure in Fig. 1.6 is slowed down by the windward face and
generates a pressure on that face. The wind is then forced around the sides and over the top of
the structure, causing suction on the sides and on all leeward faces. Suction can also be
generated on the windward slope of a pitched roof if the pitch is sufficiently small.

Figure 1.6 Effect of wind on building

With reference to fig. 1.7 , the external pressure coefficient for various zones of the walls of a
rectangular building are given in Table A.1

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Figure 1.7 External pressure coefficient zones

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b) Pressure Coefficients for Roofs
Types of roofs

(a) Flat Roof (b). Lean to

(c) Gable (d) Butterfly

Figure 1.8 Different Types of Roofs

(e) Hipped Roofs

Values of external pressure coefficients for different roofs are given in Table A.2 to Table A.5
(EBCS 1-1995)
Presure coefficients are considered positive when the pressure is acting on to the surface of
the structures and negative when the pressure is acting away from that surface.
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Flat roofs: Table A.2
Monopitch roofs : Table A.3
Duopitch roofs : Table A.4
Hipped roofs : Table A.5

1.2.4.2 Internal Pressure coefficients

Internal pressure arises due to openings, such as windows, doors and vents, in the cladding. In
general, if the wind panel has a greater proportion of openings than the leeward panel, then
the interior of the structure is subjected to positive (outward) pressure as illustrated in Fig.
1.9(a). Conversely, if the leeward face has more openings, then the interior is subjected to a
negative (inward) pressure as illustrated in Fig. 1.9(b).

Figure 1.9

Internal pressure on a building or a panel is given by:

wi =Ce(zi)Cpiqref
Where zi = the reference height for internal pressure equal to the mean height of the openings.
Cpi = the internal pressure coefficient. The magnitude of Cpi depends on the distribution of
openings around the building.

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Internal pressure coefficient for building without internal partition
The internal pressure coefficient Cpi for buildings without internal partition is given in figure
1.10 and is a function of opening ratio μ, which is defined as

Figure 1.10 Internal pressure coefficient Cpi for buildings with openings in the walls

For closed buildings with internal partitions and opening windows ,the extreme values
Cpi=+0.8 and Cpi=-0.5 may be used.

For a homogeneous distribution of openings for a nearly square building the value
Cpi=-0.25 shall be used.

The worst values have to be considered for any combination of possible openings.

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1.2.5 Wind force on structures
The total wind force acting on individual zones of clad structures is proportional to the
difference in pressure between the external and internal forces. That is:

FW = (we - wi)Aref
Where FW = the total inward force

Aref = the reference area, generally equal to the projected area of the zone normal to
the wind direction.

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2. Earthquake Loads
2.1 Introduction
An Earthquake is a sudden random motion, or trembling , in the earth’s crust caused by
abrupt release of accumulated strains in rocks below, volcanic activity, landslides and
collapse of underground caves.
Earthquake loads are indirect actions. The base of the structure is subjected to a sudden
movement. Since the upper portion of the structure resists motion because of inertia, a
deformation is induced in the structure. This deformation , in turn induces, a horizontal
vibration that causes horizontal shear forces throughout the structure. The resulting
earthquake forces are dependent on the nature of the ground movement and the inertia
response characteristic of the structure.

The Aim of Earthquake Resistant Design

1. To prevent structural damage and limit non structural damage
2. To prevent collapse during the worst credible event, although accepting some structural
damage may occur ( the structure must not collapse or suffer damage that threatens life
safety during sever Earthquake)

Structural damage: Vertical and lateral force resisting systems , e.g. frames and shear
walls

Non structural : chimney collapsing , windows breaking or ceiling falling, piping damage,
disruption of pupms , telecommunications etc.

Design approach for EQ resistant design

Proper initial planning of structural layout and form

Carrying out an appropriate analysis

Proper (carefully) detailing both structural and non structural elements

Quality control ensuring that both design and construction carried out to the
appropriate standards.

Types of EQ damages to be expected depends on

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Building configuration

Construction materials

The site conditions
• Some soils tends to accentuate the seismic vibration imparted to the
structure.

The proximity of the building to neighboring buildings

Type of non structural elements

2.2 Building Configuration

Perhaps, the most important in the design of a building for seismic loads is the choice of the
building configuration. That is , the distribution of masses and stiffness in the building and
the choice of load paths by which lateral loads will eventually reach the ground. Earthquake
design codes have classified buildings as regular or irregular. Irregular buildings require a
more detailed structural analysis, design provisions to reduce the impact of each
irregularity, and more detailing requirements than do regular buildings. Irregularities are
classified as plan irregularities or vertical irregularities.
2.2.1 Plan Irregularities
(a). Torsional Irregularities : Ideally , a building subjected to earthquakes should be
symmetrical- or , at least , the distance between the center of mass (the point through
which the seismic force act on a given floor) and the center of resistance should be
minimized. If there is an eccentricity as shown in the figure below, the building will undergo
torsional deflection. The column at A in figure will then experience larger shears than the
column at B.

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(b) . Re-entrant Corner Irregularity: If the plan has re-entrant corners and the floor
system projects beyond the re-entrant corner by more than 15 percent of the plan
dimension of the building in the same direction, the building is said to have a re-
entrant corner irregularity. For the building in the figure below, one solution is to
separate the two wings by a joint that is wide enough so that the wings can vibrate
separately without banging together. If this is not practical, the region joining the
two parts must be strengthed to resist the tendency to pull apart.

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(c) . Diaphragm discontinuity Irregularity : The figure below shows a plan of a floor
diaphragm transmitting seismic forces to shear wall at each end of a building. The
diaphragm acts as a wide flat beam that develops tension and compression on its
edges . Abrupt discontinuities or change or changes in the diaphragms, such as a
notch in a flange , may lead to damage. If there are abrupt changes in the stiffness
of the diaphragms , including a cutout or open areas comprising more than 50
percent of the diaphragm or cross sectional area, or 50 percent from one storey to
the next, the building is said to have a diaphragm discontinuity irregularity.

(d) . Non-Parallel System: In the triangular or trapezoidal shaped buildings , the

columns or shear walls are not parallel or symmetrical about the two axis of the
building as shown in the figure. This result in high torsional forces and causes more
damage to the building during earthquake motion. These buildings should be
designed carefully taking into account the additional torsional forces.

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2.2.2 Vertical Irregularities
Vertical irregularities are abrupt changes in the geometry, strength, or stiffness of a
structure
(a). Stiffness Irregularity- Soft Storey: It is commonly seen that in multi-storey RC building
the ground storey is made taller and open. This is done to have space for parking of vehicles
or shopping centers/halls etc .This type of RC buildings have only columns in the ground
storey and both partition walls and columns in the upper storeys. This configuration results
flexible ground storey and stiffer upper storey because of infill walls. Thus, the upper
storeys move as a single unit together and most of the horizontal displacement of the
building occur in the ground storey. This type of building is called as soft storey building. In
soft storey buildings, the ground storey columns will be damaged severely if they don’t
enough strength and ductility and ultimately lead to collapse of the building.

(b). Weight (mass) Irregularity : A mass irregularity exists where the effective mass of any
storey exceeds 150 percents of the effective mass of the adjacent storey. Massive roofs and
heavy equipments rooms at upper floors are not advisable as they may induced large inertia
forces and cause collapse of the structure during earthquake.
(c).Vertical Geometric Discontinuity: This type of irregularity occurs when the horizontal
dimension of the lateral-force -resisting system in any story is more than 130 percents of
that in an adjacent storey.

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a) A tower and wide base b) Setbacks

(d). Discontinuity in Vertical Lateral-Force-Resisting Elements : One of the major cause of
damage in RC building during strong earthquake is the discontinuity in the path of load
transfer (flow of inertia forces) . The structure should have a complete and continuous path
for transfer of seismic forces i.e., floor- beams-columns and walls-foundation-ground. Any
discontinuity or irregular path of load transfer result in severe damage and may lead to
collapse of the building. Some of vertical discontinuities are discontinuous columns, walls
etc.

a. Discontinuity in shear walls b. Floating columns

(e). Discontinuity in Lateral Strength: Weak Storey: A weak storey exists if the lateral
resistance of a storey is less than 80 percent that of the storey above. The lateral resistance of
a storey is the total strength of all lateral-force-resisting elements in the storey.

2.3 Earthquake loads on structures based on EBCS-8

Equivalent Static forces Procedure According to EBCS-8
The procedures of equivalent static force approach are as follows.

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Base shear
The seismic base shear Fb for each main direction is determined from:
Fb=Sd(T1)W (2.1)
Where Sd(T1) is the ordinate of design spectrum at period T1
T1 is the fundamental period of vibration of structure for translational motion in
the direction considered,
W is the seismic dead load and determined from
W= Gk +ψ*Qk
Where Gk= the characteristic dead load
Qk= the characteristic live load
ψ=Live load incidence factor

Live load incidence factor , ψ

Types of structures ψ

Public dwellings, hotels, offices, hospitals, public 0.25

building, dormitories
Storage and ware houses 0.50
Silos and tanks for liquids 1.00

• Fundamental period of vibration is the length of time , in seconds, it takes a structure to

move through one complete cycle of free vibration in the first mode.

In general: Low rise-short T

High rise-longer T
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The fundamental period of vibration of the structure T1 can be computed by the following
empirical equation:

T = C1H3/4 (in second) (2.2)

Where H is the height of the building above base in m, and C1 depends on the nature of the
structural form, and given as below.
0.085,for steel moment resisting frames

C1 = 0.075, for reinforced concrete moment resisting frames, and eccentrically braced

steel frame
0.050 , for other buildings

Design Spectrum
For linear analysis, the design spectrum Sd(T) normalized by the acceleration of gravity g is
given by :

Sd(T) = abg (2.3)

The parameter ais the ratio of the design bedrock acceleration to the acceleration of gravity
and is given by :

a=a0I (2.4)

Where a0 is the bedrock acceleration for the site and depends on the seismic zone (See. Fig
1.1, EBCS-8) as given by Table 1.1.

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Table 1.1 Bedrock acceleration ratios, αo

Zone 4 3 2 1

αo 0.1 0.07 0.05 0.03

I is the importance factor given in Table 2.4.

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Table 2.4 Importance Categories and Importance Factors for Building
Importance Building Importance
Category factor, I

I Building whose integrity during earthquake is vital importance for 1.4

civil protection ,e.g., hospitals, fire stations, power plants, etc.
II Buildings whose seismic resistance is important in view of the 1.2
consequences associated with collapse, e.g., schools, assembly
halls, cultural institutions, etc
III Ordinary buildings, not belonging to other categories 1.0
Iv Building of minor importance for public safety ,e.g., agricultural 0.8
buildings, etc.

The parameter b is the design response factor for the site and is given by :

β = 1.2S/T2/3 ≤ 2.5 (2.5)

The parameter S is the site coefficient for soil characteristic given in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2 Site Coefficients, S
Subsoil A B C
S 1.0 1.2 1.5

The soil conditions are classified into three groups based on the following.
Subsoil Class A
Rock or other geographical formation ; Stiff deposits of sand, gravel, or over consolidated clay.
Subsoil Class B
Deep deposits of medium dense sand, gravel, or medium stiff clay with thickness from tens to
hundred of meters.
Subsoil Class C
Loose cohesionless soil deposits with or without some soft cohesive layers: deposits with
predominant soft to medium stiff cohesive soils.

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Behavior Factor
The parameter g is called the behavior factor and depends on the type of structural system (
frame , dual, wall, core system etc.). For frame system or dual system, g=0.20.

Distribution of Horizontal Seismic forces

The distribution of seismic base shear to each floor is computed using the following formula for
the lateral force at the ith floor:

Fi = (Fb – Ft) * Wihi / ΣWjhj

where Fi is the concentrated force acting at floor i,
Wi and Wj =dead weight of floor at level i and j
hi and hj =height from base to floor at level i and j
Fb = Ft + Σ Fi, i =1 to n

Ft=the concentrated force at the top of the building , which is in addition to Fn ,obtained from:

Ft = 0.07*T1*Fb (2.7)
Storey Shear
The shear, Vx, in any story x is the sum of the lateral forces Fi, acting above that storey

Importance of Seismic Design Codes

Ground vibrations during earthquakes cause forces and deformations in structures. Structures
need to be designed to withstand such forces and deformations. Seismic codes help to improve
the behaviour of structures so that they may withstand the earthquake effects without
significant loss of life and property. Countries around the world have procedures outlined in
seismic codes to help design engineers in the planning, designing, detailing and constructing of
structures.
The regulations in these standards do not ensure that structures suffer no damage during
earthquake of all magnitudes. But, to the extent possible, they ensure that structures are able
to respond to earthquake shakings of moderate intensities without structural damage and of
heavy intensities without total collapse.

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Identification of Earthquake Damages in RC Building

Common types of damages identified in reinforced concrete building are explained below.

1. Soft Storey: It is common practice of constructing open, taller first storey for parking,
large halls or banking or shops and meeting room. Due to this, the first storey has less
strength and stiffness and result in weak or soft storey. It has been observed that the
damage is due to collapse and buckling of columns of first storey (open storey). In some
cases the soft storey has resulted in collapse of the full building.

Figure 1 Damage due to a soft story at the ground floor

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2. Floating Columns: Most of the buildings in cities have balconies in the upper floors to
cover more area. These balconies overhang beyond the columns of ground storey. In the
upper storeys , the floating columns are provided which rest at the tip of the tapered
overhang beams. Such damage is because of less strength of ground floor columns,
failure of Cantilever beams and beam-column joints.

Figure Hanging or Floating Columns

3. Plan and Mass Irregularity: The complex shapes results in irregular buildings which are
very dangerous for earthquake prone areas. These irregular building cause
discontinuities in the path of inertia forces.
Mass irregularity includes such as heavy water tankers at the roof, a massive swimming
pool at upper floor levels etc. The heavy masses generate very large inertia forces and
resulted in collapse of the building.

4. Poor Quality of Construction material and Corrosion of reinforcement: Various

buildings have failed due to poor quality of construction materials. For example inferior
quality of steel or water used result in corrosion of reinforcement which results in
spalling of concrete. The corrosion is also caused by insufficient cover, porous concrete
and less compaction. Faulty construction practices include the improper proportioning
of concrete ingredients, wrong placement of steel bars, in adequate development
length and improper splicing etc.

5. Pounding Damage : Pounding is caused due to hammering of adjacent buildings of

different heights. If the floors of adjacent buildings are at different height then they hit
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against each other during earthquake motion as shown in the figure below. The columns
of the buildings are damaged due to hammering of floors of building. This problem
arises when buildings are built without proper separation between them. Damage due
to pounding may be minimized by providing proper separation between the buildings or
by aligning floors of adjacent buildings.

FIGURE Another example of pounding damage and eventual collapse

6. Inadequate Ductile Detailing of Structural Elements: Ductility is an important property

for an earthquake resistant building. The RC buildings are made ductile by detailing the
various elements ( beam, column and beam column joint). In such a manner that brittle
failure is avoided. For example, one of the commonly observed practice of construction
is to make weak column and strong beams which causes damage to the columns and
sometimes collapse of the building also. This practice makes the structure brittle. Thus,
it is advisable to construct, columns stronger than beams in order to have ductile failure.
Structural elements are commonly seen damaged due to improper ductile detailing.
Some of the damages of structural elements are explained below.
(a). Column

Improper column spacing of lateral ties: Improper spacing of lateral ties in columns
lead to shear failure. Shear failure is brittle and must be avoided in columns by
providing ties at closer spacing. Lateral ties also confine the concrete in columns.
Large spacing of ties lead to lack of confinement of concrete and concrete may spall
off during earthquake.

If the ends of the ties are not hooked properly then they may open up during
earthquake motion and cause damage to columns.

Incorrect splicing of Column Bars : This may be because of less lap length provided
to the spliced bars or splicing all the bars at same section. This type of failure results
in crushing of concrete in the compression zone and buckling of bars also. This type
of damage is very serious and may cause collapse also.

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Figure : Diagonal cracks in columns jeopardize vertical load carrying capacity of buildings -
unacceptable damage.

(b). Beam : Very little cases of beam failure are noticed during past earthquake studies but
beam column joint failure are very common in RC buildings. The main cause of damage of beam
column joint is improper detailing of reinforcement at the joint.
• Absence of lateral ties
• Smaller column size

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7. Short Column Effect: This case arises when there are many closely spaced windows and
infill walls are built up to in partial height. The columns between the walls behave as
short columns due to presence of the partial walls as shown in the figure below. These
columns are also called captive columns. A captive column is full storey column whose
clear height is reduced by the stiffer infill walls. When floor slab moves horizontally
during an earthquake, the upper end of the short column or captive column undergo
displacements which is same as the regular column. But the infill walls restrict horizontal

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movement of the lower portion of the short column. Thus, it deforms by the full amount
over the short height and attracts large horizontal forces which result in severe damage
to the column.
• Short column effect can also arises in other cases like buildings on sloping
ground and buildings with a mezzanine floor. In all the cases short columns have
suffered more damage as compared to taller columns of same storey.

Figure1 Short columns are stiffer and attract
large forces during earthquake-this must be
accounted for design.
Figure2 Short columns effect in RC
buildings when partial height walls
adjoin columns-the effect is implicit
here because infill walls are often
Treated as non-structural elements.

Figure 1: Buildings with short columns – two explicit examples of common occurrences.

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Figure 4: Effective height of column over Figure 5: Details of reinforcement in a

which it can bend is restricted by adjacent building with short column effect in some
walls –this short-column effect is most severe columns
when opening height is small.

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Techniques to Reduce Earthquake Effects on Buildings
Special techniques are required to design buildings such that they remain practically
undamaged even in a severe earthquake. Buildings with such improved seismic performance
usually cost more than normal buildings do. However, this cost is justified through improved
earthquake performance.
Two basic technologies are used to protect buildings from damaging earthquake effects. These
are Base Isolation Devices and Seismic Dampers. The idea behind base isolation is to detach
(isolate) the building from the ground in such a way that earthquake motions are not
transmitted up through the building, or at least greatly reduced. Seismic dampers are special
devices introduced in the building to absorb the energy provided by the ground motion to the
building (much like the way shock absorbers in motor vehicles absorb the impacts due to
undulations of the road).

Base Isolation
The concept of base isolation is explained through an example building resting on frictionless
rollers (Figure 1a). When the ground shakes, the rollers freely roll, but the building above does
not move. Thus, no force is transferred to the building due to shaking of the ground; simply, the
building does not experience the earthquake.Now, if the same building is rested on flexible pads
that offer resistance against lateral movements (Figure 1b), then some effect of the ground
shaking will be transferred to the building above. If the flexible pads are properly chosen, the
forces induced by ground shaking can be a few times smaller than that experienced by the
building built directly on ground, namely a fixed base building (Figure 1c).
The flexible pads are called base-isolators, whereas the structures protected by means of these
devices are called base-isolated buildings. The main feature of the base isolation technology is
that it introduces flexibility in the structure. As a result, a robust medium-rise masonry or
reinforced concrete building becomes extremely flexible. The isolators are often designed to
absorb energy and thus add damping to the system. This helps in further reducing the seismic
response of the building. Several commercial brands of base isolators are available in the
market, and many of them look like large rubber pads, although there are other types that are
based on sliding of one part of the building relative to the other. A careful study is required to
identify the most suitable type of device for a particular building. Also, base isolation is not
suitable for all buildings. Most suitable candidates for base-isolation are low to medium-rise
buildings rested on hard soil underneath; high-rise buildings or buildings rested on soft soil are
not suitable for base isolation.

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Seismic Dampers
Another approach for controlling seismic damage in buildings and improving their seismic
performance is by installing seismic dampers in place of structural elements, such as diagonal
braces. These dampers act like the hydraulic shock absorbers in cars – much of the sudden jerks
are absorbed in the hydraulic fluids and only little is transmitted above to the chassis of the car.
When seismic energy is transmitted through them, dampers absorb part of it, and thus damp
the motion of the building. Commonly used types of seismic dampers include viscous dampers
(energy is absorbed by silicone-based fluid passing between piston-cylinder arrangement),
friction dampers (energy is absorbed by surfaces with friction between them rubbing against
each other), and yielding dampers (energy is absorbed by metallic components that yield)
(Figure 3).

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