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• Apply KCL at a:
E a (s) − Vin(s) i L (0) E a (s) − E b (s)
+ + = 0.
R s Ls
• Apply KCL at b:
i L (0) E b (s) − E a (s) (E b (s) − vc (0)/s) − 0
= + .
s Ls 1/(sC)
• Re-writing in terms of Vc (s) = E b (s), VL (s) = E a (s) − E b (s), and noting
E a (s) = Vc (s) + VL (s),
µ ¶
1 1 1 Vin(s) i L (0)
Vc (s) + + VL (s) = −
R R Ls R s
1 i L (0)
sC Vc (s) −
VL (s) = Cvc (0) + .
Ls s
• This may be written in matrix-vector form:
¶ µ ¶
V (s) i (0)
µ
1 1 1 in L
−
" #
+ Vc (s)
R
R Ls =
µ R s ¶
.
1 VL (s) i L (0)
sC − Cv c (0) +
Ls s
• Inverting the matrix (thank you, Matlab)
" # R R + Ls Vin(s) i L (0)
Vc (s) LCs 2 + RCs + 1 LCs 2 + RCs + 1 −
R s
= i L (0) .
RLCs 2
VL (s) −Ls
Cvc (0) +
LCs 2 + RCs + 1 LCs 2 + RCs + 1 s
• Note that we can now solve for Vc (s), VL (s), and/or
Vr (s) = Vin(s) − Vc (s) − VL (s) given Vin(s), vc (0), and i L (0).
• All terms have a common denominator based on the transfer function
1
H (s) = ,
LCs 2 + RCs + 1
so we need to spend some time examining this term.
• We can solve for the denominator roots using the quadratic equation:
s
p µ ¶2
−RC ± (RC)2 − 4(LC) R R 1
s1,2 = =− ± − .
2LC 2L 2L LC
• There are three possible scenarios for s1,2 based on the radical being
+, −, or zero.
• When (RC)2 − 4LC > 0, then the circuit has two real roots s1 and s2
and s1 6= s2.
• The transfer function has poles s1 and s2 so the natural solution to the
circuit has terms of the form £
yn (t) = k1es1t + k2es2t u(t).
¤
0.8 0.8
K (1 − e−t/τ )
−σ t
e
y(t) × K
0.4 1 0.4
←−
e
Response to initial condition
0.2 0.2
−→ 0.
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
t =τ t =τ
Time (sec × τ ) Time (sec × τ )
Time Response vs. Pole Locations: 2nd-Order Pole (stable)
b0 ωn2
H (s) = 2 =K 2 (standard form).
s + a1 s + a2 s + 2ζ ωn s + ωn2
ζ = damping ratio.
ωn = natural frequency or undamped frequency.
ωn
<e(s) <e(s) <e(s) <e(s)
ωd
σ
0.5
e−σ t
h(t)
0
Envelope of sinusoid decays as e−σ t
−0.5
−e−σ t
−1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (sec)
Impulse Responses of 2nd-Order Systems Step Responses of 2nd-Order Systems
1 2
ζ =0 ζ =0
0.2 0.2
0.5 0.4 1.5
0.4
0.6
y(t)
y(t)
0.6
0 1
ζ =1 0.8
−1 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
ωn t ωn t
<e(s) <e(s)
Impulse responses vs. pole locations Step responses vs. pole locations
Non-unity gain
2 2(s + 1.1)
H1(s) = H2(s) =
(s + 1)(s + 2) 1.1(s
µ + 1)(s + 2) ¶
2 2 2 0.1 0.9
= − = +
s+1 s +2 1.1 s + 1 s + 2
0.18 1.64
= +
s+1 s+2
1.5 1.5
ζ = 0.3
1 1
0.5
α=1 0.7
2
0.5 4 0.5
100
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
ωn t α
H (s) 1
1.5 Ho (s)
0.5
1 H (s)
y(t)
y(t)
Ho (s) 0
0.5
−0.5
0
Hd (s)
−1
Hd (s)
−0.5 −1.5
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (sec) Time (sec)
1.2 8
Step Response
7
1
ζ = 1.0
6
0.8 0.7
ωn tr
100 5
0.6
4
0.5
0.4
5
3
0.2
2
2
0
α=1 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 0 2 4 6 8 10
ωn t α
• Extra zero in LHP will increase overshoot if the zero is within a factor
of ≈ 4 from the real part of complex poles.
• Extra zero in RHP depresses overshoot, and may cause step
response to start in “wrong direction.” Delay.
• Extra pole in LHP increases rise-time if extra pole is within a factor of
≈ 4 from the real part of complex poles.
=m(s)
Unstable
Insignificant Dominant region
<e(s)
• Overall,
A 16(1 − A/15) 1 − A/15
Vc (s) = + −
s s + 500 s + 8000
vc (t) = A + 16(1 − A/15)e−500t − (1 − A/15)e−8000t u(t).
£ ¤
12
= A − 16A/15 + A/15 + 16 − 1 10
vc(t)
8
= 15. 6
4
• Result is plotted to the right for 2
0
A = 2. 0 0.005 0.01 0.015
Time (sec)
0.02 0.025
• Therefore,
vc (t) = 15e−2000t + 30000te−2000t u(t).
£ ¤
14
10
expected.
v (t)
8
c
6
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025
Time (sec)
• Therefore, 12
√ −500t √ 10
8
vc (t) = 10 3e cos(500 3t−π/6).
v (t)
c
6
4