SPE/DOESociety of
Petroleum Engineers
SPE/DOE 10703
A Method of Measuring Steam Quality and Heat Loss in Distribution and
Downhole Piping
by Louis A. Pradt, Zimpro AEC Ltd.
Member SPE-AIME
This paper was presented at the 1982 SPE/DOE Third Joint Symposium on Enhanced Oil Recovery of the Society of .Petroleum
Engineers held in Tulsa, OK, April 4-7, 1982. The material is subject to correction by the author. Permission to copy IS restricted to an
abstract of not more than 300 words. Write: 6200 N. Central Expwy., Dallas, TX 75206.
ABSTRACT
This paper describes a technique that can be used
to determine the steam quality in the outlet of a
once-through steam generator. The technique can also
be used to measure the heat loss between any two
points in a distribution and downhole piping system.
The technique is based on the fact that a mixture of
a vapor and a non-condensible gas condenses along a
dew point curve, instead of at constant temperature
as in the case of a pure vapor.
INTRODUCTION
A widely used technique for recovering heavy
crude oil from underground reservoirs i3 the injec-
tion of steam into such reservoirs. Heating of the
crude oil lowers viscosity allowing it to more easily
flow to producing wells.
Steam for this purpose is usually produced at low
quality, 60 - 80%, in so-called once-through steam
generators, since feed water, virtually 100% supplied
from makeup, is high in dissolved salts which can
not economically be removed. This liquid water
carries the salts in solution into the reservoir.
It is difficult to accurately measure the
quality of steam produced by once-through generators.
One technique, measuring concentration of the chloride
ion in the feed water and in the liquid water portion
of the product steam, has been used. It is possible
to accurately measure the chloride ion but it is
difficult to get an accurate and representative
sample of the liquid portion of this low quality steam. Gas Law and steam tables. From the Ideal Gas Law
It is also of great interest to know the heat
loss in the well bore when injecting steam into an oil calculated using tables giving the properties of
reservoir. It is assumed that oil recovery is
directly proportional to the amount of heat delivered
to the reservoir. Heat is provided by burning expen-
sive fuel. Therefore heat loss in the well bore is
an important economic factor. Decisions on economic
well depth, use of downhole steam generators or
insulated tubing strings, etc., are based on heat loss.
References and illustrations at end of paper.
u.s. Department
of Energy
However it has not been possible in the past to
directly measure this heat loss. Since pure steam
condenses at a constant temperature at a given
pressure, measurement of temperature or pressure at
the surface and again at the well bottom will not
provide a means of calculating the heat loss. It is
difficult and probably impossible to take a represen-
tative sample of condensate out of the bottom of the
well. It is possible to calculate heat loss based
on theoretical considerations. This is done, and no
doubt with reasonable accuracy(l). It would
obviously be desireable to be able to check such
calculations with accurate, direct measurements.
It is the object of this paper to provide a
means of measuring the quality of steam produced by a
once-through steam generator producing low quality
steam for EOR. A further object is to provide a
means of measuring the heat loss between the surface
and the bottom of the well into which such steam is
injected.
THEORY
A pure vapor, when heat is removed, condenses at
constant temperature at a given pressure. A mixture
of a non-condensible gas and a vapor condenses along
a "dew point" curve when heat is removed. Examples
of such curves are shown in Figure 1. For construc-
tion of Figure 1 a mixture of nitrogen and 22,680
Kg/Hr (50,000 lb/hr) of water was assumed at a total
pressure of 6.42 MPa (916.5 PSIG).
These curves were constructed using the Ideal
the amounts of steam and liquid water present at any
temperature can be calculated. Enthalpies can be
steam and gases.
It is convenient to start with an equation that
allows calculation of specific humidity, Kg of steam
per Kg of N2, at a given pressure and temperature.
Such an equation is
ws = R (1)
MW
409
 A METHOD OF MEASURING STEAM QUALITY AND HEAT LOSS IN DISTRIBUTION AND DOWNHOLE PIPING SPE/DOE 10703

Where Ws specific humidity, Kg steam per Kg N2 extent in water can be used. Nitrogen is an ideal gas
R
for this purpose and is readily available at pressure
The Ideal Gas Constant
in most oil fields. Propane or natural gas can also
MW Molecular weight of the non-condensible be used. For the remainder of this paper nitrogen
gas, N2 in this case will be used exclusively.
T Temperature
In a real-life situation it will be necessary to
Vs Specific volume of steam (from steam deal with a real gas, nitrogen or other non-conden-
tables) sible gas, not an ideal gas. In most locations, the
feedwater to the steam generator will contain dissol-
pN2= Partial pressure of N2
ved salts,. mostly NaCl. These dissolved salts will
increase the boiling point of water. In order for
The partial pressure of N2' pN2' is equal to the
this technique to be useful, it is necessary to know
total pressure minus the partial pressure, found in
the behavior of the real non-condensible gas used,
stearn tables, of saturated steam at the given
and to predict the effect of dissolved solids in the
temperature.
water.
Equation (1) is derived as follows: The absol-
The author has worked for more than two decades
ute volumes of steam and N2 are the same, thus
in applications of the Wet Oxidation process, which
Vs VN2 and, involves mixtures of steam and non-condensible gases.
The Ideal Gas Law has been satisfactory for the
Vs Ws Vs ' therefore design and operation of these processes. In designing
Vs Ws VN2 and operating Wet Oxidation plants, the difference in
The Ideal Gas Law states that enthalpy or specific humidity is more important than
absolute values. This is also true for the present
pN 2 VN2 = WN2 K T. study except in the case of measuring steam quality.
There has become available in recent years data that
If WN2 = 1 Kg, then, substituting,
purports to make corrections for the properties of
PN2 Vs Ws = K T, and, finally real gases and for the effect of dissolved salts in
water(4)(5).
Ws = KT/v s PN2
Table 1 compares results of c~lculations using
If the temperature and total pressure are known,
the Ideal Gas Law and reference (5 with two diff-
Vs and Ps can be found in the steam tables. Since
erent levels of salt content. Salt concentration is
PN = total pressure - Ps' equation (1) can be
that in the feedwater to the steam generator~ After
soived for ws.
evaporation of some or most of the water the salt
content will be proportionally higher in the remaining
Thus, if one knows the exact quantities of water
liquid.
and nitrogen flowing in a pipe, it is possible to
calculate the heat content at any point by measuring
The enthalpy values for the three methods of
the temperature and pressure at that point. For
calculation are very close up to about 266°C (5l0°F).
example, in constructing the right hand set of curves
The computer program in reference 2 cautions that the
in Figure 1, 22678 Kg/Hr (50,000 Ib/hr) of water and
values for 20 PPM NaCl above 266°C "should be used
4535 Kg/Hr (10,000 Ib/hr) of N2 were assumed. For a
with caution." In the author's opinion, reference 2
given pressure and temperature, the partial pressure,
values above 266°C are not rational.
specific volume and enthalpy of steam can be found
in the steam tables. Enthalpy of water and N2 are
The discrepancy in the differences in enthalpy
also found in tables or calculated using specific
between two temperatures up to 266°C for the Ideal Gas
heats. From equation (1) wS ' Kg steam/Kg N2, can be
Law and reference 2 with 20 PPM NaCl is only about 3%.
calculated. Steam flow is 10,000 X ws ' and liquid
Therefore use of either the Ideal Gas Law or reference
water flow is 50,000 - 10,000 ws. Steam enthalpy is
2, up to 266°C, should be accurate. For higher salt
10,000 Ws X enthalpy of steam. In like manner the
content reference 2 is no doubt more accurate.
enthalpies of liquid water and N2 are calculated.
The total enthalpy at any temperature and pressure
The difference between results calculated by the
can be calculated as long as liquid water is present.
Ideal Gas Law and reference 2 is apparently a function
It is thus possible to measure the heat loss between
of specific humidity and not temperature. This is
two points, if the amounts of total water (steam
illustrated by Table 2. Unless reliable experimental
plus liquid water) and nitrogen are known. This
vapor liquid equilibrium data are available it would
principle can also be used to measure steam quality
be prudent to limit use of this technique to specific
as. will be shown later.
humidities less than about 2.5.
This means of measuring steam quality and heat
loss could not be tolerated in steam systems in, for APPLICATION OF THEORY
example, chemical plants, where pure steam is
Figure 2 shows a typical oil field steam gener-
required. For thermal EOR purposes, a small amount
ator. If Q is the quality of the steam at point A,
of non-condensible gas will not produce any signifi-
then the enthalpy at point A is
cant deleterious effect in the piping or reservoir.
In fact, many studies(2)(3) show that non-condensible
gas is beneficial. Any gas that is non-condensible
at ·the temperature and pressure under consideration
and which does not react with or dissolve to any
SPE/DOE 10703 L. A. PRADT

-.JL (WWA) (h ) + (lOO-Q) Addition of nitrogen as shown will cause a temperature

100 SA 100
drop from e to e'. Then the technique of this
In this case, WWA = 22680, and thus presentation can be used to measure the steam flow at
HA = ~6 X 22680 (h SA ) + (l~~~Q) 22680 (hWA)
e. A steam flow meter can be used to check this
measurement.
Substituting steam table values for hSA and hWA'
this becomes Suppose that the temperature and pressure at e
are 280°C (536°F) and 6.42 MPA (931.2 PSIA). 907.2 Kg
HA = .35 Q + 28.0 in GJ/Hr. (2,000 lb) per hour of nitrogen is injected as shown.
The enthalpy of steam at point e is Hse = Wse X h§e.
The enthalpy at B is The enthalpy of the nitrogen injected at 16°C (60 F)
is 14,545 J/Hr (13,800 BTU/Hr).
HB = (W SB ) (h SB ) + (WWB) (hWB ) + (WN2B) (h N2B )·· (3)
If the temperature and pressure at e' are
Suppose that the temperature and pressure at
measured and found to be 265.6°e (510°F) and 6.40 MPA
point B are measured and found to be 268°C (514°F)
(928 PSIA) then the amount of steam at e', Wse', is
and 6.38 MPa (910 PSIG). From equation (1) the
2989 Kg/Hr (6590 lb/hr).
amount of steam at B is 18,586 Kg/Hr (40,974 lb/hr)
and the amount of liquid water is 4,994 Kg/Hr (9,026
The heat balance then becomes
lb/hr) by difference. The enthalpy at B is then, per
equation 3, 57.90 GJ/Hr (54.9 million BTU/Hr). Wse x hse + 14545 = Wse ' hse' + (Wse - Wse ')

Assuming no heat losses between A and B, ~e' + 907 HN2e ,

HA + (enthalpy of 4535 Kg/Hr of N2 at 16°C) = HB
The enthalpy of 4535 Kg (10,000 lb) of N2 at
16°C (60°F) is .072 GJ (61160 BTU). Substituting,
.35Q + 28.0 + .072 = 57.9
Solving for Q, the steam quality at A is 85.2%.
This measurement of steam quality is an absolute
value, not the difference between two numbers. The
accuracy of the measuring instruments is very
important. If the temperature at B is actually 1°F
less than that measured above, then the steam quality
at A would be 81%.
where (Wse-Ws e ,) = weight of liquid water at e'.
Since all values are known except Wse, substitut-
ing and solving, Wse = 3158 Kg/Hr (6961 lb/hr).
The enthalpy at the well head, He" is then 8.79
GJ/Hr (8.34 million BTU/Hr).
If the temperature and pressure at the bottom of
the well are 261°C (502°F) and 6.33 MPa (918 PSIA)
then the enthalpy at that point is 7.67 GJ (7.18
million BTU) per hour, and the heat loss from the well
bore is 1.23 GJ (1.16 million BTU).

An error of IFo in the temperature measurement can

Now suppose that the mixture of steam, water,
cause an error of 5 - 10% in the calculation of this
and nitrogen at point B is sent to an oil reservoir
heat loss.
through an injection well. Assume that the pressure
and temperature at the bottom of the well are
In all of the above examples, high specific
measured and found to be 264.4°e (508°F) and 6.31
MPA (915 PSIA). humidities have been used. Errors in measurement will
result in greater errors at high specific humidities
since one will be operating in the steep part of the
Again, using the steam and gas tables and
curves of Figure 1. Again, it would be prudent to
equation (1) the enthalpy at the bottom of the well
operate at lower temperatures and lower specific
is calculated to be 51.39 MJ (48.76 MM BTU) per hour.
humidity. However this puts one outside of the range
The heat loss between point A and the well bottom is
of usual steam generator operation.
therefore 6.50 MJ (6.17 MM BTU) per hour.
Injection of a non-condensible gas produces a
In practice it is doubtful that 22680 Kg/Hr
fluid that is not the same as steam and water alone.
(50,000 lb/hr) of steam and water plus 4,536 Kg/Hr
This could have an effect on the heat transfer and
(10,000 lb/hr) of nitrogen could be injected through
thus the heat loss. In the author's experience, the
a single well. If the stream is split among several
film coefficient for air, steam and water is subst~n­
wells, one could not be sure that the steam quality
tially the same as that for steam and water in heat
would be the same in each branch. It would thus be
transfer applications. The heat transfer rate at the
necessary to turn down the steam generator output
wall of the pipe carrying the fluid is very high
and quantity of nitrogen injected to as much flow as
relative to heat transfer in other parts of the system.
could be injected into one well. Figure 3 shows a
means of using this technique at any well, when the Thus any error, in measured heat loss by this . .
technique, due to change in heat transfer coeff1c1ent
quality or quantity of steam is known.
caused by the presence of non-condensible gas will be
small.
In Figure 3, point e is a location near the
injection well and point D is the bottom of the well,
A greater source of error is the temperature drop
just above the sand face. It can be shown that in
caused by introduction of the non-condensible gas. The
order to measure the enthalpy of the mixture at point
effect can be measured by taking readings at several
e it is necessary to know either the steam quality or
different non-condensible gas flows. The temperature
the total flow of steam and water. If a separator is
will be lower with increased non-condensible gas flow
placed in the line as shown, the quality of the steam
as illustrated by Figure 1.
at e will then be, for practical purposes, 100%.
 A METHOD OF MEASURING STEAM QUALITY AND HEAT LOSS IN DISTRIBUTION AND DOWNHOLE PIPING SPE/DOE 10703

PROPOSED EQUIPMENT FOR FIELD USE hWA = specific enthalpy of water at point A, J/Kg
WN2B= amount of nitrogen at B, Kg/Hr
Figure 4 is a sketch of a system for implement- hN2B= specific enthalpy of nitrogen at B, J/Kg
ing the technique presented here. The equipment HB = Enthalpy at point B, J/Hr
within the dotted lines could be purchased and
mounted on a truck. Liquid nitrogen is available at REFERENCES
most oil fields in trucks with self contained pumping
and vaporizing units. If other gases such as 1. Huygen, H.A. and Huitt, J.L.: We11bore Heat
propane and natur~l gas are used, more equipment will Losses and Casing Temperatures During Steam
be necessary. Injection, Producers Monthly, August, 1966.

The valves 1, 2, and 3 in the existing steam
piping are necessary in order to install and operate
the system. Temperature and pressure sensors for
downhole measurements would have to be installed in
each well where this technique is used. Any number
of sensors could be installed along the length of
the well bore.
Calculation of thermodynamic properties of
steam and non-condensible gases involves laborious
trial and error procedures. It would be desirable
to have a computer program for this. It would be
further desirable, perhaps even necessary, to have
a terminal or mini-computer at the site so that
results could be calculated instantly. Successive
conditions could then be based on preliminary
results.
2. Doscher, Todd M., et al: Steam Drive - Definition
and Enhancement, SPE 1031S, October, 1981.
3. Me1dau, R.F., Gas-Steam Injection in Heavy Oil
Wells, 50th Annual California Regional Meeting
of SPE, Los Angeles, California.
4. Heidemann, Robert A., and Prausnitz, John M.:
Equilibrium Data For Wet Air Oxidation, Industrial
Engineering, Chemistry Process Design and
Development, Volume 16, Number 3, 1977.
5. Moos, J.T.: Wet Air Oxidation VLE (Vapor Liquid
Equilibrium) Program, June 1, 1976, A computer
program developed for Zimpro Inc.

If the truck and equipment could be purchased

and assembled for about $250,000 then it should be
possible to make available the equipment and an
operator for about $1,500 per day.

CONCLUSIONS

It should be possible to measure steam quality

and heat losses in EOR steam injection systems by
injecting an inert and non-condensible gas and
taking suitable temperature and pressure measurements

NOMENCLATURE

specific humidity of a non-condensible gas,

Kg steam/Kg gas
K R/MW, where R is the ideal gas constant,
and MW is molecular weight of the gas
T temperature, oK
Vs Specific volume of steam, M3/Kg
PNZ= partial pressure of nitrogen, KPa
Vs absolute volume of steam, M3
Ps = partial pressure of steam
P total pressure
VNZ= absolute volume of nitrogen, M3
Ws = absolute weight of steam, Kg
WN2= absolute weight of nitrogen, Kg
Q steam quality, %
WWA= total water, steam plus liquid water, at
point A
HB = enthalpy at point B, MJ/Hr
WSB= steam at point B, Kg/Hr
WWB= water at point b, Kg/Hr
HSB = steam at point B, Kg/Hr
hSB= specific enthalpy of steam at point B, J/KG
hWB= specific enthalpy of water at point B, J/Kg
hN2B = specific enthalpy of nitrogen at
point B, J/Kg
WSC= steam at point C, Kg/Hr
HA = Enthalpy at point A, J/Hr
hSA= specific enthalpy of steam at point A, J/Kg
 TABLE 1
ENTHALPY TABLE

Enthalpy and amount of steam for a mixture of 22678 Kg/Hr of water and 4535 1b/hr of N2
at 6.42 MPa and various temperatures.

Temperature °c 243 249 254 260 266 267 268 269

Enthalpy, GJ/Hr
Ideal Gas 32.6 35.1 38.5 43.3 51.5 54.0 54.2 60.1
Moos(S) , 20 ppm NaC1 32.8 35.4 38.8 43.8 52.2 54.7 64.4 64.4
Moos(S) , 10,000 ppm
NaC1 32.8 35.2 38.6 43.3 50.9 52.8 54.9 57.1
Steam, Kg/Hr
Ideal Gas 4305 5473 7177 9868 14688 16141 17863 19931
Moos(S) , 20 ppm NaC1 4459 5658 7406 10164 15105 16595 22600 22630
Moos(S) , 10,000 ppm
NaC1 4409 5579 7270 9888 14287 15481 16765 18063
(Moos, 20 - Ideal) 154 185 229 296 418 454 4734 2903
(Moos,20 - Ideal)
Moos, 20 x 100 3.5 3.3 3.1 2.9 2.8 2.7 21.0 12.8

TABLE 2

Specific Humidity of Nitrogen Compared For The Ideal Gas Law and Reference 2
Total Eressure 10.4 MPa

TEMPERATURE °c 288 293 296 297 298 299 300 301

IDEAL 1. 942 2.464 3.049 3.290 3.565 3.880 4.246 4.675

MOOS(5) 2.047 2.790 3.214 3.471 3.759 4.099 4.979 4.987
(MOOS - IDEAL) .104 .144 1. 65 .181 .194 .219 .733 .312

(MOOS - IDEAL)
MOOS X 100 5.1 5.2 5.1 5.2 5.2 5.3 14.7 6.3
 FOR A MIXTURE OF 22680 KG/HR
70~________~____~0~F~W~ATT~E~R~W~IT~H~N~IT~RrO~G~E~N~____~________~25

60 20
a:: a::
:I:
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~ ~
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50 15 0

>
a..
- 0
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.J
~
~
:I: 40 10 0
.... .J

---
Z LL.
LLI ::E
~
LLI
30 5 ....
(I,

2o------------------~--------------------~--------------------~--------------~~----------------~0
230 240 250 260 270 280
TEMPERATURE, °c

Fig. 1 - Enthalpy and Steam Flow Vs. Temperature

STEAM GENERATOR
PUMP 280°C 6.42 M Pa
A

4535 KG/HR
N2,16°C
FEED WATER
22680 KG/HR

B~------------~

Fig. 2 - Steam Generator Schematic

 c

280°C
STEAM 6.42 MPa
SEPARATOR

Fig. 3 - Steam Separator Schematic

EXISTING STEAM PIPING

2

r--~-----------------,

INJECTION
i WELL
i
--~

CONTROL i,
CONSOLE
I
III
L ,
L 4
to
__________________ ----
!
!I
i!I L
iJ p

-------------------L
NITROGEN-----t~

Fig. 4 - Schematic of Test Equipment