Strength of Materials II

Strength of Materials II
Dams and Retaining Walls
- Retaining Walls
Lateral support
2
Lateral support
3
Lateral Support (1/8)
In geotechnical engineering, it is often
necessary to prevent lateral soil
movements.
Tie rod
Anchor
Sheet pile
Cantilever Braced Anchored sheet

retaining wall excavation pile
4
We have to estimate the lateral soil pressures
acting on these structures, to be able to design
them.
Gravity Soil nailing Reinforced earth

Retaining wall wall
5
Soil Nailing
6
Sheet Piles
Sheet piles marked for driving
7
Sheet
Piles
Sheet pile wall

8
Sheet
Piles
During Sheet pile wall

installation
9
Reinforced earth walls are increasingly

becoming popular.
geosynthetics
10
filled with
Crib walls have been used in soil
Queensland.
Good drainage & allow plant growth. Interlocking
stretchers
Looks good. and headers
11
Retaining walls
12
Retaining Walls (1/5)
 Retaining walls are structures that support
backfill and allow for a change of grade. For
instance a retaining wall can be used to retain
fill along a slope or it can be used to support a
cut into a slope as illustrated in the figure
below.
 A retaining wall is generally constructed to

retain earth in hilly areas.
 The analysis of retaining walls is somewhat like
13 the analysis of a dam.
14
15
 The retaining wall is subjected to pressure,
produced by the retained earth in a similar
manner as the dam is subjected to water
pressure.
 Retaining wall structures can be gravity

type structures, semi-gravity type
structures, cantilever type structures, and
counterfort type structures.
16
 Walls might be constructed from materials
such as fieldstone, reinforced concrete,
gabions, reinforced earth, steel and timber.
Each of these walls must be designed to resist
the external forces applied to the wall from
earth pressure, surcharge load, water,
earthquake etc.
 Prior to completing any retaining wall design,

it is first necessary to calculate the forces
17
acting on the wall.
Application of
retaining walls
18
Retaining Walls – Applications (1/3)
Road
Train
19
highway
20
High-rise
building
Basement
Wall
21
types of retaining
walls
22
Conventional Retaining Walls
23
Conventional Retaining Walls
24
Gravity Retaining Walls
plain concrete
cement or stone
mortar masonry
cobbles
They rely on their self weight to

support the backfill
25
Cantilever Retaining Walls
Reinforced;
smaller section
than gravity
walls
They act like vertical cantilever,

fixed to the ground
26
Categories of lateral
earth pressure
27
Lateral Earth Pressure (1/6)
28
 Soil particles lack in cohesion and hence
have a definite angle of repose.
 Angle of repose may be defined as the
maximum natural slope at which the soil
particles will rest due to their natural
friction, if left unsupported and for a
sufficient length of time.
 The soil particles always exert some lateral
pressure on the walls, which retain or
support them.
29
 The magnitude of this lateral earth pressure
depends on the type of earth particles and
the manner in which they have been
deposited on the back of the retaining wall.
 It has been experimentally found that the
lateral pressure is minimum when the earth
particles have been loosely dumped,
whereas the pressure is relatively high when
the same particles have been compacted by
30
tamping or rolling.
 There are three categories of lateral earth
pressure and each depends upon the movement
experienced by the vertical wall on which the
pressure is acting as shown in the figure below.
 In this course, we will use the word wall to
mean the vertical plane on which the earth
pressure is acting.
 The wall could be a basement wall, retaining
wall, earth support system such as sheet piling
or soldier pile and lagging etc.

31
 The three categories are:
• At rest earth pressure
• Active earth pressure
• Passive earth pressure
32
33
At Rest Earth Pressure
 The at rest pressure develops
when the wall experiences no
lateral movement.
 This typically occurs when the
wall is restrained from movement
such as along a basement wall that
is restrained at the bottom by a
slab and at the top by a floor
framing system prior to placing
34
soil backfill against the wall.
Active/Passive Earth Pressures (1/2)
- in granular soils
Wall moves
away from soil
Wall moves A
towards soil
B
Passive Active
smooth wall
Let’s look at the soil elements A and B during

35 the wall movement.
Active/Passive Earth Pressures (2/2)
36
Active Earth Pressure (1/3)
 The pressure exerted on a retaining wall by
the retained material called backfill is
known as active earth pressure.
 As a result of the active pressure, the
retaining wall tends to slide away from the
retained earth.
 Active earth pressure of retained earth acts
on a retaining wall in the same way as the
pressure of the stored water on the dam.
37
 Active earth pressure
develops when the wall is free
to move outward such as a
typical retaining wall and the
soil mass stretches
sufficiently to mobilize its
shear strength.
 Active earth pressure –
practical pressure which acts
38
on retaining walls.
 As the wall moves away
from the soil backfill the
active condition develops
and the lateral pressure
against the wall decreases
with wall movement until
the minimum active earth
pressure force (Pa) is
reached.
39
Passive Earth Pressure (1/3)
 On the other hand, if the wall moves into the
soil, then the soil mass is compressed, which
also mobilizes its shear strength and the passive
pressure develops.
 This situation might occur along the section of
wall that is below grade and on the opposite
side of the retained section of fill.
 Some engineers might use the passive pressure
that develops along this buried face as
additional restraint to lateral movement, but
often it is ignored.
40
 As a result of the movement of
the retaining wall, the
compressed earth is subjected
to a pressure which is in the
opposite direction of the
active pressure.
 This pressure is known as
Passive Earth pressure.
 Passive earth pressure –
theoretical pressure that rarely
comes into play.
41
 As the wall moves
towards (into) the soil
backfill, the passive
condition develops and
the lateral pressure
against the wall
increases with wall
movement until the
maximum passive earth
pressure (Pp) is reached.
42
lateral earth pressure
Coefficients
43
Lateral Earth Pressure Coefficients
 Lateral earth pressure is related to the vertical
earth pressure by a coefficient termed the:
 At Rest Earth Pressure Coefficient (Ko)
 Active Earth Pressure Coefficient (Ka)
 Passive Earth Pressure Coefficient (Kp)
 The lateral earth pressure is equal to vertical

earth pressure times the appropriate earth
pressure coefficient.
44
At Rest Coefficient
 Depending upon whether the soil is loose sand,
dense sand, normally consolidated clay or over
consolidated clay, there are published
relationships that depend upon the soil’s
engineering values for calculating the at rest
earth pressure coefficient.
 One common earth pressure coefficient for the
“at rest” condition in granular soil is:
Ko = 1 – sin(φ)
 Where: Ko is the “at rest” earth pressure
45 coefficient and φ is the soil friction value.
Active and Passive Coefficients
When discussing active and passive lateral
earth pressure, there are two relatively simple
classical theories (among others) that are
widely used:
 Rankine Earth Pressure Theory
 Coulomb Earth Pressure Theory
46
Rankine’s Theory (1/2)
Rankine’s theory is
one of the most
acceptable theories
for the
determination of
active earth
pressure on a
retaining wall.
WJM Rankine
(1820-1872)
47
The Rankine Theory assumes:
 There is no adhesion or friction between the wall
and soil.
 Lateral pressure is limited to vertical walls.
 Failure (in the backfill) occurs as a sliding wedge
along an assumed failure plane defined by φ.
 Lateral pressure varies linearly with depth and
the resultant pressure is located one-third of the
height (H) above the base of the wall.
 The resultant force is parallel to the backfill
48
surface.
Coulomb’s Theory
The Coulomb Theory is similar to Rankine
except that:
 There is friction between the wall and soil and
takes this into account by using a soil-wall
friction angle of δ. Note that δ ranges from φ/2
to 2φ/3 and δ = 2φ/3 is commonly used.
 Lateral pressure is not limited to vertical walls.
 The resultant force is not necessarily parallel to
the backfill surface because of the soil-wall
friction value δ.
49
Rankine’s Coefficients of Active and
Passive Earth Pressures (1/2)
The Rankine active and passive earth pressure
coefficient for the specific condition of a
horizontal backfill surface is calculated as
follows:
Some tabulated values for active and passive

coefficients based on the above expressions are
50
shown in the table below.
Rankine’s Coefficients of Active and
Passive Earth Pressures (2/2)
Rankine Earth Pressure Coefficients
51
Coulomb’s Coefficients of Active
and Passive Earth Pressures (1/3)
The Coulomb active and passive earth pressure
coefficients are derived from a more complicated
expression that depends on the angle of the back
of the wall, the soil-wall friction value and the
angle of backfill. Although this expression is not
shown, these values are readily obtained in
textbook tables or by programmed computers
and calculators.
52
The tables below show some examples of the
Coulomb active and passive earth pressure
coefficient for the specific case of a vertical back
of wall angle and horizontal backfill surface.
The Tables illustrate increasing soil-wall friction

angles (δ).
53
Coulomb’s Active Pressure Coefficients
Coulomb’s Passive Pressure Coefficients
54
Points to Note
Some points to consider are:
 For the Coulomb case shown above with no
soil-wall friction (i.e. δ = 0) and a horizontal
backfill surface, both the Coulomb and Rankine
methods yield equal results.
 As the soil friction angle (φ) increases (i.e. soil
becomes stronger), the active pressure
coefficient decreases, resulting in a decrease in
the active force while the passive pressure
coefficient increases, resulting in an increase in
55
the passive force.
RANKINE theory for
active earth pressure
56
E F H D C
mR
W
h
P
R
Φ θ
K A B
57
 Consider a trapezoidal wall ABCD,
retaining earth up to a height of h on its
vertical face AD.
 Let the retained wall be levelled with the

top of the wall CD.
 Draw AE at an angle Φ with AK where Φ is

the angle of repose of the retained earth.
58
 If the retaining wall is removed, the
retained earth will be subjected to
tension and will slide down along a
certain plane whose inclination will be
more than that of the angle of repose
with AK.
 Let such a plane be AF and inclined at

an angle θ with AK.
59
 Now, consider a horizontal force P offered
by the retaining wall which will keep the
wedge AFD of the retained earth in
equilibrium.
 The wedge AFD of the retained earth is in
equilibrium under the action of the
following forces:
(1)Weight of the wedge AFD
60
(2) Horizontal thrust P offered by the
retaining wall on the retained material.
(3) Normal Reaction R acting at right angle to
the plane AF.
(4) The frictional force, F=mR acting in the
opposite direction of the motion of the
retained earth (where m is the coefficient
of friction of the retained material. The
frictional force along the face AD of the
61
retaining wall is neglected.
W
mR
R
θ
62
 From the geometry of the figure, we find
that:
63
 Substituting the value of in the
above equation:
 Multiplying the numerator and the

denominator by cosΦ:
64
Substituting this value of W in the equation for

P, we get:
If the retaining wall is removed, the retained

earth will immediately slide down across a
plane where the tendency for the material to
slide down its greatest. Let such a plane be AH.
65
Therefore, maximum value of the force P is
required to retain the wedge AHD of the earth.
In order to locate the plane AH (the plane of
rapture), we differentiate the equation for P and
equate it to zero.:
66
Substituting in the
above equation:
67
68
69
70
Notes:
 Similarly, it can be proved that if the retained
material is surcharged (the angle of surcharge is a
with the horizontal), the total pressure on the
retaining wall per unit length is given by:
This pressure may now be resolved into horizontal and

vertical component.
The horizontal component Ph=Pcosa will act at a
height h/3 from the base.
71
Notes:
 The vertical component Pv=Psina. It will act along
DA.
 If the retained material is subjected to some
superimposed surcharge load (e.g. pressure due to
traffic, building etc), it will cause a constant
pressure on the retaining wall from top to bottom.
The total horizontal pressure due to surcharged
load,
where p is the intensity of the surcharged load.

72
Coulomb’s wedge theory
for Active earth pressure
73
Coulomb’s Wedge Theory (1/4)
 In Rankine’s theory for active earth pressure, we
considered the equilibrium of an element within
the mass of the retained material. In this theory,
the equilibrium of the whole material supported
by the retaining wall is considered, when the
wall is at the point of slipping away from the
retained material.
 Consider a trapezoidal wall ABCD, retaining
surcharged earth up to a height of h on the
inclined face AD.
74
E
F
a D C
d
Φ h/3m
b P
75 A B
76
 In this case, the earth pressure is given by the
relation:
Calculating total
lateral earth pressure
force
78
Lateral Earth Pressure Forces (1/9)
 The simplest consideration of earth pressure
theory starts with the assessment of the vertical
geostatic effective stress, Po, at some depth in
the ground (effective overburden pressure.
 In most cases, the vertical stress at any depth in
a soil mass due to its self weight is the
summation of the simple products of the unit
weight of each soil layer and its corresponding
thickness down to the depth of interest.
 The effective component of this pressure was
denoted by Po.
79
 Due a variety of factors, including depositional
patterns, the lateral stress, Ph, in a soil mass is
usually not the same as the vertical stress, Po.
 Since the vertical stress is known with
reasonable certainty for practical purposes, the
lateral stress can be assumed to be a certain
percentage of the vertical stress and can be
expressed as follows:
Ph=KP0
Where Ph is the lateral geostatic effective stress
80 at height h.
 K is the coefficient of lateral earth pressure
and depends on the state, whether at rest,
active or passive, i.e.
 K=Ko for “at rest” condition.
 K=Ka for active earth pressure condition.
 K=Kp for passive earth pressure condition.
81
At Rest
82
83
Active Passive
 In cases where ground water exists, the

lateral pressure due to the water at any
depth below the ground water level is equal
to the hydrostatic pressure at that point
since the friction angle of water is zero and
use of the equations given for Ph leads to a
coefficient of lateral pressure for water, Kw
equal to 1.0.
84
 The lateral earth pressure is computed by using
the vertical effective overburden pressure Po at
any depth and applying equations given.
 The lateral earth pressure is then added to the
hydrostatic water pressure to obtain the total
lateral pressure acting on the wall at any point
below the ground water level.
 For a typical soil friction angle of 300, Ka = 1/3.
Since Kw = 1, it can be seen that the lateral
pressure due to water is approximately 3 times
85
that due the active lateral earth pressure.
 Active pressure at depth z:
 Active force within depth z:
 Passive pressure at depth z:
 Passive force within depth z:
86
General
distribution
of combined
active earth
pressure and
water
pressure.
87
Examples – rankine’s
Active earth pressure
88
Examples (1/15)
Example 1: Find the resultant lateral pressure
and the distance of the point of application from
the bottom in the case of the retaining wall
shown below. 2
18 kN/m
3m g1=20 kN/m3
2m g2=24 kN/m3
89
Examples (2/15)
Take the unit weight of upper soil as 20 kN/m3
and f=300 and weight of lower soil as 24 kN/m3
and f=300.
90
Examples (3/15)
Solution 1: The pressure diagram on the retaining
wall is shown below. The pressure HA or GC is due
to surcharge. Pressure BD is due to upper soil and EF
is due to lower soil.
18 kN/m2
H A
3m g1=20 kN/m3
B D
2m g2=24 kN/m3
91 G C E F
Examples (4/15)
Pressure HA due to surcharge is given by:
Total pressure due to surcharge per meter length of

the wall is given by:
92
Examples (5/15)
Similarly, pressure BD due to upper soil is given by:
Total pressure due to upper soil per meter length of

93
Examples (6/15)
And, pressure EF due to lower soil is given by:
Total pressure due to lower soil per meter length of

94
Examples (7/15)
And, total pressure per meter length of the wall is
given by:
Point of application of the resultant pressure:
Let y be height of the point of application of the

resultant pressure from the bottom of the wall.
Taking moments of all pressures about G and

equating the same:
95
Examples (8/15)
96
Examples (9/15)
Example 2: A masonry retaining wall of
trapezoidal section with a vertical face on the
earth side is 1 meter wide at the top, 3 m wide at
the bottom and 6 m high. It retains sand over the
entire height with an angle of surcharge of 200.
Determine the distribution of pressure at the
base of the wall. The sand weighs 18 kN/m3 and
has an angle of repose of 300. The masonry
weighs 24 kN/m3.
97
Examples (10/15)
1m
200
D C
6m
PH
2m
A J K B
W 3m R
98
Examples (11/15)
Let the resultant cut the base at K. Total pressure per
meter length of the wall is given by:
99
Examples (12/15)
Horizontal component of the pressure:
Vertical component of the pressure:
Weight of the retaining wall:
Total weight acting vertically downwards:
100
Examples (13/15)
Taking moments of the vertical loads about A and
equating the same:
Point where the resultant cuts the base:
101
Examples (14/15)
Horizontal Distance AK:
Eccentricity:
Maximum intensity of pressure at the base:
102
Examples (15/15)
Minimum intensity of pressure at the base:
103
Conditions of stability
for a retaining wall
104
Conditions of Stability (1/23)
105
106
The conditions for stability of a retaining wall are
the same as those for the stability of a dam. In
general, a retaining wall is checked for the
following conditions of stability:
 To avoid tension in the masonry at the base of
the wall.
 To safeguard the wall from overturning.
 To prevent the sliding of the wall.
 To prevent crushing of masonry at the base of
the wall.
107
Example 1: Find the stability of the

retaining wall shown below. Also find the
extreme stresses at the base of the wall,
taking the unit weights of soil retained
and masonry of the wall as 16 kN/m3 and
22 kN/m3 respectively. Assume the angle
of internal friction of the soil as 300.
108
1m
D C
Non 6m
cohesive
backfill
A B
3m
109
1m
D C
6m
P
2m
A J K B
W 3m R
110
Solution 1: Top width (a) = 1m; bottom width
(b) = 3m; height of wall (h)=6m; unit weight of
soil = 16 kN/m3; unit weight of masonry = 22
kN/m3 and angle of internal friction of the soil
= 300 .
Check for tension in the masonry

Earth pressure per meter length of the wall:
111
Weight of the wall per meter length of the
wall:
Taking moments of the wall section about A

and equating the same:
112
Point where the resultant cuts the base:
Since the resultant force lies within the

middle third of the base width (from 1.0 to
2.0), the wall is safe against tension in its
masonry at the base.
113
Check for overturning:
Since the resultant force lies within the base
width AB as obtained above, the wall is safe
against overturning also.
Check for sliding of the dam:

Let the coefficient of friction of the dam be
0.6. Frictional force at the base of the dam:
114
Since the frictional force is more than the
horizontal pressure, the wall is safe against
sliding.
Extreme stress at the base of the wall:

Eccentricity of the resultant:
115
Maximum stress at the base of the wall:
Minimum stress at the base of the wall:
116
Example 2: A masonry retaining wall 4 m
high above ground level as shown below
sustains earth with a positive surcharge of
100. The width of the wall at the top is
0.75 m and at the base 2.5 m. The earth
face of the wall makes an angle of 200
with the vertical. Determine the thrust on
the wall for no tension, overturning and
sliding.
117
Take: the unit weights of soil retained and
masonry of the wall as 16 kN/m3 and 20
kN/m3 respectively; Maximum allowable
pressure on soil is 120 kPa; angle of repose of
the soil is 300; angle of friction between the
soil and wall = 200; and angle of surcharge =
100.
118
0.75 m
100 D C
4m
200
A B
2.5 m
119
Solution 2: Check for tension:
Active earth pressure on the wall per
meter length:
120
0.75 m
100 D C
E
4m
P
4/3 m 200
A J K B
W R
121
2.5 m
122
Weight of the wall per unit length:
Total downward weight per unit length:
123
Taking moments of wall section about A
and equating the same:
Where the resultant cuts the base:
124
Horizontal distance AK:
Since the resultant force lies at a point

which is at a distance 2/3 from A, the wall
is safe against tension in its masonry at the
base.
Check for overturning:
Since the resultant force lies within the
base AB as obtained above, the wall is safe
125 against overturning also.
Check for sliding:
Let the coefficient of friction be 0.6.

Friction force at the base of the dam is:
Since the frictional force is more than the

horizontal pressure, the wall is safe
against sliding.
126
Check for maximum stress at the base
Eccentricity of the resultant:
Maximum stress at the base:
Since maximum force is more than the

permissible stress (120 kPa), the wall is not
127
safe against stress at the base.
Alternatives for improving factor of safety
against sliding
128
design of retaining
walls
129
Retaining Wall Design: Proportioning
130
Retaining Wall Design: Proportioning
131
exercises
132
Exercises (1/3)
Exercise 1: A trapezoidal masonry retaining
wall 1 m wide at the top and 3 m wide at its
bottom is 8 m high. It is retaining earth
having level with the top of the wall on its
vertical face. Find the maximum and
minimum intensities of stress at the base of
the wall if the unit weights of masonry and
earth is 24 kN/m3 and 18 kN/m3 respectively.
Assume the angle of repose of the earth is 400.
[244 kPa; 12 kPa]

133
Exercises (2/3)
Exercise 2: A trapezoidal masonry retaining
wall 1 m wide at the top and 3 m wide at its
bottom is 6 m high. The vertical face is
retaining earth with an angle of repose of 300
at a surcharge of 200 with the horizontal.
Determine the maximum and minimum
intensities of stress at the base of the dam.
Take the unit weights of earth and masonry
as 20 kN/m3 and 24 kN/m3 respectively.
[169.5 kPa; 56.9 kPa]

134
Exercises (3/3)
Exercise 2: A masonry wall 8 m high and 3 m
wide contains water for a height of 7 m. check
the stability of the wall, if the coefficient of
friction between the wall and the soil is 0.55.
Take the unit weights of masonry as 22.2
kN/m3.
[the wall shall fail due to tension; safe against

overturning and safe against sliding]
135
The End
Any Questions?
136

Strength of Materials II - 4C - Dams and Retaining Walls - Retaining Walls

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Strength of Materials II - 4C - Dams and Retaining Walls - Retaining Walls

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Dams and Retaining Walls

Cantilever Braced Anchored sheet

Gravity Soil nailing Reinforced earth

Sheet piles marked for driving

Sheet pile wall

During Sheet pile wall

Reinforced earth walls are increasingly

 A retaining wall is generally constructed to

 Retaining wall structures can be gravity

 Prior to completing any retaining wall design,

They rely on their self weight to

They act like vertical cantilever,

Let’s look at the soil elements A and B during

 The lateral earth pressure is equal to vertical

 Rankine Earth Pressure Theory

 Coulomb Earth Pressure Theory

Some tabulated values for active and passive

The Tables illustrate increasing soil-wall friction

Coulomb’s Passive Pressure Coefficients

 Let the retained wall be levelled with the

 Draw AE at an angle Φ with AK where Φ is

 Let such a plane be AF and inclined at

 Multiplying the numerator and the

Substituting this value of W in the equation for

If the retaining wall is removed, the retained

This pressure may now be resolved into horizontal and

where p is the intensity of the surcharged load.

 In cases where ground water exists, the

 Active pressure at depth z:

 Active force within depth z:

 Passive pressure at depth z:

 Passive force within depth z:

Total pressure due to surcharge per meter length of

Total pressure due to upper soil per meter length of

Total pressure due to lower soil per meter length of

Point of application of the resultant pressure:

Let y be height of the point of application of the

Taking moments of all pressures about G and

Vertical component of the pressure:

Weight of the retaining wall:

Total weight acting vertically downwards:

Point where the resultant cuts the base:

Maximum intensity of pressure at the base:

Example 1: Find the stability of the

Check for tension in the masonry

Taking moments of the wall section about A

Since the resultant force lies within the

Check for sliding of the dam:

Extreme stress at the base of the wall:

Minimum stress at the base of the wall:

Horizontal component of the pressure:

Horizontal component of the pressure:

Total downward weight per unit length:

Where the resultant cuts the base:

Since the resultant force lies at a point

Let the coefficient of friction be 0.6.

Since the frictional force is more than the

Maximum stress at the base:

Since maximum force is more than the

[244 kPa; 12 kPa]

[169.5 kPa; 56.9 kPa]

[the wall shall fail due to tension; safe against