ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS CAUSED BY AQUACULTURE

Sources of environmental degradation from aquaculture include

obstruction, pathogens,uneaten food, excretion, egestion, fertilizers,
therapeutants, disinfectants, and other
chemicals (Brown et aI., 1987; Gowen and Bradbury, 1987; Beveridge et
aI., 1991; Iwama,
1991; Phillips et aI., 1991; Weston, 1991; Hargrave et aI., 1993; Jenson,
1993; Morimura,
1993; Pullin et aI., 1993; Landesman, 1994; Levings, 1994; Rosenthal,
1994; Stewart,
1994).
Because cages take up space, they can obstruct not only boat traffic
but also water currents and migrating animals. Release of therapeutic
compounds can lead to toxic effects on nontarget organisms,
bioaccumulation, and antibiotic resistance of fish and human pathogens.

On a typical salmonid cage farm, 20% of the feed is uneaten

(Gowen and Bradbury,
1987). Consumed carbon is partitioned into 50% for respiration (C02),
30% egested, and
20% for growth. Consumed nitrogen is partitioned into 65% excreted, 10%
egested, and
25% for growth. Thus, large proportions of the carbon and nitrogen are
released into the
environment. Representative values for total (ultimate) biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD)
in water were 660 mg O)g shrimp feed and 330-800 mg O)g trout feed
(Chieng et aI.,
1989). Smaller-size feeds break down and pollute water more quickly than
large ones.

Although phosphorus often is the limiting nutrient for phytoplankton

in fresh water and sometimes in low salinity coastal areas, nitrogen is
much more important in most coastal
marine areas (Gowen and Bradbury, 1987). Nutrient enrichment could
lead to
phytoplankton blooms (possibly including red or brown tides), with varying
degrees of
oxygen depletion. Deposition of uneaten feed and feces on the bottom
can cause sediment
to become anoxic. One result is the generation of toxic gases-in typical
percentages of
about 70% methane, 30% carbon dioxide, and 2% hydrogen sulfide
(Stewart, 1994).
When released into the water, these gases (mainly H2S) can be toxic to
cultured and wild
fish, but the latter usually can escape. Another effect is the depletion of
benthic organisms.

In typical shallow-water situations, the bottom directly below

established fish cages has no or very few macrobenthic organisms. A
short distance away, benthic diversity is lower
than normal, but biomass ranges from lower to higher than normal
(because of increased
nutrition and 'reduced competition). Outside the transitional zone, normal
benthic
communities are found.

Ye et al. (1991) reported this type of zonation around three 600-m3

(9 x 11 x 6 m) cages of salmonids located in a 12-m deep coastal bay in
Tasmania. About 79% of the organic carbon in sediments below the cages
came from the feed; there, a single capitellid worm species was dominant.
At 10 m, 75% of sediment carbon was from the feed and at 30 m, 63%
was; between 10 m and 30 m, benthic diversity was intermediate. At 30 m
and
beyond, benthic communities were normal, but even at 60 m, 42% of
sediment carbon was
from the feed.
Tsutsumi (I995) studied severe degradation of a 10-12 m deep bay
with a 5-7 m deep
connection to the ocean in Japan. Caged fish farming began in 1973. At
least since 1977, oxygen depletion of bottom water, hydrogen sulfide
buildup in sediments, and elimination
of nearly all benthic fauna in the bay occurred every summer. In 1966,77-
98% of benthic
species at seven stations consisted of 16 bivalve and 21 gastropod
molluscs. In 1989,49-
96% were polychaetes, and a single mollusc species remained. In Japan,
movement of
hypoxic bottom water into fish culture zones or other sensitive areas is
called a "blue tide."
Wu et a!. (1994a) reported low oxygen, high sulfide, and elimination
or depletion of
macrobenthos within fish culture zones near Hong Kong. Problems were
more severe in
two bays 3-4 m and 3-7 m deep than in two bays 5-8 m and 5-13 m deep.
The shallowest
site had a history of large fish kills.
 Holmer and Kristensen (1992) studied a rainbow trout cage farm in
a shallow
brackishwater fjord in Denmark. Depth was only 5 m, with 1 m clearance
between cages
and the bottom. Below the cages, sulfide was high and no macrofauna
existed, but 30 m
away, benthic communities were normal.
At two moderately large cage farms for European sea bass and
gilthead sea bream in the Saronikos Gulf (Greece) in 15-35 m (200 mt
biomass in 11,000 m3) and 30-70 m depths
(350 mt biomass in 20,000 m3), water quality was acceptable (3.3-8.2
mg/L DO, 0-1.6
J.1g/L NH3-N, 0-20 J.1g/L N0 2-N) and parasite infestation was low
(Papoutsoglou et a!.,
1996). The benthic community below the shallower farm was normal, and
abundant wild
fish were present beneath the cages, including white sea bream and
thousands of mullet,
probably attracted by the cover and wasted feed. It was suggested that
reduction of caged
fish density from the usual 16 kg/m3 could raise oxygen and reduce
ammonia.

It is best to place fish cages in areas with good circulation, good

flushing, and at least
10-15 m depth (Gowen and Bradbury, 1987). Adequate circulation will
carry wastes from
cages and bring in oxygenated water. In well-flushed areas, environmental
degradation is
milder and more localized than at sites with less movement. In deeper
water, sedimenting
wastes are at a safe distance from the fish. Feeds that are well utilized by
the fish (high
feed efficiency = low feed conversion ratio) should be employed, and feed
wastage should
be minimized.
In tanks and ponds, sufficient circulation, aeration, and water
exchange should be
maintained for health of the fish. Regular drying or removal of pond
sediment will reduce
hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, and BOD. Any effluent should be treated
before release into
the environment to eliminate any pathogens and to reduce solids, BOD,
and nitrogen.
 Levings et al. (1995) reviewed the legal requirements for locating
salmon farms in British Columbia, Washington, New Brunswick, Maine,
Iceland, Scotland, Ireland, and Norway and suggested improvements for
permitting procedures.

SUMMARY
Good eggs, good rearing conditions, and good nutrition are
necessary for producing good quality healthy marine fish in reasonable
numbers. Appropriate tank color, lighting, and
water circulation are especially important for larvae. Rearing larvae in
green water improves
the health of many species. For some, the water surface should be kept
clear so that larvae
can swim, feed, and inflate their gas bladders without interference. For all
stages,
temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, and water chemistry
characteristics must be in
suitable ranges. Sufficient hardness and chlorinity are important for
marine fish raised in
fresh water. Accumulation of waste products and introduced toxicants
must be minimized.
Water quality usually is more critical at higher temperatures and
salinities, particularly because dissolved oxygen capacity is lower and
ammonia can be more toxic. The proportion of free ammonia increases
with the higher pH of seawater. Deterioration of water quality (caused by
overfeeding or contaminants) that might go unnoticed in coolwater fish
rearing systems can be catastrophic in warmwater systems, especially
seawater ones.