Sensors

and
Transducers
Second Edition

D. Patranabis
S ensors and Tr ansducers
S econd Edition
Edition

D. PATRANABIS
Professor
Department of Instrumentation and Electronics Engineering
Jadavpur University
Salt Lake Campus
Kolkata

Delhi-110092
2013
SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS, Second Edition
D. Patranabis

© 2003 by PHI Learning Private Limited, Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be
reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the
publisher.

ISBN-978-81-203-2198-4

The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.

Twelfth Printing (Second Edition)    January, 2013

Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, Rimjhim House, 111, Patparganj
Industrial Estate, Delhi-110092 and Printed by Perfect Impression, New Delhi-110016.
Dedicated to My Parents
 Contents

Preface xi

Chapter 1 GETTING STARTED! 1–13

1.1 What are Sensors/Transducers? 1
1.2 Principles 1
1.3 Classification 3
1.4 Parameters 5
1.4.1 Characteristics 5
Static characteristics 5
Dynamic characteristics 9
1.5 Environmental Parameters (EP) 9
1.6 Characterization 10
Electrical characterization 10
Mechanical and thermal characterization 11
Optical characterization 13
Chemical/biological characterization 13
Review Questions 13

Chapter 2 MECHANICAL AND ELECTROMECHANICAL SENSORS 14–67

2.1 Introduction 14
2.2 Resistive Potentiometer 15
2.3 Strain Gauge 18
2.3.1 Resistance Strain Gauge 19
2.3.2 Semiconductor Strain Gauges 25
2.4 Inductive Sensors 29
2.4.1 Sensitivity and Linearity of the Sensor 34
2.4.2 Ferromagnetic Plunger Type Transducers 36
2.4.3 Inductance with a Short-circuited Sleeve 39
2.4.4 The Transformer Type Transducer 41
2.4.5 Electromagnetic Transducer 43
2.4.6 Magnetostrictive Transducer 45
2.4.7 Materials—Some Comments 47
2.5 Capacitive Sensors 47
2.5.1 The Parallel Plate Capacitive Sensor 49
2.5.2 Serrated Plate Capacitive Sensor 50
2.5.3 Variable Permittivity or Variable Thickness Dielectric Capacitive
Sensor 51
v
 vi Contents

2.5.4 Stretched Diaphragm Variable Capacitance Transducer 52

2.5.5 Electrostatic Transducer 54
2.5.6 Piezoelectric Elements 55
Piezoelectric materials 56
Deformation modes and multimorphs 61
2.5.7 The PZT Family 62
2.6 Force/Stress Sensors Using Quartz Resonators 63
2.7 Ultrasonic Sensors 64
Review Questions 65

Chapter 3 THERMAL SENSORS 68–135

3.1 Introduction 68
3.2 Gas Thermometric Sensors 69
3.3 Thermal Expansion Type Thermometric Sensors 72
3.4 Acoustic Temperature Sensor 74
3.5 Dielectric Constant and Refractive Index Thermosensors 77
3.6 Helium Low Temperature Thermometer 78
3.7 Nuclear Thermometer 78
3.8 Magnetic Thermometer 79
3.9 Resistance Change Type Thermometric Sensors 80
3.9.1 Metal Resistance Thermometric Sensors 83
3.9.2 Thermistors 88
3.10 Thermoemf Sensors 91
3.10.1 Materials for Thermoemf Sensors 96
3.10.2 E–T Relations 99
3.10.3 Thermocouple Construction 100
3.10.4 Reference Temperature 101
3.10.5 Thermosensors Using Semiconductor Devices 102
3.11 Junction Semiconductor Types 103
3.11.1 The PTAT Sensor 105
3.12 Thermal Radiation Sensors 108
3.12.1 Detectors 115
3.12.2 Pyroelectric Thermal Sensors 120
3.13 Quartz Crystal Thermoelectric Sensors 123
3.14 NQR Thermometry 125
3.15 Spectroscopic Thermometry 126
3.16 Noise Thermometry 128
3.17 Heat Flux Sensors 130
Review Questions 133

Chapter 4 MAGNETIC SENSORS 136–182

4.1 Introduction 136
4.2 Sensors and the Principles Behind 137
4.2.1 The Yoke Coil Sensors 142
4.2.2 The Coaxial Type Sensors 145
4.2.3 Force and Displacement Sensors 146
 Contents vii

4.3 Magnetoresistive Sensors 148

4.3.1 Anisotropic Magnetoresistive Sensing 148
4.3.2 Semiconductor Magnetoresistors 152
Effect of geometry 153
Effect of material 154
4.3.3 Active Semiconductor Magnetic Sensors 156
4.4 Hall Effect and Sensors 156
4.4.1 The Hall Effect 157
4.4.2 The Hall Effect Sensor 159
Sensor geometry and fabrication 160
Sensor performance 162
4.5 Inductance and Eddy Current Sensors 164
4.5.1 Variable Inductance Sensors 164
4.5.2 The Plunger Type Sensors 165
4.5.3 Variable Gap Sensors 167
4.5.4 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) 168
4.6 Angular/Rotary Movement Transducers 171
4.6.1 Synchros 171
4.6.2 Synchro-resolvers 174
4.7 Eddy Current Sensors 175
4.8 Electromagnetic Flowmeter 177
4.9 Switching Magnetic Sensors 178
4.9.1 The Wiegand Sensor 179
4.9.2 The Pulse Wire Sensor 180
4.10 SQUID Sensors 180
Review Questions 181

Chapter 5 RADIATION SENSORS 183–233

5.1 Introduction 183
5.2 Basic Characteristics 184
5.3 Types of Photosensistors/Photodetectors 190
5.3.1 The Photoemissive Cell and the Photomultiplier 190
5.3.2 The Photoconductive Cell 195
The LDR 195
Photocurrent 198
Noise 201
5.3.3 Photovoltaic and Photojunction Cells 204
Reverse biased junction photocell 208
5.3.4 Position-sensitive Cell 213
5.3.5 Photoresistors and PhotoFETs and Other Devices 214
5.4 X-ray and Nuclear Radiation Sensors 216
5.4.1 The Ionization Chamber 218
5.4.2 Proportional Counters 220
5.4.3 Geiger Counters 221
5.4.4 Scintillation Detectors 222
 viii Contents

5.4.5 Solid State Detectors 224

5.4.6 Plastic Film and Luminescent Detectors 226
5.4.7 Factors Affecting Radiation Measurement 226
5.5 Fibre Optic Sensors 227
5.5.1 Temperature Sensors 228
5.5.2 Liquid Level Sensing 229
5.5.3 Fluid Flow Sensing 230
5.5.4 Microbend Sensors 230
Review Questions 231

Chapter 6 ELECTROANALYTICAL SENSORS 234–261

6.1Introduction 234
6.2The Electrochemical Cell 234
6.3The Cell Potential 236
6.4Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE) 237
6.5Liquid Junction and Other Potentials 238
6.6Polarization 239
Concentration polarization 239
Reaction polarization 240
Adsorption/desorption/crystallization polarization 240
Charge transfer polarization 240
6.7 Reference Electrodes 240
6.8 Sensor Electrodes 242
6.8.1 Metal Electrodes 242
6.8.2 Membrane Electrodes 244
The ion selective membrane electrodes 244
Molecular selective electrodes 250
6.8.3 Temperature Sensing Electrodes 253
6.9 Electroceramics in Gas Media 254
6.9.1 Ionic Conductors 255
Zirconia 255
NASICON 257
b -alumina 257
Tin oxide 257
Zinc oxide 258
Titania (TiO2) 258
Pervoskites 259
Varistors 259
6.10 ChemFET 259
Review Questions 260

Chapter 7 SMART SENSORS 262–281

7.1 Introduction 262
7.2 Primary Sensors 264
7.3 Excitation 267
 Contents ix

7.4 Amplification 267

7.5 Filters 267
7.6 Converters 267
7.7 Compensation 269
7.7.1 Nonlinearity 269
Approximation and regression 272
7.7.2 Noise and Interference 274
7.7.3 Response Time 275
7.7.4 Drift 275
7.7.5 Cross-sensitivity 276
7.8 Information Coding/Processing 277
7.9 Data Communication 278
7.9.1 Standards for Smart Sensor Interface 279
7.10 The Automation 280
Review Questions 281

Chapter 8 RECENT TRENDS IN SENSOR TECHNOLOGIES 282–299

8.1 Introduction 282
8.2 Film Sensors 282
8.2.1 Thick Film Sensors 283
8.2.2 Thin Film Sensors 284
8.3 Semiconductor IC Technology—Standard Methods 287
8.4 Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS) 292
8.4.1 Micromachining 292
8.4.2 Some Application Examples 294
8.5 Nano-sensors 296
Review Questions 298

Chapter 9 SENSORS—THEIR APPLICATIONS 300–325

9.1 Introduction 300
9.2 On-board Automobile Sensors (Automotive Sensors) 300
9.2.1 Flow-rate Sensors 300
9.2.2 Pressure Sensors 301
9.2.3 Temperature Sensors 302
9.2.4 Oxygen Sensors 303
9.2.5 Torque and Position Sensors 305
9.3 Home Appliance Sensors 306
9.4 Aerospace Sensors 310
9.4.1 Static Pressure Sensors 310
9.4.2 Temperature Sensing 311
9.4.3 Fluid Velocity Sensors 312
9.4.4 Sensing Direction of Air-flow 313
9.4.5 Measuring Air-speed on Aircrafts 313
9.4.6 Monitoring Strain, Force, Thrust, and Acceleration 314
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9.5Sensors for Manufacturing 314

9.5.1 Sensors 315
Distance sensing 316
9.6 Medical Diagnostic Sensors 319
9.6.1 Sensors 319
Radiation 319
Biomechanics 320
Temperature 320
Electromagnetic variable 320
Chemical and electrochemical sensors 320
Variables related to blood flow 321
Kinematic and geometric 321
9.7 Sensors for Environmental Monitoring 321
9.7.1 Pollution Hazards 322
9.7.2 Sensing Environmental Pollution 323
9.7.3 Ecological Studies of Air 323
Review Questions 324

Bibliography 327–330
Index 331–335
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