Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
‘.‘,~
,.
_
~.:~,‘:
CARL G. /JOHNSON
WILLIAM/ R. ‘WEEKS
5td Editi:an
,, ,,,:
,,
~,bt,,
:,:,
,,
::,,,
COPYRIGHT @I936 1942, 1946,1956,1977
56789-77-967654
The Publisher
TABLEOF CONTENTS
CHAPTER CONTENTS PAGE
1. Early History of Iron and Steel 1
Direct processes: beginnings of production furnaces M Early steel-
making processes: steeling, cementation, blister steel, shear steel,
Wootz steel, Huntsman’s process n
2. Production of Iron and Steel 13
The smelting process n Raw materials: iron ores, coke, limestone,
scrap n The blast furnace: construction and operation n Direct
reduction processes: kilns, retorts, fluidized bed techniques q
3. Refining into Steel 27
Basic oxygen process, Bessemer, electric arc n Induction furnaces,
open hearth, specialty melting and refining n Ingot production: types
of ingot steel; continuous casting n
4. Shaping and Forming Metals 45
Hot rolling, forming structural shapes n Hot forging and forging
process; extrusion q Effects of hot working, cold working, cold
rolling, drawing, tubular products n Metal forming: bending, flat
drawing, roll forming, effects of cold working n
5. Physical Metallurgy 74
Pure metals, crystalline or solid state n Crystallization, dendritic
growth, grain structure q Deformation, work hardening,
recrystallization, germination and grain growth n Cold
crystalliiation n
6. Mechanical Properties of Metals 67
Carbon steels: minor constituents in steel; gaseous
impurities n Selection of carbon steels by type; mechanical
properties of carbon steels M
7. Testing of Materials 105
Destructive tests: tensile, impact, shock, fracture tests, fatigue,
hardness” corrosion tests, salt spray, macro-etching,
microscope n Non-Destructive tests: magnetic inspection, ultrasonic,
radiographic n Temperature measuring R
8. Theory of Alloys 131
Equilibrium diagrams, thermal curves, time-temperature
curves n Freezing of alloys, solid solution alloys, eutectic alloys,
hetero-crystal alloys, immiscible alloys, peritectic alloys, changes in
the solid state, compound-forming alloys n Properties of alloys: iron-
carbon diagram, solidification, allotropy n The eutectic,
decomposition of cementite, grain size changes, critical temperature
changes n
9. Heat Treatment of Steal 165
Normalizing, annealing, spheroidizing, stress-relief
treatment n Hardening of carbon steel: martensite, retained
austenite, cryogenic treatment n Quenching media W Effect of
carbon: shallow hardening, effect of grain size, effect of
alloys n Heat-treat furnaces, tempering, furnace atmospheres, liquid
treating baths n
10. Surface Treatments 205
Surface hardening, carburizing, Chapmanizing. nitriding S Other
diffusion processes: flame hardening, induction
hardening e Coatings: painting, metal spray, hard-facing, vapor
deposition, oxide coatings q
11. Alloy or Special Steels 231
Behavior and influence of special elements II Ahoy steels: nickel,
chromium, manganese, tungsten, molybdenum q High-speed steels:
vanadium, silicon m Magnetic steels q
12. Classification of Steels 253
SAE and AlSl systems n Tool steel classification m Stainless and
heat-resisting steals B Classification by hardenability n
13. Cast Irons 269
Gray cast irons, white and chilled cast irons m Malleable, ductile.
wrought iron, alloy cast irons H Foundary practice: melting practices,
innoculants q
34. Welding Metallurgy 303
Gas welding: oxy-acetylene, arc and gas shielded n Solid state
welding; ultrasonic q Resistance: butt, seam, project.ion,
flash n Fusion: plasma arc, electron beam, laser n Brazing and
soldering n Ef%cts of welding on metal structures II
15. Powder Metallurgy 329
Metal powders and their production m Characteristics vi niatal
powders m Molding, welding and pressing, sintering furnaces and
atmospheres n Applications of powdered metallurgy products q
16 Producing Non-Fexous Metals 347
Copper, lead, zinc, cadmium, nickel, aluminum, magnesium. tin,
manganese, chromium, tungsten, cobalt, antimony, bismuth, ferro-
alloys, precious metals m
17. Light Metals and Alloys 374
Aluminum and its alloys, properties n Machining light metals: casting
alloys, wrought aluminum alloys n Die-casting methods and
equipment q Magnesium and its alloys n Beryllium metal m
Titanium n
16. Copper and Its Alloys 403
Commercial grades, impurities, brasses, Muntz metal, Admiralty
metal, copper-tin bronze, leaded bronze, aluminum bronze,
beryllium-copper alloys, copper-manganese-nickel, Monel metal,
copper nickel, nickel-silver, nickel-iron m
19. Bearing Metals 427
Properties H Lead base, tin base, lead-calcium alloys, cadmium
allOyS.copper-lead alloy n Composite bearing, zinc base alloys, Self-
lubricating isarings 0 Silver-lead-indium bearings n
20. Zirconium, lndium and Vanadium 437
Ores. refining processes, mechanical processes, shaping and
forming m Application of the metals to industry 8
Glossary 460
!ndex 469
Iron has been known and used for over
five thousand years. An iron object, ap-
parently a dagger, was found at the site of
the ancient city, Ur of the Chaldees. It is
believed to date from about 3,700 B.C.
References to iron in the early literature of
India and China indicate that iron was
known in these countries at least 2.000
years before the Christian era.
The first iron that was used is believed
to be of meteoric origin. Meteors, the
shooting stars that flash across the night
skies, are of two types: stone and metallic. Fig. I- 1. Struchre of iron-nickel meteor-
Ancient iron articles have been chemically ite showing crystalline sxucture. (Field
Museum of Natural History)
analyzed and found to contain a high per-
centage of nickel (7 to 15 percent) in the
iron base; this is very close to the nickel
content of metallic meteors, as in Fig. l-l. ore was learned. Iron ore is a chemical
The common use of iron could not begin compound of iron and oxygen, technically
until a method of removing iron from its referred to as iron oxide. This oxide of
2
iron is the rust that develops on stezl arid
ir%I F:OdUCtS Whc%7 the:; 3iR exposed t0
moist air. A method of removing the oxy-
gen from the compound is called a reduc-
tion process.
Early hunters probably learned the re-
duction technique by accident when a
camp fke was built over an out-cropping
of iron ore, Fig. 1-2. The glowing charcoal
in the fire would unite r,hemically with oxy-
gen in the ore to form a common gas, car-
bon dioxide (CC.‘, and would leave a
spongy mass of metallic iron mixed with
ash and other matter. The hunters found Fig. f-3. Earliest furnace design took ad-
vantage of wind power.
fhat the mass could be shaped by pound-
ing it white it was still white hot. The
pounding not only shaped the mass but
also squeezed out most of the ash and im-
purities. The metal that resulted Y,:s a Later on, sufficient heat to melt the iron
crude form of wrought iron. Thk :~.?‘. not became available with the building of
iron as we define it today because, while small, rough furnaces. These were stone
there was enough heat to remove the oxy- and clay boxes into which were put iron
gen from the iron ore, the fire was not hot o:e and charcoal, Fig. l-3. These box fur-
enough to melt the iron. ilaces were placed in areas noted for high
.,kts and the openings faced the usual
wind direction. The wind-driven air in-
creased the intensity of the fire and melt-
ed the iron. Later furnaces utilized bellows
operated by hand as in Fig. 1-4. or by
power from water wheels or windmills.
Over the centuries, improvements were
made upon this basic furnace. The shape
of the furnace was made more efficient in
retaining heat and stacks were contructed
to add a draft effect to the incoming air
from the bellows. The charcoal used was
the source of the carbon which not only
was the fuel for the furnace but also, as it
Fig. 1-2. Prehistoric man first smelted became very hot, supplied the chemical
iron acciden?aNy by building a fire over an carbon for the reduction process. As the
ore outcropping. metallic iron formed it melted, ran down
2
Early mistily of Iron and Steel
from heating the iron in a forge fire in con- of heating and hammering, a fine steel
tact with red hot carbon (Fig. I-4). The would be produced, such as the famous
surface layer of the iron would absorb swords of Damascus and Toledo, Fig. 1-5.
Some carbon on the outer surface. This is There is evidence of steel made by this
now referred to as a case. The red hot iron process as early as 1000 B.C. Recently
bar with its case of high-carbon iron could found Chinese iron sickle molds have
then be hammered. After many repetitions been dated before 400 B.C., Fig. l-6.
From about 1350 B.C. until 1300 A.D., Very early in the history of iron making,
practically all iron that was worked into combustion was alded by an artificial draft
tools and weapons in Europe and the Near supplied by bellows. The air (20 percent
East was produced directly fro,n iron ore. oxygen) in the blast combined with carbon
This method of production is called the di- in the incandescent charcoal to produce
rect process to distinguish it from the carbon monoxide (COj. a reducing gas. As
process now used, in which iron is first this gas ascended through the mixture of
smelted, then purified, and then finally charcoal and iron ore it combined with the
cast or wrought. This is an indirect proc- oxygen in the ore (Fe,Os) to produce car-
ess. The product of the direct process is ton dioxide (CO,) which passed out of the
called sponge iron. Today wrought iron is forge into the atmosphere.
produced by the indirect method which As the process continued, tiny crystals
wi!l be described later in the book. of iron would form and drip down into the
In the early direct process, alternate lay- bo?tom of the forge. The temperatures
ers of charcoal, and mixtures of charcoal were only sufficient to achieve a partial re-
and iron ore were placed in the furnace duction of the iron from its ore. The rest of
until several layers of core built up. Then the iron content (between 50 and 60 per-.
the whole mass was covered with fine cent) was lost in the slag (refuse). Reduc-
charcoal. The charcoal had three func- tion of iron ore starts at about 2200°F
tions: (1) to supply heat during combus- (12OO’C) and the melting of iron at
tion, (2) to serve as a reducing agent on 2800°F (1540°C). Since this latter temper-
the ore, and (3) to shield the hot metal ature could not be maintained in the prim-
from the oxidizing influences of the air. itive furnace (Fig. 1-4) the iron was not liq-
Air for combustion was induced through uefied. Besides iron oxide, the slag would
a pipe or nozzle directly into the bed of contain fused impurities from the ore and
coals first built up before the furnace was the fuel. As the iron droplets settled to the
loaded (charged) with charcoal and ore. bottom of the hearth, the slag, being light-
I
er, would float on top of the iron and pro- 1000 AD. Furnaces produced only one
tzct it from oxidation. bloom per day as !ate as 1350 AD. al-
After several hours, a spongy mass, of though more than one furnace might be
iron would have accumulated at the bot- o:;*rated at an iron works.
tom of the furnace. This was then pried ir :he later Middle Ages, the process
out or withdrawn with tongs. White hot, ii ~4:. im)’ -covedby adding a fluxing material
was taken to the anvil and hammered vig- to the charge. The was usually limestone,
orously and repeatedly to squeeze out as but slags from old turnaces were reused~
much slag as possible and to weld the iron The added flilving material markedly cut
crystals into a solid mass. Eetween the r:.:wn the was% of iron and conserved
iorging periods, the iron wouid be reheat- ~harci-a!. :n reacting chemically with the
ed to soften or liquefy the remaining slag gaque (impurities in the ores), the flux al-
rendering the iron more malleable. so prevented some of the impurities from
The iron mass produced was called a dissolving rn the fluid iron and this im-
bloom. it was very small, some weighing proved the quality of the iron. This add!..
oniy one or two pounds. This weight was tion of a flux to the charge represented L
increased to more than ten pounds after major step forward in iron working.
Fig. l-8. Wafer power raised a massive forging hammer by winching if up. then dropping
it on red hot bloom.
6
came larger, conti0!.~ows charging more As these furnaces were built higher and
common and the use ;ii water power quile the air blast increased they began to gen-
general. As a result, ~3e production per erate higher heat and melted the iron for
turnace increased rn;:~~j foid. in Engiand easier extraciior,. VWWUUIIS (ii charge aiid
the new methods and ~qaipment came in- operation permitted the production of ei-
to &se somewhat !a%;. !x 1408 an Exglish tiler !cw-carbor! wrought iron or molten
forge produced 278 blooms in a year, high-carbon pig iron. A similar furnace
each bloom weighing 195 pounds, for an called a flussofen was developed to pro-
annual production o: over 27 tons. Com- duce molten, high-carbon steel. These fur-
pared tc a national average of less than naces were referred to as shaft furnaces
three tons fifty years earlier, this was a and were prototypes of the modern blast
meaningful increase. furnace and the cupola now used world
Also evolved from the Catalan furnace wide.
was the stuckofen or o/d iligh bloomery, Several centuries later American
Fig. 1-9. This furnace was popular in bloomeries represented the highest devel-
northern Euro~;? in the fourteenth Century. opment of the Catalan or simple hearth-
The development of the stuckofen furnace type funace. These bloomeries were open
consisted in gradually increasing the at the front like a domestic fireplace. The
hnioht
.--~r~~ of the furnace, providing a stronger hearth was rectangular shaped, about
blast, introducing the charge through an three feet wide and two feet deep. front to
opening near the top of the stack and back (91 x. S4 cm). The blast was preheat-
providing a drawing hole at the bottom Of ed to save fuel by passing it through pipes
the shaft for extracting the blooms. Fuel around which the hot gases rising from
and ore were added at regular intervals. the hearth passed. A fuyere or blowing
The draw hole was closed by a brick or a hole was placed either on one side or at
stone wall which was easily torn down, the back of the hearth which was protect-
then rebuilt. ed by a water-cooled bottom plate.
7
fig. 1-10. TheSaugus iron Works, America’s oldest colonial bloomery.
After a bed of charcoal had been ignited taken to a separate forge to be hammered
and was burning wei!; alternate layers of into a bloom. A typical bloomery would
ore and charcoal were charged and smelt- produce about a ton of wrought iron ill 24
ing continued untii a sufficient amount of hours. Fig. I-10 represents the historic
metal had coflected on ?he hearth bottom. co!onial Saugus bloomery. The last Ameri-
This mass of spongy metal, in which con- can bloomery ceased operations in 1901.
siderab!e slag was entrapped, was then
Iron produced by the direct process was substance that gives iron its hardenability,
relalive!y pure, containing about 99.5 per- the iron as originally reduced could not be
cent iron (ferrite) and less than 0.1 percent hardened by heat treatment or any
carbon. %nce
Since carbon is the principal amount of forging. This iron was not suit-
Early History of Iron wad Steel
able for making cutting tools or weapons. tent of only 0.05 percent, typically wrought
Early smiths achieved some success in iron. The cutting edge of the blade, how-
hardening iron when they discovered that ever, had been locatty carburized and then
if iron was heated ior a sufficient iengih of plaidei;ed by qi;enc’-jng in
111rn,,-!
YY,” s.,>+or
..“I.,,
time in ii deep bed of charcoal embers An interesting cost reduction process
the iron could be hardened by plunging dating from the first century A.D. is steel-
the red-hot metal into coid water. Why ing. This consisted in welding steel strips
this happened was a mystery to the onto an iron base. Hammers have been
smiths although they probably didn’t give found in England which had thin plates of
it a second thought. The process, how- steel welded to the face of the hammer
etver has great meta!!urgical meaning. head, as in Fig. l-l 1. Steeling for the con-
The glowing bed of charcoal not only servstion of an expensive metal was a
supplies the heat to raise the iron to a common practice until this century.
redhoi tempeiature but it also proiects The sword makers of the Near East de-
the surface from the oxidizing effeci of ihe kveloped a rather complicated method of
atmosphere. In addition, the glowing char- increasing the carbon content of wrought
coal oermits the transfer of carbon atoms iron. This process consisted of piling high-
into the surface of the iron which raises csrbon steel bars together with pieces of
the carbon content of the surface iron and
penetrates to a significant depth. This in-
crease in carbon transforms the soft iron
into steel, at :east on the surface.
This early carburizing process permitted
weapons and cutting tools to be hardened
and sharpened. However, the rapid
quenching induced brittleness which
caused the tools and swords to break un-
der stress. The Romans, who needed reli-
able swords, are credited with inventing a
process to reduce the brittleness while re-
taining most of the haidness. This process
is also a heat treatment called tempering.
With this invention, hardened steel be-
came the wonder metal of the Western
world.
The ancien! Vikings understooci the
process of partial carburization and are
believed to have introduced this process
into England during their invasions. The
Fig. l-11. Through the steeling process,
metal of a Danish battle-axe of about 895 an o/d English hammer was faced with
AD. found in England has a carbon con- steel for more lasting service.
Metallurgy
low-carbon wrought iron, heating the pile ferred to as cement steel. Blister or ce-
to a red-hot welding temperature and then ment steel was uneven in composition and
forging the pile into a single solid piece. more carburized on the surface than in the
This process wouid be repeated until the center.
smith judged that the correct amount of To obtain a more homogeneous prod-
carbon, referred to as quakties. had been uct the English steel makers, early in the
imparted to the metal. The diffusion of eighteenth century developed a process
carbon from one layer of metal to another called shearing. In this process, cement
was incomplete and the steel exhibited a steel bars would be broken in two, the two
peculiar wavy appearance called watering. halves laid together in a bundle, covered
This was a visible characteristic of the fa- with clay or sand to prevent oxidation, re-
mous Damascus blades. heated to a welding temperature and then
Any number of methods of increasing hammered into a solid bar. This was
the carbon content of wrought iron came called single shear steel. For still higher
to be called the cemenrafion process. The homogeneity of the metal the process
process is basically the heating of wrought would be repeated to produce double
iron in close contact with any carbona- shear steel.
ceous material, such as charcoal, up to a Shear steel proved to be stiperior to !he
red heat (1550 to 175OOF)(850 ?o g60°C). best steel manufactured eisewhere in Eu-
Depending on the length of time the part rope. It was used in the production of cut-
is held at the red heat a carbon content up lery, shears, razors, engraving tools or
to 1.7 percent can be obtained. This proc- wherever the highest quality steel was re-
ess was the principal means of producing quired. Techniques used in producing
steel up to the middle of the 18th century. shear steel were similar in some ways to
in most oi the world no other process was the ancient process of producing Damas-
known. cus steel.
The cementation process practiced in The only other earl/ method of produc-
the 17th and 18th centuries consisted of ing steel was developed in India many
placing alternate layers of wrought iron centuries ago. The famous wootz steel
and charcoal in sealed clay pots. The pots was produced in fire clay crucibles in a
were then piaced in a type of reverberato- single heating process and produced a
ry furnace where the flames would have homogeneous high-carbon steel. It is as-
no contact with the pots. The tempera- sumed that high purity iron ore was
tures varied from 1470’ to 2010°F (SOO’C ground together with charcoal and sealed
to !lOO’C) and the tota; time in the fur- in the crucible. During the first phase of
nace ranged from 7 io i2 days. ine heating period, the carbon in the char-
The bars of carburized wrought iron this coal would reduce the iron oxide to pure
process produced would be covered with iron. Then the iron would absorb carbon.
small blisters and the steel was known as As the iron absorbed greater amounts of
biister steel. Steel carburized by this spe- carbon, its melting point was reduced.
cial cementation method was also re- Whereas pure iron melts at 28OO’F
10
(154P’C). a highly carburized iron will melting steel in a closed container so that
have a melting point several hundred de- the metal would lose none of its carbon or
grees tower. oiher elements and become completely
As the carburization continued and the homogeneous thioughotii. Huntsman’s
melting point lowered, the metal would process, introduced in 1742, was similar
begin to melt and the added carbon would to the wootz process of ancient India.
be equally distributed within the melted Huntsman started with cement steel
steel. When the crucibles cooled, they with carbon averages that would give him
were broken open and a small ingot of the desired carbon percentage in the final
high-carbon steef was removed. The product. The bars were broken into small
crude ingots could then be reheated to pieces and placed in sealed crucibles. The
the welding temperature ahd forged into crucibles were placed in a coke fired fur-
bars. This ancient method, which does not nace and heated until the bars were thor-
InnPn, t,-,
..rr”u’ hD.rn Y”II,
.” I*“.l b-.nnn St.,“...*
bnnmm t-I” **e
LII #&- oughlji iilelted and fused. The crucibles
em world, was lost to the world before were removed from the furnace and
modern times. One of the remarkable opened. The small amount of impurities
things about this process is the fact that (slag) floating on top of the steel was first
the iron workers of ancient India, unlike skimmed off and the steel then poured in-
those in Europe and the Near East, were to cast iron ingot molds. The ingots were
able to consistently attain temperatures then forged to desired shape.
high enough to melt a highly carbonized The steel produced by Huntsman’s
iron. method was not only homogeneous but
No steel made by the cementation proc- free from slag and dirt. In fact, the steel
ess could be totally homogeneous and was admirably suited to Huntsman’s pur-
products made from this steel would be pose and others soon recognized It as the
unpredictable in hardness and hardena- best steel available, Fig. 1-12. Where high
bility. This bad characteristic of cement quality steels are required, the crucible
steel led Huntsman, an English clockmak- method ‘as held a position of supremacy
er to seek a way of obtaining a more uni- for over two centuries. Today, little cruci-
form stee! suitab!e for delicate clock ble steel is made in crucibles of fire clay or
sprhgs. Huntsman concejved ?he idea of graphite fked in a open flame furnace.
1. About how many centuries ago was 6. What is the definition of steel?
iron known about and used? 7. Name two types of famous swords.
2. Metallic meteors contain nickel in 6. What percentage of oxygen is in the
whai perceniage range? air we breathe?
3. What is common iron ore, a com- 9. Define slag.
pound of iron and oxygen, chemically 10. Define a bloom.
named? What is the common name for 31. When and where was the Catalan
this compound? forge developed?
4. Wbai was used long ago 10 remove .n
IL. I..L-.
YV~KIIIS the principai substance that
oxygen from the iron ore? gives iron its hardenability?
5. Why is a blast of air necessary to 13. Describe the wootz or Huntsman’s
iti& iron? process of producing steel.
42
The United States has been the world expand on iron and steel-making facilities.
leader in steel production since the begin- Increased requirements for steel cre-
ning of the twentieth century. Annual pro- ated a need for larger supplies of raw ma-
duction of ingot steel in the U.S.A. has ex- terials and for blast furnaces, coke ovens,
ceeded 100 million net tons several times rolling mills and other facilmes. The na-
in the last three decades. The nation’s tion’s iron and steelmaking facilities today
steelmaking capacity increased at an un- number over 150 blast furnaces for pro-
precedented rate during and after World ducing basic pig iron and more than 1200
War II. An average of $1.3 billion a year refining furnaces to convert pig iron into
was spent in those years to improve and steel.
Huge quantities of raw material are tana, manganese from India, fuel oil from
needed and consumed anntiatly by the Oklahoma, scrap steel from many in-
steel industry. A ton of steel produced in dustrial centers, magnesite from Canada,
any one of the more than 150 steel mills dolomite from Oregon, ferrosilicon from
may use iron ore mined in Minnesota, New York and iron ore and raw materials
limestone from ichigan, coal from Mon- from other countries and other continents.
Metallurgy
Iron ores. iron ore is the term applied to furnaces. Stony ores such as faconife,
an iron-bearing material in which the con- which contain 22 to 40 percent iron, were
tent of iron is sufficient for commercial not used in earlier years as long as better
use. About five percent of the earth’s ores were plentiful. Today taconite ores
crust is composed of iron. Unlike other are beneficiated by crushing and grinding
metals, such as copper and gold, iron is to a flour-like consistency. The powdered
rarely found as a metal. Iron is usually ore is then passed over a series of mag-
found as a chemical compound with oxy- netic separators where the magnetic iron
gen, sulfur and other elements. In addi- ore particles are separated from the non-
tion, iron compounds are usually found magnetic impurities.
mixed with other materials such as clay, The concentrated taconite, which con-
sand, giae:, oi rock. This material is tains 60 to 66 percent iron, is partially
worthless and is cailed gangue. dried and formed into round pellets after
The most common iron minerals occur- adding a suitable binder material, Fig. 2-2.
ring are listed in Table 2-1. The pellets are then baked into hard,
The high grade iron ore from the Mesabi dense, blast furnace charge material. The
mines, Fig. 2-1, in northern Minnesota is pe!lets are grey in color and sized from
relatively free of worthless gangue (non- 316 to 516 inches in diameter for pro-
ore rock) and is dug up from open pits and cessing.
shipped to the steel mills. Lower grade A second method of forming ore fines
ores require a beneficiation process to into usable blast furnace charge material
remove the worthless gangue before is sintering. Sinter is a clinker-like product
shipping. obtained by fusion on a traveling grate
Ores are up-graded by crushing, machine passing over a vacuum induced
screening and *washing. Complete removal by large fans. Modern sintermaking prac-
of very fine particles is necessary as tice generally incorporates sufficient flux-
such fines create problems in the blast es to render the sinter self-fluxing. This
14
F;Q. 2.1. iron ore being removed from open pit mine locafed near Lake Superior. @mari-
tin bon & Steel insfifufei
malerial. when charged into a biast fur- tion results in an overall lowering of coke
nace, is pre-catcined and reduces Ihe fur- consumption in the blast kurnace.
mace’s thermal load. This ihermal reduc- Coke is not only the fuel and
15
source GEheat for a blast furnace but it al- nia. oils. iCiai iai dyes and other valuabk
so actively enters into the complex chemi- by-products. The coke ovens are ax-tight
cai reactions tftai cccur in Wie operation of ovens, rectangular in shape, 35’ to 40’ (9
ihe blast furnace. Coke is produced from to ?2m) long and 6’ to 14~ (7.8 to 4.3 mj
coai caikd mekai!urgicai coai whch has a deep. They are only 11” to 22” (28 to 56
!ow sulfur content. Coke is the skeleton of cm) wide and are built in rows contabning
coal ;od is the solid that remains from a up to 100 ovens. Meta!?urgical (low sulfur)
cm~ier chemica[ process called coking. coal is loaded in rotation and the ovens
The coking process. iv additirn to mak- are sealed. Heal is apF!ied to release the
ing coke. produces gaseous products vdatile gases in the coal, Fig. 2-3.
vulkT are piped to a chemical piant where A imodern coke oven can receive a
i!-#fq y/i& in.d U>ir;6
-’ j-1 kud gas. tar. ammo- charge of t6 20 20 tons of coal. Tempera-
Fig. 2-4, i:mesfone is sized for fiuxing use. (American h-on & Sfeei insiiiiiie,l
metai in tlhe IEW materials, refpwie 12 be building demolition and environmental re-
sepaiaaed frcm it unless there is present a cycling sctiviiies, Fig. 2-5.
substance for which they have a greater Steel mills are their own best wppliers
chemical affinity. To furnish a substance of steel swp inasmuch as about 30 per-
with which these elements or compounds cent scrap is generated in steelmaking
may combine in preference ta the me?al is operations. On an average. 60 percent of
the secondary function of a flux such as the scrap required by the steel industry is
generatsd within steel plants and the re-
and steel are not maining 40 percenf is purchased from
strictlv raw materids but are used like raw outside sources. In mills which utilize
materials. Cber 60 m8illim tons of scrap scrap only, as in the case of electric fur-
ferrous metal is used annualiy. In modern nace steel. about 75 percent of the scrap
terminology this old steel industry practice is purchased.
of reuse of scrap is tailed recycling. The quality and analysis of scrap steel is
Basicaiiy there are three different kinds an important factor ifi the use of scrap. !?
of iron and steel scrap; (a) home, that must be sorted and graded as to particle
which is the iron and steel scrap generat- size, cleanliness and rust as well as to
ed within a steel plan;. (b) prompt indus- chemical composition. Certain non-
trial, scrap steel returned to the sleeknak- ferrous metats such as zinc and tin are
er by a customer and, (r) dormant, scrap harmtul to furnace refractories. Copper in
steel in the market from junked autos, excess of 0.30 percent is detrimental to
iron is ~3:dracteb from its ore by means men:. Fig. 2-7 shows a cross-section of
of the klast furnace. Taller than a twelve the furnace proper with the alternating
story building, the ironmMng blast fur- layers of iron ore, coke and limestone re-
7ace takes its name from the blast of hot acting with a blast of hot air which gener-
dir ad gases that are fo:ced zp through a?es temperatures necessary to liquefy the
layers of iron ore, coke ancf limestone. Fig. iron as well as promoting the comp!ex
2-6 shows a typicai view of a blast furnace chemical processes. The burning of the
including the auxiliary charging ec;G?- coke furnishes the necessary heat and the
carbon monoxide (CO) gas generated bjj
incomplete combustion of the coke, to-
gether with the red-hot, glowing coke, re-
duces iron ore to ?he element, iron.
The passage of the hot carbon monox-
ide gas tip through the furnace charge
causes the following actions:
1. Drives off moisture in the materials
charged in at the top.
2. Chemically chamges (reduces) the ox-
ides o! iron (the 9re).
3. Caicines the flux (limestone): CaCQ,
= Cat3 + co,.
4. Melts the slag and iron.
5. Reiiuces ihe oxides of manganese,
silicon and phosphorus.
6. Removes sulfur from the molten iron.
Blast furnaces require many auxiliary fa-
cilities to support their operation. In sim-
plest terms the furnace itself is a huge
steel shell almost cylindrical in shape and
lined with heat-resistant fire brick. Once
MOTDROP4
cm j .:~
started, or bfown in, the turnace operates ctosed down. The duration of furnace op-
coniinuotssly untii the refractory lining erations from start iii finish is referred lo
needs repairs or until Ihe demand for iron as a campaign and may last several years.
drops lo the point where me 0 ns, Iron ore, coke
Production of hn and Steel
and limestone are charged alternately inlo dies for disposal. The molten iron is iike-
the furnace th:u a double-bell hopper at wise released from the hearth through a
the top and work iheir way down againsl tap hole into a large ladle or a thermos-
tbe up-rising hoi cpses. becoming hotter bottle-like hot metal railroad car for trans-
as they descend. ir? ttie top half of the fur- portation to the refining furnaces.
nace; the carbon monoxide gas removes a The hot air blown into the hearth
great rieal of Ihe oxygen from ike iron ore. ?hrougR luyeres is heated to 1400.21OC”F
About hahmy dowi, the limestone begins (76G-1140°C) by &assing il through
to reaci‘ with ihe impurities in the ore siid stoves. Stoves are built in pairs, each
coke to form i siag. The ash from the servrKJ in two a?:ernaling funclions;
burnt coke is absorbed into the slag. ii) being hsated by burning exhausl car-
Siiica !SiG, or safidi in lhe ore is also re- bon monoxide from the blast furnace; (23
duced by the gas to form z&con which healing ambient air blown through Ihe
disso!ve!j in tb!e iron as dces some of Ihe heated brick checkerboard in Ihe stoves.
carbon from the coke, Al Ihe furnace lxx- The stoves may contain up to 250,000 11’
Pm the temoeralures rise well over !2,322,500 m’) of heating surface. As
3,OGO”F ji643”C). The melted iron and much as four and a half tons of air may be
slag trickie down into We ~drnace hearth needed to make one ton of pig iron.
where !ightei slag fioats cn the heavy iron. en&. To produce one
This separation makes Etpossibie to drain ton of pig iron requires about 1.6 net ions
the slag off through a slag notch into la- of iron ore, 0.65 ion of coke, 0.2 ton of
Fi3. 2-8. Molten km from blast furnace moves by ladle car lo other steel making depart-
ment (Wham &. Po#ock Co., Div. GATX Co.)
Fig. Z-9. Casfing machine delivers molten
iron to mo!ds for pig &on production, later
lo be made info pipe. (Deere & Co.)
iimestane. 0.05 ton miscellaneous iron days the molten iron from the tap hole ran
and steel scrap. In addition, the water through channeis in the sand floor with
cooling system for the furnace shaft may small slots at their sides. To the farmers
use 10 to 42 million gallons of water per the set-up resembled newborn pigs at the
day. At an average production rate of sow’s side, suckling. Today most of the
3000 tons per day for one blast furnace, iron from the blast furnace is kept in a liq-
this means ihai up to 12,OQClgallons of uid state and taken to the refining
water are used to produce one ton of pig process, or may be pigged for cast iron
iron. production, Fig. 2-8. Commercial custom-
The term pig iron may seem obscure to ers for cold pig iron are foundrymen who
modern citji dweilers but its origin was cast pipe, automobile engine parts and
perfectly ciear in earlier farming communi- the many cast iron products in industry,
ties with a smail blast furnace. in those Fig. 2-3.
The term direct reduclion as currently for extracting iron from its ores. The iron
used in the industry refers to any process, in use commercially up to the latter half of
other than the conventional blast furnace, the 19th century was wrought iron which
F,s. 2.10. Sponge iroil is obt2ined b,y di-
rect mkfcficn of iraii minerais without
me!ting Fhe meta!. (,4merican :,;oi & Steei
!nsfifi tqi
::rig!naiiy was the product of primitive 1. Those that utilize a kiln for reduction
ikxjes unable to produce temperatures of the ore.
r:!($! eriough ?o rne!t the iron. 2. Those Fhat utilize retorts in a batch
While the earliest blast farraces came process.
~r~fouse around 1350 AD., direct redlack 3. Those that use the fl~jdi~ed bed tech-
tim of iron ore in charcoal hearths had M.jWS.
been used for at :easr 1500 years to pro- One of the most ad-
duce sponge iron, Fig. 2-15. This metal, vanced processes of this type to be rested
ccntainiq various impurities such as stag on a large scale has produced up to 100
bsilica?es), could be hammered while hoF tons per day in a piiot plant built to dem-
to produce useful implemenls. Direct re- onstrate its commercial potential.
duction was the ^*:_:^^I “I ‘y’” Ia?: i?QiiiiiZ3kiXj The process derives iFs fuel energy and
process however, no :: :eii process has reducing potential from coat and r,dtural
yet attained mass production capabilities gas (or other suitable hydrocarbons). A
that could compete with the speed and variety of bituminous, sub-bituminous and
iarge tonnage capacEty of the blast anthracile coals have been tested, and if
furnace. proper cbar~i~g iechniques are utilized,
The comparative ease with which iron aimost any coal can be used successfully.
OSS can be reduced to metallic iron The raw material is high grade ore pel-
makes a direct reduction process desir- ?ets containing 67 percent iron, dolomite
abfe if it can eliminate the large invesi- (limestone) and coal. The pellets and the
ment, maintenance and operating costs of stone aie screened ta remove over-sized
a blast furnace. There are over fifFy direct and under-sized particles. These raw ma-
reditcFion processes being developed, terials are fed continuously in desired pro-
tested and scaled up fcx high production. portion into a common conveyor leading
The industry is icoking at these efforts to to the kiln, Fig. 2-1:.
choose those which are commercially The kiln is 115 ft (35m) tong with an in-
viable. ternal diameter of about 7 112 ft. (2.3 m)
T?aevarboibs processes for direct reduc- and can be rotated at constant speed over
tion can be divided into Wee pwxal a wide range of speeds. The kiln is very
Fypes: much like (hose used in the PorFland ce-
Fig. r’- i i. Conveyor-fed grate kiln iron ore pelletizing facility. (Allis-Ci~a/mersj
men: industry. it is lined with fire brick a constant speed. The firs? third of the
about 8 $12 inches (22 cmj thick. It is fired cooler-kiln is lined with fire brick, and wa-
oy nattim! gas. ter sprays are directed on the outer sur-
The materiais enter at the siightly ele- face of ?he unlined two-tlhirds. The cooled
vat&j i,e& .$nd of the kiln and the gas material is then magnetically separated to
ihme moves up from the lower, discharge segregate the metallic iron.
end. TPe rotation moves the material clkm This process involves
th:ou~$ Pk ki;n in about five hews. The the batch reduction of high grade iron ora
counter-fio*~ of the raw materials to the in se&d retorts. A 500 ton per day plant
ascending heat permits sequential drying, has been in production since 1960. The
che;xica; rsducl”Pin of the ore: carbonizing process makes USE of reformed natural
cl the coai aed sirtering to take place. gas containing 73 percent hydrogen. 16
At d:scharr;e the material is about percent carbon monoxide, 7 percent car-
2000°F llC951Cj. it is passed through a bon dioxide a,)d 4 percent unconverted
secondary cooier-kiln wlhich is about 65 it metharie.
(2Omi iong. 5 ‘t t I,5 mi 0.D. and rntateci at In me 500 ion per day plant, the ore
charge is 100 tons of o;e in each of four method and operates at a lower tempera-
retor?s and the full cycie time is 12 hours. ture of 9txYF (480°C) and a higher pres-
equally divided into the four stages of the sure of 500 psi (3447.5 kPa).
process. These are: (4) charging, (2) sec- T-he thmirdmethod uses the fluidized bed
ondary reduciion. (3) primary redxtion techniqlJe for reducing minus IO-mesh ore
and (4.) cooling. in the process, the pM- by hydrogen. This is done in a two stage
iied reformed gas is preheated to 1600” process at 72013” lo 1300°F (650 to
!G 1300°F (870.98G’C). The reduction re- 7CXJ”CJ and at a pressure of 30 psi (207
torts are arranged in parallel. and the pre- kPa ). Hydrogen for the process may be
heated gas enters one of the retorts in the :nanufactu:ed from natural gas. fuel oi!,
primary stage of ore reduc:!on (final re- powdered coal or other materials by sev-
<;!cLictnl and passes dowriward thiol;gh era! common commercial methods.
,ihe fixed bed of ore where a portion of the in the process, iron ore is preheated to
hydrogen is converted into water. At this about 1700°F (930°C) and enters the
point. the partiaily spent reducing gas is primary-stage reactor where ?he hematite
used to preheat and partially reduce the ore (Fe,Q,) is reduced to the oxide Fe0 at
me in a second retort. The final degree of 1300°F (7OO’C) by ihe partly spent off-
reduction averages about 90 percent buf gas from ihe secondary-stage reactor.
varies from 96 percent at the top to 73 The original reducing gas. containing not
percent at the bottom of :he ore bed. less than 85 percent hydrogen, enters the
process. There are three secondary-stage reac?or at about 7550°F
major fiuidized bed processes in use. One (840°C) and 3C psi (207 kPa ) where it re-
process is a simple multi-stage. continu- duces the Fe5 from the primary stage to
ous fiuidized bed process operatcng at metallic iron at 1260” to 1300°F (650” to
c?SSeF~tialiy atmospheric piessure, This 700’; Cl.
method utilizes a long, moving grate type Sponge iron contains
furnace where the cre en?ers a! one end. It two or three percent oxygen combined
naves through a flame resulting from the with the iron. While not desirable, this
partial combustion of natural gas with air, small amount of oxygen is net necessarily
generating a red,ucing gas of 2! percent hc-mfui as the refining process that fol-
carbon monoxide, 41 percent hydrogen lows is an oxidizing process. A major ad-
and 38 percent nitrogen. The air is pre- vaatage of sponge iron is the absence of
>:@&f$J13 1500’ rn .- ‘6CG”F (8’5”~87G”C), trace al!oying elements such as nickel.
a.& the .mturaj 32s ?G 6rjO 10 706°F (310. chromjtim. copptr, tin, zinc. lead and sui-
37O’C). The gartiai combustion cI the nat- fur vdhich are usuaiiy p:esernt in scrap pur-
:jrat gas p:o\f&s ihe ‘?ea: jquire,j to ac.. chased on the open market.
celemie the ieductiofi reactions. A distmc? disadvantage in sponge iron
.A:second arocess uses the fluidiied bed is thai the gangue initialij’ present In the
technique for ~-educing powdered ores of a ore is retained in the final product. This is
fi-hiri:i: 23 mesh fineness. I? differs from ~indesirabie ii’ refining operations as it re-
C,lher p, ..sses In that it is a semi-batch tards nelting. increases fuel coi?iiimpt~on,
is generally acid in nature and must be of extremely rapid oxidation even to the
fluxed by added lime, thus increasing the point of self-ignition. This pyrophoric
slag volume. character of fine iron powders can be min-
From the physicai property standpoint, imized or eliminated by reduction at tem-
low temperature direct reduction of fine pera?ures above 1300°F (700°C) or by
ores produces a pyrophoric malerial that hot-briquetting the freshly reduced iron
c’an be neither stored, shipped nor ex- powder under a neutral or protective at-
posed to moistwe withou? !he possibility mowhere.
high production method of producing Using electricity solely for the produc-
steel altho~sgh it is now a minor process. tion of heat, the electric arc furnace Ras a
Its ak blowing methods are related to the reputaiion for producing tool and die
basic oxygen furnace with its oxygen, steel, roller and bail bearing steel, stain-
The 5essemer converter is a large, less and heat resisting steef and other
pear-shaped vessel made of steel plate, specialty alloy steels. The first electric
lined with refractory materials and mount- steel making furnace was built in 1906 and
ed on trunnio~s to permit its tilting to load the process has grown in capacity from
and discharge As shown in Fig. 3-2, the smaff units for specialty steel to large fur-
converter has a doubfe bottom through naces with capacities of 150 to 200 tons
which air is blotin into and through molten (135 to 180 tonnes) of steel per heat at a
pig-iron poured inta the converter top. rate of up to 800 tons (725 tonnes) per 24
Converters range in capacity from 5 to hours. Today the process accounts for
25 tons and the air is blown in at a pres- one quarter of all U.S. production.
sure of 22 to 2% psi (150 to 200 Wa) and The electric furnace has proved to be an
at the rate of 25,000 lo 35,000 ft3/min ideal melting and refining unit. Its advan-
jiOO-7000 m3/min). tages are the non-oxidizing condition of
B,%TH
or
SLAG F,GiHai IIIcTnIc mc MOLTEN METAL
Fig. 3-3. Diagram of an electric furnace. Temperatures can be accurately confrolled.
(6ethlehem Steel Corp.)
the carbon arc, which is pure heat, the can be poured out, Fig. 3-3. The side wails
construction possibility of a tightly closed and bottom are lined with refractory mate-
furnace for maintaining special atmos- rials as is the removable roof, shaped like
phere, Fhe high temperature attainable, a flat dome. Three large cylindrical elec-
close limits of quality control and ex- trodes of carbon or graphite enter verti-
tremely high efficiency in its operation. cally through holes in the roof. The elec--
The body of this furnace is a circular bodes are up to 24 inches (60 cm) in
steel shell shaped like a kettle and mount- diameter and carry the electric current to
ed on rollers so the molten steel and slag the steel charge in the furnace.
and carbon are oxidized. Limestone and
other fluxes are then added to form a mol-
ten slag that floats on top of the steel and
abso:bs the oxides and other impuriiies.
When the heat is completed, the elec-
trodes are raised to their maximum height
after the electric power is shut off. The tap
hole is opened and the furnace tilted so
that the steel is drained from under the
slag into a iadle. Soecia! alloys, in the form
of ferro-alloys, are added to the melt in
the ladle at this time prior to pouring the
ingots.
Electric furnace use and tonnage are
rising because of their adaptability to con-
tinuous pouring and continuous slabbing
operations.
I, )“~,,A)
Fi.3. 3-5. Cross,-section of induction furnace.
gas or oil burners which emanate alter- The open hearth furnace is an exlremely
natsiy from opposite ends of the brnace. !arge and costly piece of equipment. A fur-
as in Fig. 3-6. nace capable ol producing 350 tons of
steel 1320 tonnesi irt five to eight hours !s The Crucible Pso@ess
likely to measure 90 it (27 meters) long by
30 fY (9 meters) wide. The auxiiliary equip- t-igh-grade too! steels and some alloy
ment. the air heating checiter board re-. steels are still made by the crucible proc-
geneiators. the a;: f!ues. air regulating ess. although the electric furnace is capa-
dampers. together with the hearth, repre- ble of making steel equal in quality to the
sents a large capital investment with cor- earlier. famed Swedish crucible steel. In
r;sp;nding high mam;enance expense. the crucibie process, wrought iron or
Open hearth furnaces nay be charged good, ciean scrap, together with a smali
1:: three ways: (li, steel scrap and moiten amount of hioh purity pig iron, ferroman-
pig iron (about a 50.50 mixj, (2) steel ganese. the necsssary alloying metals and
‘scrap and solid pig iron. and 13) 100 per- a flux are placed in a clay or clay-graphite
c;e:yt steel s,;rdp, Abp.jt 25 percent of in- pot with a tight cover and melted in an
gor ;mg:i: prodxcd IS recycled to sup& GVW,.
the stee! scrap of the refining operation. The earlier process of melting utilized a
Methods 2 and 3 aisc utiiize a limestone floor furnace, essentially a firebrick-lined
fiux While sufkient oxygen is usually trench into which the crucibles were
generaied from the oxides on ihe scrap placed and a stream of hot gases from an
‘neta: or by ihe introduction of iron ore in- oil or gas flame were passed down the
to the hearth. most modern open hearth trench and around the crucibles. Single
furnaces empioy oxygen lances to provide crucibles holding fifty to a hundred
gaseous oxygen during th,s working peri- pounds c,f steel can also be melted down
od after melting in induction type furnaces or conventional
The manufacture of steel in open hearth above-the-floor furnaces. The convectioin
furitaces takes much more time pe: ton currents, which are always produced when
than by t he basic oxyoen orocess. Basic a liquid is heated; completely mix the ai-
hearth is capabie of producing very large lays during the melt.
batches-up to 600 tons j545 tonnes) of After the charge has melted, with suffi-
steel with close controt of analysis. Nloy cient time for the mixing to take place and
additions are made in the furnace or in the the gases and impurities to rise to the SW
ladle if they are oxidizable. Nickie or cop- face of the crucible. the crucible is with-
per is added into the furnace while man- drawn from the furnace and the slag fioat-
ganese and chromium. as ferroalloys, are ing on the Lop of the steel is removed. The
added tc the sleel in the ladle. steel is then poured into a small ingot of
The open hear!h furnace (ahd Besse- fifty to a hundred pounds. The ingot is
mers) today accoun! for about twenty-five then ready for forging or rolling to desired
percent of the steei irdustry tonnage. Var- shape.
ious economic factors, such as fuel avai!a- The crucible process differs from other
bility. keep it in use. especially after the steei-making processes in that very little
addition of the oxygen iance capability. refining is done. The purity of the steel is
which shortens its cycle. directly related to the purity of the maieri-
als placed into the crucible at the start of remove the impurities. Among these facil-
Ike process. The chief adwanlage of the ities am: vacuum strea.m degassing, vacu-
pfocess is that it remc)ves practicaily al: of um ladle degassing, argon-oxygen decar-
the impurities in&ding oxygen. dissolved burization, Fig. 3-7. ‘The second group
gases and entmgled particles. Crucible includes: vacuum induction meking, con-
steel is used in the production of fine cut- sumable eleclrode melling and electroslag
iery. surgical iosm.ments. and fine cutiing melting, Fig. 3-8.
too’s for fix machinist. Two e?her processes tha: can be used
with either molten or solid metal as a
charge are: electron beam melting. Fig.
3-9. and vacuum induction melting. Both
of these pvxesses are carried out in a
vacuum as are the processes in the first
When Ihigh qoality steel such as that group. Basically, the process of vacuum
uwd in tooi-and-die. cutler!, or bail and degassing is used to draw off the undesir-
roV!er bearings is required, special type able gases before the steel soiidifies. The
furnaces and meKing techniqi;es are em- exception in group one is the argon-
ployed. These facilities can be grouped ii: oxygen decarburization which is not oper-
two genera! categories. First are those ated in a vacuum bul rather in a controlled
which receive motte~) metal from ibe ccn- atmosphere which minimizes the oxidation
venlianal steel makkg lurnaces and of chromium alloy.
Fk?. 3-i’. Vacwm StR?am degaSSing; vacuum ladle degassing, and argon-oxygen decar.
burization schematics. @WI)
endanger personnel CT damage equip-
ment; second, because poor practice in
She pouring operation is critical, firs? in the assembly, adjustment or manipulalion
controlling the r.~;oi:en steel so as not to of the pouring equipmenl may seriously
37
and adv%seCy affect the quality of the
Hid-PrQdUC:.
!n ?he teeming or pouring oneration. the
ladle of molten steei is carefully poured in-
io a refractory iined storage and dist:ibi;-
tion trough cal!ed a iundish. The tundish is
positioned over the ingot molds and the
me&ii is ga!ed oui of the ?tindish to fill the
1!!%,;1;3. Tlte itfg~t iiiuius are masswe wuc-
iures of cast iron They range from eight
feet (2.5 mi high by 3 feet (0.8 m) iv diame-
ter fo: high tonnage usage. down to three
fee! iO.8 m\ h;gh by s!x inches iii cm) in
dimeter for specislty steels used in Ihe
maocfactuie of tools. Fig. 3-10.
The cross-sechn of most ingo?s is ei-
ther souare or rectangular with round cor-
ners and corrugated sides. All ingot molds Fig. 3-10. Molten steel is transferred by
are tapered to faciiitate removal of the pouring or teeming from the ladle into in-
solid seei ingot Molds usually are ta- got molds. The ingot eventually wi;l be
processed through a rolling mill info or?e
pered from orre end io the other so that of many useful steei products as, for ex-
the tap of the cast ingot is either smaller ample. plate, sheet, strip or structural
or larger than the bottom. In the case of shapes. (Bethlehem See! Co.:
the big-end-up type. the taper helps in the
solidification process by permitting freez-
ing from the sides and bottom in such a
manner that the last pan of the ingot re-
maining liquid is under the ho: lop, thus
promoting soundness. The inside surface of the ingot mold is
The hot top is a separale fire clay mold carefully coated with a releasing agent to
shaped like an upside-down, large bot- prevent droplets, created during teeming,
tomless flower pot. The metal in contact from splashing up on the chilled cast iron
with the hoi top does not freeze as fast as sides and sticking to them, thus spoiling
the metai ifl fhe ingot mo!d and permits the surface quality of the ingot. The coat-
the still molten metal to feed down into the ing a!so facilitates extracting the solidified
contracting ingot and at the same time ingot from the mold.
permits the unwanted oxides and impuri- The stripping operation of a big-end-up
iies to rise iip into the hot top. The solid ingot requires a special hydraulic ram ta-
hot-top sec”m with the acumulated in?- ble with clamping devices lo hold the mold
purities (dirt) is later sheared from the in- upright while the ram pushes the ingot up.
got prior $0 rolling. Tongs from an overhead bridge crane at-
ilg, i- i I. .Hemowng ingot molds. Tha op-
e&ion is m/led stripping (American Iron
and sreei hi.)
tic ~~~~~~~~e~The chilling effect the ingot. The central section of the ingot
of the cold iron mold also causes srystalli- has a charxteristic random crystal orien-
z&ion of the moiten metal to occur in an tation and resultant tough structure.
ahnnrmni I.~
--..-....-. mannnr
_I... l.. Thn rruct3lc fnrm
. ..- .,t;rru,r I”,~~, firs: ~t~~~~~o~aa.l3tcwholes CadSa defective
on the surfaces of the mold and grow in- steel. These blowholes are formed by the
wardly to form a dendritic(from the Greek liberation of gases during the solidification
word dendron, meaning tree) grain struc.~. of the ingot. Gases from the molten steel
ture. This leaves the steel inherently weak may rise as bubbles and escape from the
because of the obviously weak planes so ingot or may be trapped in the solidifying
formed. Fortunately. in most cases ,the metal. Blowholes near the center of the in-
chilling does nat extend to the center of got, known as deep-seated, are less
efini~ig into Steel
harmful than blowholes on or near the sur- Proper control of the amount of gas
face of the ingot. Deep-seated holes will evolved during solidification determines
normally weld shut during rolling or forg- the type of steel. If no gas is evolved, the
ing operations but surface blowholes will steel is termed killed, because it lies quiet-
elongate during hot rolfing, producing ly in the molds. Increasing degrees of gas-
seams in !he fmished step!. evolution results in semiitilred. capped or
se~gs~~f~c~~. nxi,ng so!idiiicatio.n, iiq- imrmd steel.
uid solutions separate out or segregate, KiNed steel. These steels are strongly
the first portion to freeze being relatively deoxidized and are characterized by a rel-
pure metal (compared to the last to atively high degree of uniformity in com-
freeze). This seleciive freezing results in position and properties. The metal shrinks
uneven concentration of the elements during solidification, thereby forming a
found in the alloy and is called segrega- cavity or pipe in the extreme upper por-
tion. In ingot manufacture, the segrega- tion of the ingot. Generally. these grades
tion is aggravated by the chilling action of are poured in big-end-up molds. Use of a
the mold. The first portions in contact with ho?-fop will usual!y result in the pipe being
the mold freeze relatively pure. The cen- in the hot-top section which is removed
tral portions of the ingot, which are the prior to rolling. Severe segregation will al-
last to freeze, are richer in the lower freez- so be in the hot-top area.
ing point constituents. This is another The uniformity of killed steel renders it
good reason for cropping the upper por- most suitable for applications involving
tion of the ingot prior to rolling. Cutting to such operatiors as forging, piercing, car-
remove pipe also removes the section of burizing and heat treatment.
the ingot where segregation is wars?. The Semikilled shei. These steets are intei-
degree of segregation is influenced by the mediate in deoxidation between the killed
type of steel, pouring temjera!ure and in- and rimmed grades. Sufficient oxygen is
got size. It will vary with po,-rtion in the in- retained so that its evolution counteracts
got and according to the tendency of the the shrinkage on solidification. The com-
individual element to segregate. position is fairly uniform but there is a
greater possibility of segregation than in
killed steels. Semikilled steels are used
of fngot Steel
where the greater uniformity of killed Steel
is not required. This steel is used in the
r- -n-f -...-.
II. *II”.,. c+ani-making processes the pri- manufacture of structural steels such as
mary reaction involved is the combination plate, rail steel and forgings.
of carbon and oxygen to form a gas. If the Rimmed Steel. These steels are only
oxygen available for this reaction is not re- ightly deoxidized, so that a brisk effer-
moved before or during casting (by the vescence or evolution of gas occurs as the
addition of ferrosilicon, alumint!m or some metal begins to solidify. The gas is a pro-
other deoxidizer) the gaseous products dlJCt of a reaction between the carbon and
continue to evolve during solidification. oxygen in the molten steel which occurs at
the boljndary between the solidified metal duced that are ready for rolling; and costly
and the remaining molten metal. As a re- and labor consuming ingot pouring equip-
sult, the outer rim of the ingot is practical- ment, blooming mills and slabbing mills
ly free of carbon. The center portion of the are eliminated.
ingot has a composition somewhat above The process is illustrated in the sche-
that of the original moiten metal as a re- matic drawing, Fig. 3-13. The process is of
sult of segregation. European origin based on the Junghans-
The low-carbon surface layer of rimmed Rossi designs and the machine depicted is
steel is very ductile. Proper control of the capable of casting 5”~8%” (13-22 cm)
rimming action will result in a very sound
surface in subsequent rolling. Conse-
quently, rimmed grades are particularly
adaptable to applications involving cold
forming and where surface is of prime im-
portance.
Capped Seei. Tiiese steels are much
the same as rimmed steels except that the
duration of the rimming action is cur?ailed.
A deoxidizer is usual!y added during the
pouring of the ingot with the result that a
sufficient amount of gas is entrapped in
the solidifying s!eel to cause the metal to
rise in the moid.
Capped steels have a thin, low-carbon
rim which imparts the surface and cold-
forming characteristics of rimmed steel.
The remainder of the ingot approaches
the degree of uniformity typical of semi-
killed steels. This combination of proper-
ties has resulted in a great increase in the
use of capped s!eels in recent years.
Conti~~Q~s Casting or
~~ntf~~oMs Slabbfng
1. Pig iron is not used as an industr;~: men: causes this particular condition?
metal because of its high carbon content 3. When was large tonnage steel first
and impurities. What is its average carbon produced in the United States and what
content percentage and what are the ma- type of process was used? What was the
jar impurities in pig iron? process ca;led?
2. What is hof short steel and what eie- 4. What was the second type of large
tonnage steel refining process called? oxygen during the working period of an
5. Describe the design and operaticn open hearth furnace?
of a basic oxygen furnace. 20. What is the maximum batch size of
6. Name some of the advantages of the steel produced in an open hearth furnace?
BOF over its earlier predecessors named 21. What type of steel is made in the
in questions 4 and 5 above. crucible furnace?
7. What is charged into the BOF fur- 22. What is the charge placed into the
nace at the start of the operation? crucible in the crucible process?
8. What happens when oxygen flows 23. What is the batch weight of an aver-
through the lance positioned near the age crucible load?
surface of the charge in a BOF? 24. How does the crucible process differ
9. At what point are alloying materials from other steel-making processes?
added to steel produced in the various re- 25. Name the types of specialty melting
fining processes? Why? and refining processes.
16. Define the Bessemer converter. 26. Define an ingot casting.
How is it charged and operated? 27. Of what material is an ingot mold
11. What are the advantages of electric made?
arc furnaces? 28. Why is a hot-top used in teeming an
12. What is the size and from what ma- ingot?
terial are the electrodes in an arc furnace 29. How is an ingot casting removed
made? from its mold?
13. What is the charge put into an arc 30. What is the nature of defects called
furnace? pipes and how may they be avoided?
14. Describe an electric induction fur- 31. What effect does the cold iron mold
nace. have upon the grain structure of a cast in-
15. What is the charge put into an in- got?
duction furnace? 32. What becomes of deep-seated
16. When are the alloys added in the ln- blowholes when an ingot is rolled?
duction process? 33. What is the cause of segregation in
17. What is the charge put into an open an ingot?
hearth furnace? 34. Name the four types of ingot Steel.
18. V/hat are the fuels used in an open 35. What is the economic advantage of
hearth furnace? continuous casting?
19. What is :JSed to add supplementary
With the exception of powdered metal or rough slabs as done by some older
products. al! the avaitabie shapes and siz- mills is an expensive process and is avoid-
es obt&inabIe in meta!s have their begln- ed if at ail possible.
ning in the form of a casting. That is; the The ingots in the soaking pits are kep?
metals start from a liquid or molten state. at a uniform temperature of 2200°F
The molten metal is poured into a suitable (about 1200°C) to insure an optimum
mold and ahwed to solidify into a mass of plastic condition for rolli!?g or forging
desired skage. processes. The ingot is removed from the
Cast iron is an example of obtaining a soaking pit by overhead crane, Fig. 4-l.
desired shape which in many cases is of
unbelievabie complexity. Cast Steel
products such as the massive coupler of a
railroad car also get their intricate shapes
from the casting process. Casting tech-
niques are iurther discussed in Chap-
ter 41.
All steel starts out as a casting, the steel
ingot described in Chapter 3. As cast, the
steel ingot is a large (up to 5 ton) mass of
steel with impurities at its top and a non-
uniform, segregated crystalline structure.
in modern, integrated steel mills, ingots
are not ailowed to co51 after pouring but
Fig. 4-1. Soaking pit reheats ingnls lo
are placed in soaking pits to conserve 2200 O F (1205” C) for rolling mill. (BetHe-
heat energy. The reheating of cold ingots hem Steel Corp.)
and placed on a powered roller conveyor cropped ingot is then convey<!d to prepa-
in the horizontal pcsition. This conveyor ratory shaping in the cogging mill where
moves the ingoi to the shear where a the irregular ingot is roughly squared as it
skilled operator crops off the hot-cap or passes through a series of rollers which
upper section which contains unwanted have a rough or cogged surface.
pipe with its oxides and other dirt. The
evating sections of the powered roller of the rolls is necessary. The product of
conveyors. the steel is lifted from the low- the b!ooming mill, while still red-hot, must
er opening to the upper. Thus no reversiny be sheared into shorter lengths. The
shears are an important part of every sary io keep the woi~k rolls from bending,
blooming miil. The !owei knife blade, which aids In the production of sheet oi
made of very rougn steel; is fixed, wilile uniform gage.
the upper blade is ac?uated. A blooming The slab, now considerably longer and
miil can produce either blooms, slabs or thinner; next enters the finishing train of
billets. The width of a blooming mill is rolls. Each of the finishing stands reduces
somewhat limited so that special wider ?he thickness of the metal, resulting in a
n?ills roll billets and are cai:ed billet mills thinner and much longer piece. The finish-
while siabbing miKs are used to produce ing stands look much like the roughing
the thick. Wide slabs. .Slabs aie used to stands but are only a few feet apart. It is
feed the hot miil w:ich is used to produce not uncommon to see severi oi these
sibeets 2nd strio. stands in the operation. The rolls in each
Hai strip w#. Hot rolled sheet and stand move a little faster than in the stand
ship are thiil, fiat products less than 3116” pieceding it in order to take up the extra
(0.48 cm) thck. Strip is customarily much length of sieel as it is rolled. The exitirrg
narrower in width than is sheet and is of- ?emperature of the steel sheet is about
ten praduced ia more ciosely controlled 1500°F (815°C). The hot-rolled sheet is
thicknesses. At steel warehouses wide delivered to the cooling table and thence
sheet is often slit into strip to customer to pickling.
specifications. A continuous hot-strip mill The removal of the heavy oxide, mill
with its auxiliaries may be many city scale, is done by pickling which is the
blocks long and capable of reducing a process of passing the steel through a
heated slab about 7” (18 cm) thick and bath of dilute hydrochloric or sulfuric acid.
weighing more than 12 tons to a coil of A modern pickier may be several thou-
thin sheet in a matter of minutes. The de- sand feet long and is operated continu-
#very speed of a hot-rolled sheet may be ously. When the steel emerges from the
3500’ (7066.8 a?) per minute. tank it is free of hard scale. It is then thor-
The hot-strip mill consists of numerous oughly washed and, when required by the
stands of rolls. set in tandem. The first customer, is oiled to inhibit rusting in stor-
stand of roils is known as the roughing age. This final preparation prior to coiling,
train and consists of four big stands. each complies with a basic industry specifica-
housing four r&is placed one above the tion Hot Rolled. Pickled and Oiled abbre-
o?her. and known 2s a four-high. The four- viated H.R.P.O.
highs make the first reduction in thickness es. The princi-
of the metai. The two middle or working pai shapes of structural steel are angles,
rolls squeeze the heated slab down to beams, columns, channels. tees, zees,
about one fc.urth or more of its original sheet piling and rebar. The formation of a
thickness. The two center rolls are reia- structural shape takes place in three hot
lively small in diameter. The two back-up rolling stages; roughing, blooming and
rolis. placed above and below the work shaping. The first two have been de-
rolls, Fig. 4-5, exert the pressure neces- scribed earlier in this chapter.
Ll w w
TWO-MIGrn CONTlNUQUS MILL
The rolls for producing structural section begins to resemble an any!e iron.
shapes differ from those that produce Further reduction of area and continG%d
sheet in that the roil surface is machined shaping in the third and fourth passes
with shaping grooves. The rolls for pro- produces the angle iron finished to com-
ducing angle iron. for example, are shown mercial tolerances.
in Fig. 4-6. The red-hot, rough billet enters The production of wioe flange W-
the rolls at the left and is reduced in the beams, shaped like the letter /-f as differ-
first pass by about 20 percent. This rough ing from the I shape of conventional S-
shape is then passed back through the beams, has been made possible by the
next groove in the ro1;s by reversing the development of the universal mill, Fig. 4-7.
direction of rotation of ?he rolls. Another In additiw to having the conven?ional
20 percent reduction takes place and the grooved horizontal rolls, such a mill has
SMI\LLSTI1”CT”rlAl
SHAPES MAI Bt
‘CmMfDBY e WIDE“.%.RIETY OF
Pc.SSING
POO‘m”RES
f-4. 4-a. Bar m/l/ roll passes. Each vertical line of roll passes indicates steps in ro//ing the
bar or secfion shown at botfom.
52
vP,tIcill roils 10 fIrlISt :ne ‘cwter surtace of
the <hi
The steel cribs of machine shops con-
tain a multitude of hot-relied steel shapes.
These are all produced on miils with spe-
cfal groo~wsd forming rolls. Fig. 4-8 snows
some 01 tb’e comma:: commercial shapes
and bow ti,ey are progressively rotied. As
each famiiy of shapes requires a specral Fig. 4-9. Axle forging, sectioned and
set gf fc:mi:.g ‘O!!S. it 1s easily See” that 1 e:&ed to S,b!CW
,f/o”. of ,-gaj f&,rr,
n-!odern steei mill must have on hand
hundreds of these roil sets. Production
rw:s must be CClsng duration to reduce
the costly labor of changing roil sets to tility increase significantly along the lines
produce other shaoes. This operational of flow or grain. A deep-etched transverse
procedwe of the stet’ fnnitts makes it nec- section of a steel forging is illustrated in
essary to have warehouses, strategicaiiy Fig. 4-9 and shows Ihe flow lines. Good
located across the country to serve the forging design controls the lines of metal
many sma!l shops and fabricators quickly. flow to put the greatest strength where it
is needed. S?ee! rnrninnc
-. j J - are used in
mechanism where extreme shock loading
is anticipated, as in the steering linkage
and the spindles of an automobile.
Forging or hammering is the oldest and iflg ~a~~~~aa. There are four basic
most simp!e way of reducing metal to the types of forging machines in use. These
desired shape Hot-working is defined as are illust;-ated in Fig. 4-10. Drop hammers
Ike mechanicat defamation of metal car- depend on the weight of the hammer and
ried out above the temperature of recrys- gravity for the compressive force. The
tallization. Forging is deformation by com- board drop hammer has a long history in
pressbe forc~e. metal worktng and consists of a heavy
Two basic dies are used in forging: wooden board which is raised vertically by
(7j the flat or smi?h d/es which are similar pincher rolls controlled by the operator.
to the olC: biacksmith anvil and hammer When the rolls are loosened with the
with fiat :%rfaces and. (2j cavity or c/osed board in the UP position, the board and
dies. Forging in closed dies forms the the hammer drops down to the anvil with a
metal to the shape and designs that are force of up to !O,OOO pounds (44.5 k:<j.
on the inner surface of the die cavity. The steam drop hammer is essentially a
Wher smith dies are used there is little or steam engine whose connecting rod is
no restriction ?o lateral flow and the final fastened to the hammer. Steam pressure
shaoe depends sn ?he hammer operator. at the bottom of the cylinder raises the
When meta! is i oryed, strength and duc- hammer and when the valve is reversed,
Fig. 4-W. Power hammer arrangements.
the expanding steam forces the hammer The hydraulic press exerts a continuous
dowr; with great compressive force. These pressure on the dies, forcing the hot metal
hammers exert forces of up to 50,000 into the die cavities. Hydraulic presses
pounds (222 kilonewtons). exert forces up to 50,000 tons (222 mega
nevvtcrls), r!-be n!echanlcal or toggle press heated to red-hot forgins temperatures to
combines the impact ac?ion of a drop obtdin the necessary pksticity. Nan-
hammer together with the iinishing krrous metals. being more ductile. are
squeeze of the hydraulic press. Either usually extruded cold.
smitri or cawty dies can be iised and the The operation consists of placing the
ges capacity ianges in size from 200 to heated billet into the chamber oi the ex-
8,000 tons (7.779 to 7!,‘71 kilonewtons) trusion machine shown in Fig. 4-11. The
a: speeds cf 45 to 125 sir&es per minute. advancing ram. under high hydraulic pres-
sure, pushes the metal through the form-
ins die. The emerging piece takes the
shape cf the die opening and is conveyed
along a take-away conveyor whiie cooling.
?.~.A!, :.i>Iv,i ‘L:o’“ers :i!e LcriversIcrI of a As a !arge biilet wll produce great !engths
sol113lencjtn cl metai. a billet. intc lengths of some sections, the produc! is sheared
ai ocsired cross-sections: tubes. bars, in?o standard stock lengths after cooling.
!rounds. flats. ovais. tens. wire and special Extrusion dies for steel extrusions are
shapes. This is accomplished by forcing generally made of hot work steeis. tung-
the plastic metai through the o:ifice of a sten carbide, refractory alloys or high
die shaped to the desired cross-section tungsten alloys, as the process produces
configura?ion. Ferrous metals must be a die temperature during the run in excess
55
of 1000°F (538°C). The life of a die de- steels will produce up to 100 billet loads of
pends on the quality of the die material. product before replacing.
The more expensive, high-quality die
COLD WORKING
ter and is washed. scrubbed and cleaned electro-chemical treatment and then
rn a dilute acid bath before it enters the rinsed in water. Tin plate is shipped in
plating section. In the plating section. the coils and in boxes of cut lengths.
posrhvely charged tin anodes release the Terne plate is an important coated met-
element tin and it is deposited on the neg- al used in the automobile industry, Terne
atrveiy charged sheet s!eel. The thickness IS a sheet steel, thicker than the steel used
of ?he coating may be controlled by the in tin-plate, which is coated with a lead-tin
speed of the metai through the bath and alloy. The coating is applied in a similar
the electrical current used. The coating fashion to tin plate. Terne plate is ex-
may be as thin as 0.000015" (0.000038 iremely corrosion-resistant and is used in
mm) or as thick as required. The coating is the production of at&mobile gasoline
uniformly applied to both sides. tanks and in a special type of laminated
Once the sheet steel is coated with tin, it rolled tubing used for gasoline lines and
passes through high frequency induction hydraulic brake lines. The alloy resists the
heaters which melt the tin to form an im- internal corrosive action of the fluids con-
per’/ious and lustrous coating. This tin tained, and also the exterior corrosion of
coatrng is quenched in water, given an roadwav contaminants.
~a~~~~~~~~~. Certain end-uses of sheet common mill procedure. These products
steel require that the steel be coated with of the hot-rolling mill would require consi-
a corrosion-resistant coating. Coating derable machining and grinding by users
with zinc, galvanizing. is the most common to get bars with required finish and dimen
process in use. Large quantities of hot- sional accuracy. It was early discovered
rolled sheet and strip are galvanized. that if a hoi-rolled bar with the usual sur-
White there are two methods of applying face oxides and varying dimensiona! ?oler-
tne zinc coating. continuous hot-dip antes were pulled through a die of smaller
galvanizing is by far the most prevaien? dimension, several beneficial actions oc-
method dsed. Several million tons of gal- cured. These were:
vanized sheet steel is produced yearly for 1. Bars of various cross-section: may
npplicztions where corrosion resistance is be elongated and reduced in section to an
reqCred. extent not :eadily attainable by other
The continuous hot-dip method consists means.
af uncoiiicg, cleaning and moving the met- 2. The surface of the bar becomes uni-
al through a bath of molten zinc. Control formly smoother and more highly polished
ri the speed of the sheet and the temper- than a hot-rolled bar.
ature of the zinc gives close control of the 3. The mechanical properties c‘ the
coating thickness and improved adher- metal are changed. Hardness. stiffness,
ence of the coaiing. In the fabrication of tensile strength and elastic limit will be in-
home and farm utensils such as buckets, creased, while ductility will be corre-
pails, etc.. the product is fabricated and
then hot-dipped as an assembly into the ot-rolled bars from
molten zinc bath. Zinc-coated auto body the milt are genera!ly coated with a heavy
steel has also been used in many under- oxide scale and are relatively hard. The
body parts :hat are subjected to extreme hardness must be reduced by a heat
corrosion. The coated steel is treated to treatment such as annealing. In this oper-
permit the forming of the part in the press ation, the steel is heated to a red hot tem-
without nipturing the continuity of the perature and allowed to cool slowly. FOI-
protective zinc coating. The zinc has a lowing annealing, the heavy oxide scale is
self-healing characteristic tha? makes gal- removed by passing the bar through a hot,
vanizing such an important process. Minor dilute sulfuric acid bath. The acid reacts
scratches into the srrface of the coated with the unwanted oxide and dirt on the
steel heal by the formation of oxides of steel surface and the steel emerges from
zinc which cover the scratch and continue the bath with a clean surface.
ihe protectton of the under metal. The next step in the preparation is to
coat the surface of the bars with lime to
neutralize any trace of the acid from the
bath. The lime adheres to the surface and
The rolling of bars into rounds, squares, functions as a lubricant for the drawing
rectangles and oth6.u special shapes is a operation. The lime-coated bars are then
baked to dry the coa?ing and to remove typical die. Die angles usually range up to
any hydrogen absorbed by the steel dur- 15 degrees, depending on the material of
ing the acid bath (pickling) operation. The the die and the stock being drawn. There
absorption of hydrogen into the steel can is a maximum reduction (approximately 45
catise brittleness resu!ting in failure during percent) after which the steel will fail un-
the drawing ooeration. der the drawing force.
@~~~~Q~. Cold-drawn round The end of the coil or bar must first be
bars are made in one of two ways. If the reduced in size to permit entrance into the
dia is 3i4” (19 mm) or less, the bars die. This is done by a hammering opera-
are handled in coils. The coils are an- tion called swaging or by grinding. The en-
nealed. cleaned and recoiled after draw- tering coil end is fitted to a capstan or
ing. Steel over 314” (19 mm) is handled in power :eel and the small diameter bar is
straight lengths. cold drawn off one reel and recoiled on
The die, as used in the drawing opera- the other. Individual bar lengths are drawn
tion. is a very efficient tool. It has no mov- through a succession of dies on a draw
ing parts and does not waste metal as in a bench. The dies are arranged in a line with
cutting operation. Dies are made of ce- progressively smaller die openings. Large
mented tungsten carbide, a material most pieces are drawn through a single die at
able to withstand the abrasive action of a time.
the steel. For certain reductions in diame- Shapes varying in size from the finest
ter there is a die angle where the drawing wire to those having a cross-sectional
force is at a minimum. Fig. 4-21 shows a area of several square inches (mm*) are
Fig. 4-2 i. Schematic of die drawing for reducing rod and wire diameter.
Shaping and Forming
cornmo~~ly dragon. Due to the difficuity of piercing mill c!ver a mandrel to form the
making dies and the smai! demand for any outer and inner diameiers.
clher form the finer sizes are drawr; cnly oP ~~~~~~~~~. Pre-pierced, red-hot bil-
to a round cross-section. Larger sizes of are forced through an orifice and
round, square or irreguiar cross-section simultaneously over an in?ernal shaping
are drawn on a drawbench. mandrel. The outer surface of the iube ac-
With wire. multiple die machines are
quires the size and shape of the die while
used. !g these machines the w!re passes
rhrough one die. around a capstan, ?he inner surface conforms to the size and
thrciigh a second die to a second capstan. shape of the mandrel.
etch As many as twelve stations may be . By this process,
employed. The speed in multipie die ma- sleet plates are hot-cupped and hot-
chfnes reaches 10.000 feet (3048 m) per drawn to the desired finished size of
niiriuie on iine i’*ire. tubing.
Welding processes start with the form-
ing of a tube from fiat strip or skelp by
passing the metal through a succession of
shaped rollers. The open joint is welded
Steel pipe and tubing are among the shut by basically four methods: Furnace
most versatile and widely used products welding where the red hot edges of the
of the steel industry. In cclntrast to some joint are forge welded by the mechanical
other large tonnage steel products which pressure of the rolls; Electric Res;starfce
may be die-drawn. shaped. machined or welding where the joint is welded by pass-
otherwise fabricated by ?he user, pipe and ing an electric current through a set of
tubing are generally furnrshed in finished round pass welding rolls; Elecfric Flash
form for use. However. they may be re- welding where the joint surfaces are
worked. reshaped or machined in a variety flashed to welding temperature by a flow
of ways. of electric current, followed by application
Sizes of tubular products range from of mechanical upsetting pressure by a set
those used for hypodermic needles to of final roils. The fourth method is a con-
those used for pipe lines. Two methods tinuous, automatic fusion process where
are used in the manufacture of tubular the joint is welded in a conventional eleC-
products. These are the welded and the tric arc or gas torch method.
seamless processes. Seamless processes Tubing formed by hot-working as well
comprise three genera! methods for pro- as e!ectric welded tubing may be given a
ducing tubular products, ail without weld- cold-working to produce a finer surface
ed seams. These methods are: finish and more accurate dimensions. The
Hot ~~e~~~~~. The btosms, bilie?s or cold drawing process for tubing is much
rounds are heated to a red hot tempera- the same as that used for solid stock.
ture and an initial hole is then pierced When there is no mandrel inside the tub-
through the metal in an axial direction. ing during the draw, the outer diameter is
The rough tube is then rolled through a reduced but the wall thickness is un-
changed ?,i?d unfinished. When a mandrel forming. after which the metal will crack.
is used during the drawing, both outside Springback is the elastic movement of a
diameter and inside diameter can be ac- bent metal dt the momeilt of release from
cura;e!y maintained. the bending die. II results in a decrease of
the bend angle. Comper6ation is accom-
plished by designing the dies to over-bend
the part slightly so it will .-ring back io
the desired angle on release.
Steei in the form of cold-relied or hot- . This process, referrezd to
roil;+-? sheets or strip (narrow sheets) may in the automobile industry as stamping. is
be farmed into many iiiiiicate sirapes ior used in the production of metal vessels
coi~stimer products by a number of and compound curved sheet metal parts.
processes. Some of the more common Flat sheet metal is placed between the two
processes are described below. ha!ves of a forming die. The lower half
end&r. Press-break forming is used usuat!y is the cavity, forming the outer sur-
to p:oduce parts as shown in Fig. 4-22. face of the part. The upper half is the
These parts have simple curves in a parai- punch which, when pressed into the cavi-
lel, iinear configlxation. Two important ty. causes W.e flat me?al to flow into the
fac:crs affecting bending are ihe minimum die cavity and assume the required shape.
bend radius and springback. The mini- This process is used in the production of
mum bend radius determines the limit of such auto body parts as fenders and
Fig. 422. c-‘ress break forming dies and parts: acute angle: obtuse gese-neck die;
V-bend die; channel dir?; radius die; self-gaging corrugating die.
hoods. plumbing fixtures such as bath- used to form a head or to increase the
tubs. and many other metali~c shapes. cross-section of a round bar. Cold upset-
To draw properly. metal must be prop- ting is used to form the heads on bolts.
erly conditioned. Anneaiing provides steel rivets and nails in high production auto-
with me necessaiy ductility to prevent matIc presses caii
cracking. Flex-roiiing ;s often used in an
automobile siampmg plans to condWx processes consist mainly of a shearing op-
cobi stock and press blanks (preforms) for eration using special shaped punches and
a:awinF. Lubrication is also required and dies. When round. square or irregular
is applied to the surface of the metal to re- shaped hc!es are required in a sheer metal
duce iriciion during drawing. part, punches are designed into the die
Fkmg~wg. Essentially a bending opera- set to shear the holes. Blanking is a pre-
rim ?hls process is used lo provide liminary operation to press work when a
f!anges on dra~wn parts such ai automo- specially shaped flat sheet is cut out of a
bile doors. and in the production of var- coi! of sheet metal. The blank is usually ir-
ious brackets and reinforcing members in regular at its outer edges to provide opti-
metal assemblies. mum gripping action by the grippers of
~~se~t~~~, This is a hot or cold process the forming die. The blanking die set is es-
Fig. 4-23. Canventional mefal @wing process (left) and shear spi~~i~~ process (right).
7
+I5 40 sueaw Aq ualqoid s!u) s8u1ocxa~o
GLwxallS .1as luauEuJJad pai!sap ayi
II a/\16 oi Alluap!)~ns ,ebwJ eui “pc!ljS 1ou
saop auo~e 6uyw~a .seaie aGii?lo~ sadeys
~\o((et& sari!!! PZ-P ?3j ?i! wwqs ssazoid
6upuo~-lp)a~)s auP ’
‘sauoo R,)SS!Wpm siuauodwozz axdsoxx
pile ,,elol!e ,a uor~3npoJcl 34, u aie
ssamJd Sil,i 40 SitOl]F?l~dde :():cIfi a,~!&p
Fig. 4-25. Shapes produced by continuous roC forming.
ping the metal while at ih5 same time forc- ing. Continuous roll-forming is
ing the forming punch into Ihe metal. The a high-production cold-forming process
resulting form has minimum springback. used in the produclion of tubing, metal
Fig, 4-26. Skelp (f/at SW@)being rolled in-
to f/nisshed &ding tube.
moldings, aluminum siding and roof gut- sired cross-sectional shape, Fig. 4-26. Be-
ters and other constant section shapes. cause of the high cost of roll-forming ma-
Typical ro!!ed sections are shown in chines and the special tooling for each
Fig. 4-25. section produced, roll-forming is not eco-
The roil-forming machine consists of a nomical when production runs are less
series of matched rolls that progressively than 25,000 lineal feet (7500 m).
shape a flat strip of cold metal into the de-
When metal is at :oom (ambient) tem-
perature, it may be deformed permanently
by the plastic fEcw behavior of ttie metal.
The metallic crystals elongate by a proc-
ess of shearing on weak planes, called s/ip
pianes. If me?& is suflicienily cold-worked,
all the available slip planes will be used up
and further de(ormalion will produce tail-
ure by rupture. Therefore, in shaping met-
als cold, piastic deformation must not be
carried beyond a certain point or cracking
is likely to resuit. Fig. 497. Photograph of a 0.60 to 0.70
percent carbon steel in the form of hard
Cold-work@ operations may be divid- drawn wire, magnified 100 limes.
ed into two broad classes:
1. Where the cold-working is carried out
for the purpose of shaping the articles on-
ly; and where the hardening effect is not
desired and must be removed at various ~~~e~ metal. After a metal has
stages of piastic shaping as weil as irom been subjected to severe cold-working
the finished artic!e by annealing. operations, further cold deformation may
2. Where the object of cold-working is cause a decrease in its strength. When
not only to obtain ?he required shape but this occurs, the metal is said to be over-
lo harden arid strengthen the metal, and worked. This loss of strength is usually
where the finai annealing operation is due to failure of the internal structure of
omitted. High-strength wire for suspen- ihe meta!, such as shearing apart or split-
sion cables, Fig. 4-27, is thus obtained. ting. Normally. the strength increases as
Enorder to continue to shape metals by the cold-working progresses, and contin-
cold-working, they must be annealed at ues as long as the continuity of the metal
proper inlervals. Otherwise deformation is maintained.
must be carried out at temperatures
where annealing is simultaneous with sion rate of metals is accelerated by cold-
hardening, as in hot-working of metals. working, particularly if such cold defor-
The method adopted will depend on the mation is localized. For example, when
particular metal; as well as on the shape of strained metal comes in contact with un-
the end-product. See recrys~a//;za~ion, strained metal, the strained metal is more
pages 82 and 83. subject to corrosion. The action of cheml-
cals upon strained and unstrained metals working. the brittle constituents surround-
is different. ing the more ductile grains are broken up
ol agIg-k? es. Steel and and are enveloped in a ductile phase, and
many other alloys are structurally com- the metal can be drastically worked.
posed of mixed crystals having different Several au?horities maintain that cold-
chemical and physical characteristics. The working breaks up brittle constituents
weak, ductile constituen?s deform readi!y. even more effectively than hot-working,
The stronger and lass plastic constituents and that the plastic constituents weld the
resist deformation, but ultimately, if the Internal structure together, even when
deformation is severe enough. the harder working below the annealing temperature.
constituents are also deformed, either by Thus, the structure remains sound. Cold-
plastic flow or by rupture; that is, by working with annealing can be considered
breaking up into smaller parts and flowing as a means of developing marked plastici-
,vith ihe more plastic and we&w cons7itu. ty I” metals that are struziuralty com-
ents. Many alloys in the cast state are posed of an aggregate of plastic and brit-
rather weak and brittie: but in hot- tie constituents.
1 In what physical form does all steel 10. How is the heavy oxide and mi!l
begin? scale removed from hot-rolled sheets?
2. Why are soaking pits used in inte- Describe the process.
grated steel m&s? 44. What do the initials H.R.P.O. stand
3. ‘What is the temperature maintained for?
in the soakins pits? Why? 12. Name the principal structural steel
4: Why is the upper end of an ingot shapes.
sheared Cff? 13. Define hot working.
5. Why is the ingot run through a .E4. What are the two basic die shapes
cogging Ml!? used in forging?
6. What are the basic hot working 15. How does forging increase the
processes? streng?h of s?eel?
7. What two purposes are served by 16. Name four basic types of forging
hot working? machines.
8. What type of s!hapes are produced 17. Define the operation of extrusion.
by roiling? 18. Name four improvements result
9. What is the maximum thickness of from the mechanical treatment of steel by
sheet or strip? hot working.
19. What are three physical results ob- 24. Name the three seamless methods
tained by cold rolling? in the production of tubing.
20. Describe the process oi making tin 25. Name the four methods used to pro-
plate. duce welded tubing.
21. Describe term plate and name 26. What products are made by flat
some industrial products made from it. drawing (stamping)?
22. ‘describe the galvanizing process 27. What products are formed by the
and name some common articles made upset forging process?
from galvanized iron. 28. What means is employed to restore
23. Describe the drawing of wire. plasticity to metal that is hardened by
coldworking?
73
Strength together with plasticity (ability Although the materials used in ma-
to defonm withom mpture) is the combina- chines and structures in most cases are
tion of properties that makes metals of subject to loads so low that the materials
grea! importance in the mechanical and behave in a nearly elastic manner, a num-
structural field. ber of conditions may occur under which
Many substances, glass for instance, metals are subjected to loads so great,
have high tensile strength, but lack plas- that prastic action occurs. Therefore, the
ticity when loaded rapidly, as in shock; behavior of metals in the plastic range be-
these are known as brittle substances. comes of tiimost importance. This is true
Brittle substances may flow slowly or ex- during the shaping and fabricating opera-
hibit plasticity under tremendous pres- tions performed upon metals in the crea-
sure. If an attempt were made to use a tion of s?ructures, or in finished structures
brittle substance such as glass in the that occasionally become overloaded.
structure of a bridge, it would fail and fall Materials that can deform plastically when
into the river when it became unevenly overloaded are much safer structural ma-
loaded. However, various metals are used terials than those having greater strength
in the construction of bridges. The struc- that are lacking this property.
turally used metals have the ability to de- In addition to strength and plasticity,
form without rupture, both elastically and metals exhibit many favorable character-
plastically, when subjected to overloads istics, such as resistance to corrosion,
due to uneven alignment. This deforma- electrical and heat conductivity, a good
tion occurs without loss of strength; in- luster, etc. The characteristics of metals
deed, in many cases metals so deformed are due to two structural factors: first, the
become stronger. atoms of which the metallic state is com-
74
posed; and second, the way in which bricks and beards (the atoms), and in part
these atoms are arranged. A crude com- by the workmanship or assembly of the
parison can be made to a house, the char- raw materials (the arrangement of ihe
acter of which is in part determined by the atoms.)
type or quality of raw materia!s, such as
When a metal freezes (chang,~?sfrom the as being made up of atoms, these atoms
iigfiid fc the solid state), it crystallizes. being arranger: in space in some prede-
During the process of solidification, the at- termined pattern or space lattice. The
oms of the liquid metal arrange or group space lattice of the crystal state of metals
themselves into an orderly arrangement, has been determined by X-ray crystal
forming a definite space pattern. That is, analysis methods. By means of X-rays, the
the atoms regiment themselves into internal atomic arrangement of the crystal
groups similar to a group of soldier:s on state may be studied, and a piciure of ihe
parade. The pattern formed by this order- space lattice may be drawn as shown in
ly arrangement of the atoms is known as Fig. 5-1.
the space /allice. and it is made up of a There are a number of different patterns
series of poin?s in space, giving birth to a or space lattice groups into which the at-
geometrical structure of atom groups. oms of a crys?a! may arrange themselves.
Althoilgh the atoms are too small to be A very common space lattice is that of the
see2 by ordinary means such as under cubic pattern which many of the common
the microscope, we inay visualize a crystal metals, such as copper, iron, aluminum,
7%
Metallurgy
lead, nickel, molybdenum, and tungsten, atoms involved in this arrangement. Met-
form. Some of the metals forming the cu- als such as zinc, magnesium, cobalt, cad-
bic pattern assume the body-centeredcu- mtum, antimony, and bismuth assume this
bit pattern, an atom at the center of the arrangement upon freezing or crysta!liz-
cube and an atom at each comer of the ing. This arrangement is illustrated in Fig.
cube, Fig. 5-l left. Other metals crystallize 5-1 right.
into the face-centered pattern having an The proparties of metais are dependent,
aiom in the center of the cube face and an in a large measure, upon the type of space
atom at each comer, similar to Fig. 5-l lattice formed during solidification. In gen-
<enter. Also, some metals have the capac- eral, metals with the face-centered lattice
ity of crystallizing in one form but, upon lend themselves io a ductile, plastic, work-
cookng, change to another form; some able crystal state. Metals with the close-
change from a face-centered to a body- packed hexagonal lattice exhibit, in gener-
centered pattern. Iron undergoes such a al, a lack of plasticity and lose their plastic
change of space lattice during heating and nature rapidly upon shapfing, such as In a
cooling, and within a temperaiure range cold-forming operation. Hexagonally lat-
that still maintains iron in a solid or crystal ticed antimony and bismuth are brittle.
form without melting. When a metal un-
dergoes a cha;ige from one crystal pattern
to another, it IS known as an allotropic Cleavage and Slip Planes
change. When a metal undergoes an allo- Some of the most striking effects of the
tropic change, such as the change from a crystal pattern of atoms are the direction-
body-centered to a face-centered cubic al properties created by the planes
lattice, this is accompanied by a marked formed by the orientation of the atoms.
change in the characteristics and proper- Between the rows of atoms lies the path of
ties of the metal involved in the change. rupture, so the fracture or failure of a crys-
The change from a body-centered to a tal occurs by the separation of the atoms
face-centered pattern sompleteiy rear- along a path parailei to the atom orienta-
ranges the space lattice and atoms within tion; such a path is called cleavage plane.
the crystal, with the body-centered cube Proof of crystallinity is obtained when a
with 9 atoms in its pattem changing to a material, such as a metal, is ruptured, and
face-centered ciibe wi?h :4 a?oms in its the ruptured surfaces reveal facets or sur-
pattern. Such a changt of atomic axange- faces forming various planes, each plane
ment brings about a cornpiete change oi beirng the path beiween ihe row of aioms
characteristics. formed by the crystals.
While the cubic pattern is the mosi When an attempt is made to fracture
prominent with the common metals, ther-e metals of the plastic crystal state, instead
are many oiher space !at!ice arrange- of a brittle fracture taking place between
ments. A rather common arrangement is the rows of atoms, the atom groups slide
the hexagona! pattern, known as the over one another along the planes formed
c!ose-packed because of the number of by the pattern of atoms, c,ausing a plastic
76
flow or deformaticn to take place without oms orlented into one of the common
rupture. This behavior leads to the plastic crystal patterns, Figs. 5-2 and 5-3.
nature of the more common metals and In the process of solidification many of
allows us f~ change !i.e shape of the crys- these nuclei spring up, each nucleus being
tals without rupture in a forming opera- a potential crystal and able to grow to
tion, such as the bending of a piece oi form a crystal large enough to be seen
metai. The pianes along which slips occur with the unaided eye. As each nucleus is a
are knowii as !he siip planes. The action of growing crystal, and the atoms within it
the plastic flow of the crystal state will be are all similarly oriented, it should be ap-
discussed more fully in the paragraph ccv- preciated by the stud@?t that no nucleus
eri!lg the deformation of meials,. within the freezing melt is likely to form
As we have seen, the crystal state con- with its planes or groups of atoms the
:,,sts of a group of atclms arranged in same as those of any other nucleus. Thus.
some definite pattern or orientation. We when the individual crystals have grown to
will now see how a liquid which is cooled the point where they have absorbed all of
in a crucibie or mold gives birth to the the liquid atoms and have come in contact
crystal state in which there are a great with each other along their boundaries,
number oi individual crystals called they do not line up; i.e., their planes of at-
grains. oms change direction in going from one
crystal to another. This results in a solid
state composed of a number ot crystals of
different orientation, and we have a crys-
tal aggregate or mixed crystal Each crys-
tal is composed of a group of similarly
A crystal may be visualized as forming oriented atoms, but on going from one
from a senter of freezing. or nucleus. crystal to the neighboring crystals the ori-
\~/hich is composed of a small group of at- entation changes.
The nature of the crystal border is still for the greater strength of the crystal
more or less of an unknown, but we may boundaries as compared to the strength
assume that it is an interlocking border of the individual crystals, and for many of
line where the atoms of one crystal the actions that take place at the crystal
change orientation from the atoms of an- boundaries.
oiher crystal. It may be that there are In order to heip in the visualization of
some left-over atoms along this border the change from a mo!!en s!a!e !o the
line separating the differently oriented crystal aggregate state, Fig. 5-4 may be
crystals; such unattached atoms act as a studied. A crystal nucleus forms as shown
noncrystalline cement between the var- in (A) and then proceeds to send out
ious crystals. This condition may account shoots or axes of solidification as shown
78
Fig. 5-4. Sfeps in formation of a crystal.
in (B); (C). and (D); forming the skeleton of resembling a tree itrunk. branches, etc.).
a crystal in much the same way that frost Also, the crystalline nature of metals is ap-
patterns form. Atoms then attach them- parent to the eye in the study of the sur-
selves to the axes of the growing crystal face of galvanized iron (znc or iron). This
froiii the meh in progressive layers, finally treelike freezing pattern is called den-
filling up these axes, and thus forming a dritic, taken from the Greek word meaning
completed solid, as shown in (E). treelike, and the term is frequently used in
The student may observe the nature of referring to a structure that has a treelike
crystal growth in the freezing of water appearance.
which frequently shows a surface pattern A crystal may have almost any external
etallurgy
shape, which is contro!led by the condi- with the properties of a coarse or larger-
tions leading to its formation. The most grained metal. A fine-grained metal is
important factor affecting the external stronger and in many applications proves
shape of any crystal is the influence of the more satisfactory than a coarse-grained
other growing crystals whi.:h surround it. metal.
However, regardless of the external shape A single crystal exhibits a strength char-
of the crystal, the internal arrangement of acteristic of its resistance to slip or cleav-
the atom is the same. The perfect external age along any of its atomic planes, where-
shape would be a cube for a cubic pat- as a polycrystalline or many-crystal aggre-
tern, and a hexagon for a hexagonal ori- gate has no smooth, straight line through-
entation. etc, The crystals found in all out its section for slip or fracture, due to
commercial metals and alloys are com- the change of orientation taking place at
monly called pa% because of this varia- each grain or crystal boundary. Thus, a
tion in their external shape. A grain is, fracture travelling through a polycrystal-
therefore, a crystal with almost any exter- line aggregate changes direction when
nal shape, but with an internal atomic going from one crystal to the next. The ef-
structure based upon the space lattice fect of this is similar to the break in the
with which it began. masonry line in a brick. wall. Each crystal
keys to its neighbor and builds up a resist-
ance to slip or failure. On the other hand,
Single vs. Polycrystalline State
a coarse grain size may exhibit more plas-
In commercial metals and alloys, the ticity than a finer-grained aggregate. The
control of crystal size is considered very coarse grains have longer slip planes, and
important. The reason for this is revealed therefore greater capacity to slip during
in the properties exhibited by a fine- plastic deformation than the smaller and
grained crystal aggregate, as compared shorter slip planes of a finer-grained state.
DEFORMATION OF METALS
Knowing th:%t metals are composed of eration, or during the drawing out of a
many crystals or grains, and that each piece of meta! to form a tong wire? This
crystal in turn is composed of a great deformation may be visualized as shear-
many atoms all arranged in accordance ing. When a metal is subjected to a load
with some pattern, how can we visualize exceeding its elastic limit, the crystals of
the plastic flow that must take place when the metal elongate by an action of slipping
metals are deformed during a bending op- or shearing which takes place within the
a0
crystals and betweei? adjacent crystals.
This action is similar to that which takes
place when a deck of cards is given a
shove, and siidins or shearing occurs be-
tween the individual cards. The mechan-
ism of p!astic deformation is il!cstrated in
Figs. 5-5~ 5-6, and 5-7.
Fig. 3-5 is a pfictomicrograph of pure
iron ic the unstrained condition, and Fig.
5-6 shows the same iron after the occurr-
ence of siight p!as?!c Ilow. The dark lines
wi!hw the grains in Fig. 5-6 indicate the
fxmes on whiin plastic deiormaiion took
ciace. Ii deformation of the metal is con-
tinued, the crystals become noticeably
eiongated. as illustrated in Fig. 5-7. a pho- Fig. 5-6. Commercially pure iron after
slightplastic deformation. (introduction to
tomicrograph of a section: oi brass that Physical Metallurgy by Walfer Rosenhain)
was severely deformed during plastic
shaping.
This pl:XSiiCf:ow of the metal, resulting
tion of local disorganization of the crystal often called stress relief, is important in-
structure, not necessarily until it is amor- dustrially.
phous in nature, but having more crystal If work-hardened metals are heated to
fragmentation. These crystel fragments, higher temperatures, the return ‘to the
according to ihis theory, ac’ as mechani- normal, soft, ductile state occurs rapidly,
Cal keys along the weak planes of the This change is accompanied by a marked
change in structi.re. sum a change is one
ci recrystaiiizai~on; that is. the deformed
grains cryststlize over again wilhoui any
mertlng. The actiofi is one of new crystal
nuclei form:ng around the boundaries and
throuyhout the old deformed crystals, 6n a
way simiiar to the formation of nuclei in a
meit: and these niick grow at the ex-
pense of the old grains until they com-
pletely obliterate ‘tnem.
The mechanism of recrystallization is I!.-
iustiated iii severai photomicrographs, as
ioilows. Fig 5-7 is a photomicrogr3ph of
cold detomed brass SRowing that marked
Fig. 5-8. Severely deformed cartridge
piastic flow has taken place. Fig. 5-8 brass as shown in Fig. 5-7. partly recrys-
shows the Same specimen after heating tallized by heating. Magnified 100 times.
slightly above room temperature but into
the recrystallization range for this speci-
men. new crystals having formed in and
around the oid crystals. Fig. 5-9 shows the
same specimen after heating to a temper-
ature where complete recrystallization has
occurred. The metal is now in excellent
condition with a fine. strong, and highly
plastic structure. The original grain struc-
ture of the metal may have been coarse,
with envelopes of impurities around the
grains and having the relative brjttleness
of t”ie cast state. along with the internal
stresses and distorted condition of the
work-hardened state. This has all disap- Fig. 5-9. The same samples as in Fig. 5-8,
completely recrystallized by heating. Mag-
peared. resul?ing in ?he strong, tough. uni- r,ified 100 times.
fO?KX, ar;d stress-free condition which
makes a forging So much superior to a
.--_I-- I^_
83
2nd resuits in fewer but larger grains. ~The times sl!ght deformation (for example. 5
amount of gem ~cjiow??:occurring during percent with iron) results in extremely
an annealing operation depends to a great large grain af?er an annealing operation.
degree upon the maximum temperature
and the time spent in the annealing opera-
tion Large grains are often wanted, par-
ticuia:iy if coid working is to be resumed The heating of cold-worked metal to its
afte: annealing. because a large crystal recrystallization temperature usually re-
size does not harden as rapidly in subse- sults in a very fine grain or crystal size,
quent defnrmation 2s does fine-grained due to the large number of nuclei or new
metal. centers of crystal formation. The number
The temperature at whicn metal recrys- of nuck? that form seems to govern the
ia:iires airer cold deformation depends size of the individual grains. Aiso. the
iipoi? the comoasition of the met?! and the greater ?he amount of cold work or defor-
amOUnt of cold deformafion. The greater mation before annealing, the finer and
the amount of coid deformation, the lower more numerous will be the grains after
the recrystallization temperature. Lead re- 2nnealing.
crys?alIizes at room temperatures, and However. a slight amount of cold defor-
therefore cannot be work hardened by mation before annealing (such as 5 per-
cold deformatron. cent with iron) results in the forming of Bon-
~The greater the amount of cold defor- iy a few nuclei or centers and they grow at
matron. the finer the grain size will be after a rapid rate, resulting in very coarse
tne annealing treatment. However, some- grains. This ex?reme growth of grairr is
sometimes called germinahon.
Other conditions also contribute to ex-
treme grain or crystal growth. Coarse or
large grains weaken the metal and po!ssi-
bly ruin it for commercial use, 2s for cer-
iain shaping operations such as deep
drawing in power presses. Extremeiy large
grains may cause the metal to rupture in
deep-drawing operations, or may result in
such 2 rough surface as to make the prod-
uct undesirable.
Grain size control during cold working is of ail the characteristics of commercially
one of the major problems encountered in pure metals, particularly those involved in
industrial uses of commercially pure met- the cold wo:king of these metals. This
afs cx their alloys. The only way in which a knowledge can be applied also to the be-
commercially pure meta! may have its havior of the more complicated alloys.
properties altered is by means of cold de- From an industrial point of view, COm-
formation and control of the arinealing op mercialiy pure metals find their greatest
eration that may follow the cold working. use in the electrical indtistry as conduc-
Therefore, a careful study shocld be made tars, and in the iields where corrosion-re-
~i~taflt mGtefliiis art? needed. With the ex- Such metals as copper, aluminum, ntckel,
cepticn of some special sta~niess alloys, chromium, and cadmium are used either
such as stainiess st,zel and Monel metal, alone, or as a surface coating to impede
njjrY .riuru:i
y”” mot-lr ui=.7-n Ilii/Uli
_~,...)\ #II”li
m_l_ Isz.Jl.,LCII,
r~ririFlni 10 corrosio~l of a base metal.
atmospheric ~orro~i~~ than their alloys.
IE
1. Whatcombination of propertles 10. Why does a iine-grained meial. in
makes metals of great importance in the many applications, prove more satisfacto-
mechanical and structilral field? ry than a coarse-grained metsl?
2. The characteristics of metais are 11. Give a brief description of what hap-
due t0 what two structural factors? pens when metals are deformed during a
3. What is a space la?tice? bending operation.
4. Hsw has the space lattice of ?he 12. Why do metals become harder and
crystal state of metals beer! determined? stronger when they are permanently de-
5. What is an allotropic change? formed?
6. Sow does the type of space lattice 13. What happens when work-hardened
formed during solidification affect the metals are heated to within certain tem-
properties of metals? perature ranges?
7. What is meant by a cleavage plane? 14. Upon what does the temper&we at
a. Describe briaily the mannr of crp- which a metal recrystallizes after cold de-
tal!ization of a me?al. formation depend?
9. What is meant by the term dendri- 15. Whai is germination?
tic?
A thorough knowledge of the physical support weight without bending or break-
characteristics of metals is required by ing. Combined with toughness, the ability
people in the skiiled trades to enable them to bend rather than break under a sudden
to do their jobs efficiently and effectively. blow, these characteristics made steel the
The designer. toolmaker. die maker, ma- prime construction material, Fig. 6-1.
chinist. welder and mechanic must know Other properties that led to increased
the specific properties of the metals and industrial use were the resistaxe to at-
alloys csed in industry. mospheric deterioration, plasticity, and
The knowledge of metals and their use the abJity to be formed into desired
goes back in history thousands of years, shapes. In addition, many metals have the
yet the use of iron and s?eel in large qtian- ability to conduct heat and electric current
tities is relatively recent. The American and to be magnetized.
Declaration of Independence n? only sig- Metals can be cast into varied and intri-
naled the beginning of a new nation ~.lf cate shape!5 weighing from a few ounces
was almost coincident to the start of the to many ?ons. Steel has a special property
massive use of iron ant! steel. This in- of being weldable, which has given rise to
dustrial era is calied the “Iron Age” by the skill of welding, both for fabrication
contemporary historians. and repair, Fig. 6-2.
The reason for the increased use of Another important metallic pr@perty in
metals and particularly of iron and steel this age of impending power and material
products is found in lheir special physical shortages is the reclamation or recycling
properties. The most important of these of scrap metal. Obsolete and worn-out
properties is strength, or the ability to automobiles, ships, bridges and other
Fig. 6-l. Modern skyscraper bU/t wifh
steel framework. (American iron & Steel
irlS!:!VteJ
steel structures can be cut up. and remelt- for certain definite uses. See Table 6-1.
ed and finally worked into new industrial This knowledge will also permit use of
products, Fig. 6-3. special heat and mechanical treatments of
A know!edge of the properties of specif- these materials in order to modify them
ic metals or alioys enables us to determine for special uses such as forging and hard-
whether or not such materials dre suitable erring a cutting tool.
TABLE 6-l CARBON CONi ENT OF CHRBON STEE1.S FOR DIFFERENT USES~
.____.-.__ -___
CARBCN RANGE USES OF CARBON Sl-EEL.
__- PERCEKT
0.05 0. i2 Chain, starno&-qs. rivets, nails. wire. pipe. welding
sinck, v.phere’ve;‘,, soft, plastic steel is nec:cled
0. :o 0.20 Very soft, !ough sisel~ Structural steels, lmachin ? parts.
For case-hardened machine parts, screws
0~29 0 30 Better grade o! machine and structural steel. Gears.
shaf!ing, bars, bases, levers, etc.
0.30 c 40 Responds to heat treatment. Connecting rods.
shafting, crane haoks. machine parts, axles
0.40 0.50 Crankshafts, gears, axles. shafts. and heai-treated
machine parts
0 60 0.70 Low-carbon tool steel, used whnre a keen edge is not
necessary, but where shock strdngttl is wan:& Drop
hammer dies, set screws, locomotive tires. screw
drivers
0.70 0,80 Tough and hard steel. Anvil ‘aces. band saws, ham-
mers, wrenches, cable wire, et,:.
0~80 0.90 Punches for metal, rock c!~lll!:, shear blades, cold
chisels. rivet sets, and many iland tocis
0.90 1~00 Used for hardness and !ligl; ! :,,sile slrength. springs.
high tensile wire. knives. :lxes. riles l<ocal! purposes
1.00 1.10 Drills. taps, milling cutters kr:iv-,s. ctc~
1.10 1.20 Used for all !ools where : !a#~dr,u$si? 3 prime consider-
ation; for example. ba:’ ‘x-arings. cold-cutting dies.
drills. wood-working tool.. Jibe tools, etc.
1.20 1.30 Files, reamers, knives. ::ioi~, for cutting brass and
wood
1.25 1.40 Used where a Karen cattim +L:,::; is nxessnry; razors.
saws, instruments and machine parts where maximum
resistance to wear is neati~d. Boring and finishing
tools
Although all steels contain carbon, the ueni c;., bon more than any other constitu-
terms carbon steel and plain carbon sted ent tiete: mines the properties and uses of
are used to distinguish a steel to which no st.?el. Table6-1.
special alloying element, such as nickel, ;~.!t?carbon content of Steel may vary
tungsten or chromium, has been added in ;:om a few hundredths 01 one prxcent
appreciable amour.‘% In carbon steels. as (9.008 percent) up to nearly two percent
well as in special c. WCy steel, the conslit- carbon. The lower percentages are in the
echanical Properties of
F/g. 6-4. Effects of carbon on the properties of hor-worked steel. (The Alloys of Iron and
Carbon, Vol. II. by Cisco, The Engineering Foundation)
91
range of commercially pure iron. These shaping and cutting low-carbon steels and
lower percentages of carbon steel, called other metals.
iow-carbon steel exhibit properties of
n&arly pure iron, that is, high ductility and
inability to be hardened.
The upper limit of carbon ir: steel is
shown irl some charts as 1.7 percent. At Carbon steel is an alloy metal consisting
this high percentage the steel is extremely of iron and carbon. Carbon has a unique
brittle. The practical upper limit of carbon effect on the structure of iron, changing it
content as determined by experience in from a simple, soft metal to a very com-
making and using cutting tools is 1.4 per- plex alloy and producing an increase in
cent, Fig. 6-4. The object of increasing the hardness and strength while reducing its
carbon content oi steel is to enhance its plasticity. However, there is no pure iron-
normal (low-carbon) qualities of strength carbon alloy as all steel contains at least
and hardness. four other alloys. Two of these are silicon
Steel was ear!y catagorized into three and manganese which are added to the
classes relating to its carbon content. steel to counteracT the effects of the other
While not an accurate definition by to- two undesirable elements-sulfur and
day’s standards, steels having a carbon phosphorus. These and oiher impurities
content of below 0.30 percent were classi- are discussed below.
fied as low carbon, Table 6-l. Low-carbon Manganese. This element is essential in
steel forms the bulk of steel tonnage pro- a good steel. It promotes soundness of
duced as it has moderate strength, ductili- steel ingot castings through its deoxidiz-
ty and ease of machining. Machine steel ing effect and by preventing the formation
and structural steel are prime usages of of harmful iron sulfides it promotes forge-
low-carbon steel. ability of the steel. Manganese content in
Medium-carbon steel ranges between regular steels varies from about 0.30 to
0.30 and 0.70 percent carbon. In this 0.80 percent, but in special alloy steels it
range the s?ee! has sufficien. + carbon
__, to re- may run as high as 25.0 percefii. Man-
spond to heat treatment. As shown in Ta- ganese chemically combines with any WI-
ble 6-1, articles made of steel in this range fur in the liquid steel, forming manganese
are mainly machine parts that may require sulfide (MnS), and prevents the sulfur
8 !imited amount of hardness or a special from combining with the iron to form iron
s?ructure obtainable by other heat treat- sulfide. Steel with iron sulfide present be-
ments. comes brittle and weak when hot and is
High-carbon steels are those wiih more known as hot-short steei. Any excess
than 0.70 percent carbon content, Table manganese (over the amount used to
6-l. These steels constitute a small per- combine with the sulfur) combines with
centage of the steel tonnage produced the carbon available in the steel to form
because the articles made from high- manganese carbide (MnsC). This carbide
carbon steels are mainly tools use? in associates with the iron carbide (Fe&) in
cementite, inGreasing the hardness and portion of the ingot to solidify, producing
streng?h of the alloy, but lowering the a heterogeneous, dendritic structurs. This
plasticity. Segregation may cause banding of the
Silicon. This element is added to steel steel in subsequent hot-working opera-
as it is poured into the ladle after refining tions. Steel with excess amounts of phos-
to improve the soundness of the steel by phorus in solution is known as cold-short
opposing ihe formaiion of blowholes as it steel. While it has free-machining proper-
combines with dissolved oxygen io form ties fo: easy forming in screw machines,
silicon dioxide (common sand!~ This rises !he nroduc?s made from co!d-short s!ee!
to the top of the ingot and is removed in are coarse grained and weak.
the cropping operation. Copper. in small amounts copper is
The silicon content of carbon steels var- sometimes added to steel to improve re-
ies from 0.05 to 0.30 percent while special sistance to atmospheric corrosion. The
alloy steels may contain over 2.25 percent presence of copper in steel is detrimental
silicon. Silicon, in excess of amounts to forge welding but not to arc or acety-
needed to deoxidize the steel, dissolves in lene welding.
the iron and ulider 0.30 percent has little Lead. This metal greatly improves the
influence on either the structural charac- machinability of steels. The lead is insolu-
teristics or the mechanical properties of ble in steel and is randomly distributed
the steel. throughout the steel in small globules
SuMur Any sulfur content in steel is un- which smear over the tool f&e when steel
desirable. It may vary from a trace to 0.30 is being machined. This action reduces
percent. In the usual types of steel, the cutting friction and the steel is used main-
sulfur content is held below 0.06 percent. ly in screw-machine operations.
Sulfur should always be combined with Oxides. Any oxides of iron that may be-
manganese, for which it has a great affini- come trapped in the solid steel are formed
ty, to form manganese sulfide (MnS). during steel-making by the additions of
Manganese sulfide is distributed through marganese (MnO), silicon (SiO,), alumi-
the steel as smail inclusions which make num (A$Os) and o?her metals. Iron oxide
the steel brittle but easily machined. Such (FeO) is also present. These impurities are
steel is often used to make parts that do referred to as dirt in the steel and usually
not require good mechanical properties rise in the cooling ingot and are removed
and can be made >n automatic screw ma- by the cropping operation. Oxides that re-
chines. Hence, this steel is referred to as main in the steel are harmful because they
screw machine steel. This steel also has are mixed with the steel in a mechanical
poor weldability. manner, being entangled throughout the
~~os~~~rus. This element is also unde- structure of the steel. These oxide parti-
sirable in steel. The phosphorus content in cles break up the continuity of the struc-
commercial steels varies from a trace to ture and impart directional properties in
0.05 percent. Phosphorus weakens steel forged steel. They also form points of
by its tendency to segregate in the last weakness and may start a fracture.
93
Metallurgy
Gaseous impurities. Such gases as ni- lngol iron. This is a very low-carbon
trogen, hydrogen, carbon monoxide and iron alloy. This alloy differs from wrought
oxygen are always present in varying iron in that it does not contain an appreci-
amounts in steel. These gases may occur able amount of slag. It is cast into ingots,
as bubbles in the steel, or may be dis- similar to steel, and then rolled into plates,
solved, or combined. The effects of gases, sheets, shapes or bars. It is used where a
in the main. is to cause a decrease in plas- ductile, rust-resistant metal is required,
ticity; and in the case of hydrogen, to em- especially for tanks, boilers, enameled
brittle the steel. The more free the steel is ware and for galvanized sheets. It is very
from any gaseous impurihes. the higher ductile and can be formed cold by draw-
the quality and the more likely it is to be ing or spinning.
satisiactory. A very low-carbon iron, Plasfirnn, is
used for molds and dies which an pro-
duced by the hobbing method. This meth-
Selection of Carbon Steels
od forces a hardened hob or pattern of
Although the quality of steel is not de- the part to be produced into the soft steel
termined by carbon content solely, the to form a close dimensioned cavity. The
carbon content of the steel largely dic- iron is very plastic under the hob and can
tates the use to which the steel is to be then be carburized and hardened for use.
placed. The quali?y of any carbon steel is Fin plate. The material from which tin
largely determined by the exacting con- cans are made is tin plate. The ordinary
tro!s used by the steel maker. These are tin can is made from thin sheet steel which
the metallurgical controls used during the has been coated on both sides with a very
steel making operations and the testing thin layer of tin. The process of making tin
and inspection given to the semi-finished plate is described in Chapter 4.
and finished steels. Close control of the Wife, rivets end nails. These products
amount of carbon and the control of im- are made from steel containing 0.10 per-
purities, oxides and slag, all constitute cent or less carbon. Most of this steel is
factors that contribute !o good steel. In made in the Bessemer process. The chief
the selection of a carbon steel for any spe- requirements of this steel is that it be soft
cific use, both the carbon content and the enough to form easily and sufficiently duc-
amount of minor constituents will influ- tile to withstand the deformation of the
ence the choice of a steel.. In order that cold heading process without cracking.
!he reader may have some prac!icat Sfrucfuref Steel. This steel comes fab-
suggestions to follow in the selection of a iicated in such shapes as the S-beams,
steel, Table 6-l should be studied. It will channels, angles, etc. used in buildings
serve as an indicator of the influence of and industrial equipment. It is a common
the percentage of carbon has in the type steel containing less than 0.15 percen:
Of product produced. This should help one carbon. It is produced and used in a hot-
in the choice of a steel from which to make rolled condition and has a rather low
similar products. strength when compared to heat-treated
94
roperties of VetaIr5
ICAL PROPERTIES
Generally we are very much concerned ferrous amd nonferrous metals enables
with the mechanical properties of metals. one not only to determine whether or not
The mechanical properties such as such materials are suitable fat certain def-
hardness, tensile strength, compressive inite uses, but also to modify the thermal
strength, ductility, etc., are those mea- and mechanical treatments of materials in
sured by mechanical methods discussed order to obtain a conditioned metal in the
in the next chapter. desired form.
A knowledge of the properties of both Strength with plasticity is the most im-
95
Metallurgy
96
ttss~ifi~y. This is the “ability of a
metal to deform permanently under com-
pression without rupture’.. It is this prop- -- I
erty that permits hammering (forging! and
rolling of metais into sheets and various 1 -->r
commercial shapes (angle iron, S-beams,
and forgings).
~o~~~n~ss. This is a description of a
metal, such es steel, which has high ten-
sile strengtl, and the ability to deform per- I
manently without rupture. There is no di- -
PROPERTES OF
Fig. 6-6. Electrochemical series begins with the most reactive metals and ends with the
most inert
echanical Properties of MeFats
low it do not oxidize at ordinary tempera- of the metals in the chart above is the re-
tures when exposed to pure dry air. action taken when two different metals are
Metals above hydrogen are difficult to placed in contact and exposed to salt wa-
obtain free in nature as they readily unite ter or acidic solutions. The metal that is
with other elements, hence their ores are nearest the beginning of the chart in re-
oxides, sulfides, etc. Metals below hydro- spect to the second metal will corrode
gen are usually found free in nature be- first. This action is known as a sacrificial
cause they combine with other elements action and is used in hot water heating
with difficutty. Hence: they do not corrode tanks to protect the ferrous pipes and
and are not easily oxidized. tank from corrosion. To do this, a magne-
An interesting fact about the placement sium rod is suspended in the tank. Any
Metallurgy
corrosion that is going to take place wilt per. In the passage of current through a
affect the magnesium rod. You will note conductor, resistance results in the giving
that magnesium is more corrosive than off of heat; the greater the resistance, the
iron. greater the heat for the passage of a given
Although the list indicates the varying current. For electrical heating, metals with
effects or lack of effects of corrosion, it is high electrical resistance are needed.
misleading in practice. Beth aluminum These are found in the alloys; among the
and zinc form protective coatings in their best are alloys of nickel and chromium.
early stages of oxidation and are not fur- The relative conductivity of some metals is
ther corroded. Iron and steel, on the other shown in Table 6-2. Note that copper is 94
hand, if left unprotected, will rust com- percent of that for silver, while iron is only
pletely away. For this reason, iron and 17.7 percent of that for silver.
steel, when used in exposed positions, E/e&id resistance. The opposition to
must be protected by paint or a thin coat electric current as it flows through a wire
of zinc (galvanized sheet). A thin coating is known as the rr?sistance of the wire. In
Of tin, as in a tin can aiso protects both the order to have a standard of comparison,
outside of the can fror the effect of humid an arbitrary resistance unit has been
air and most importantly, the inside sur- agreed upon internationally. This unit is
face of the can from the corrosive action called ohm. The resistances of metals are
of fruit and vegetable acids. If greater re- expressed in terms of millionths of an
sistance to corrosion is required, copper ohm, or microhms of resistance in a cube
or its alloys, brass, bronze, or nickel silver of metal one centimeter on each side.
are used. Where real permanence is re- The resistance of an electric circuit is a
quired, the predous metals must always property of the conductor forming the cir-
be chosen. cuit and depends upon the length, cross-
The development of stainless steels sectional area, temperature, and upon the
(steels containing varying percentages of material, whether copper, iron, brass, etc.
carbon, chromium, and nickel) has made Silver, as has been stated, is the best con-
it possible to use this material without ductor known; in other words, it offers the
protective coating against corrosion. least resistance to the passage of an eiec-
Electrical conductivity. Copper and tric current. Copper, gold, and aluminum
aluminum are used for conducting elec- are next in order of minimum resistance.
tricity since they offer little resistance to Resistance to heat. The relative eiectri-
the passage of the current. Silver offers cal resistances of metals may be seen in
even less resistance but is too expensive Table 6-2. The resistance to the flow of
for commercial use. Copper offers less re- heat is of the same order as the resistance
sistance than aluminum for the same size to electricity; hence, ordinarily we use
wire, but aluminum, due to its lighter copper for boiler tubes, heating coils, and
weight, offers less resistance per unit of soldering irons. For cooking utensils, aiu-
weight. Despite this fact, from a cost minum is used because of the combina-
standpoint the advantage is still with cop- tion of high-heat conduction with resist-
loo
TABLE 6-3. MECHANICAL PROPERTIESOF SOME METALS AND ALLOYS’.
TENSILE STRENGTH
COMPOSITION
-_ __ - ELONGATION ERINELL MODULUS OF
Yield Ultimate PERCENT HARDNESS ELASTICITY
Point Strength (in inches) (tension)
._. (psi)
Aluminum .............................. Al 8,000 12,500 21-24 10,000.000
Brass, 70-30, annealed.. ....... 70 Cu-30 Zn 16,000 46,000 z: 70 12,000.000
Brass, 70-30, cold-worked .... 70 Cu-30 Zn 45,000 92,000 3 170 12,000,000
Brass, 95-5, annealed.. ......... 95 Cu-5 Sn 13,000 46,000 67 74 11 ,ooo,ooo
Bronze, 95-5, cold-worked ... 95 Cd-5 Sn 59,000 05,003 ;: 166 15,000,000
Bronze-manganese.. ........... Cu+ZCn;tMn 13,000 70,000 93 15,000,000
Copper, annealed.. ................ 5,000 32,900 56 14,000,000
Copper, cold-drawn.. ............ cu 38,000 56,000 6 PO74 16,000,OOO
Chilled cast iron.. ................... Fe+C+Si+Mn 35-8G,OOO 400~-700 33,000,000
Duralumin. heat-treated........AI+Cu+Mg+M n '48,bbb 56,000 48 95 10,000,000
Gray cast iron ........................ Fe+C+Si+Mn 150-225
Iron, commercial, pure.. ........ Fe 'G,bbb 20-60,000
42,000 4: 69 1520,000,000
30,000,000
Lead.. ..................................... 406
Magnesium.. .......................... 'i.ibb 3,000
32,500 6 ‘41 i;-rsb:b%
Maanesium-aluminum
ailoy .................................... Mg+AI 26,000 44,000 55 6,250,OOO
Malleable cast iron.. .............. Fe+C+Mn 37,500 57,000 2 110-145 25,000,000
Moijbdenum.. ........................
Monel metal ........................... Nit% &ibbil 150,000
90,000 4: 'iSS' ii,Ci%,bOb
Nickel ...................................... Ni 25,000 70,000 i! a5 32,000,OOO
Steel. structural.. ................... Fe+C 35,000 60,000 120 30,000,000
Steel; high-carbon, heat-
treated ................................ Fe+C 150,000 275,000 i 550 30,000,000
Steel alloy, heat-treated.. ...... SAE 2340 174,000 282,000 488 30,000,000
Steel alioy, heat-heated.. ...... SAE 4140 116,000 140,000 16 250 30,000,000
Steel alloy, heat-treated.. ...... SAEs5n150 210,000 235,000 i: 455 30,000.000
Tin .......................................... 200 2,000 6,000,OOO
Tungsten wire.. ...................... W 3
Wrought iron.. ........................ Fe+Slag '&.i,bbb 230,000
50,000 ihi 60.000,000
27,000,OOO
Zinc, rolled sheet ................... Zn 5,000 24,000 iz 1z,000,000
5 ‘The data in this table are based on !ests made in s?veral materials testing laboratories
Metallurgy
ante to attack by foodstuffs. In magnetic from entirely solid to entirely liquid form in
properties, iron and its alloys stand alone. a very small temperature range. Alloys
Tables 6-2 and 6-3, listing the most im- usually meit over a nluch wider tempera-
portant physical constants o: various met- ture interval., The melting points and other
als, will be helpful in selecting the proper temperatures in Table 6-4 are expressed
metal for a given job. in degrees, Fahrenheit. According to this
scale, waler melts at 32” and boils at
MeWrtg point. The melting point is the 212O. In metallurgy, temperatures are ex-
temperature at which a substance passes pressed frequently in degrees Centigrade.
from a solid to a liquid condition. For wa- To convert degrees Centigrade to degrees
ter this is 32°F. Pure substances have a Fahrenheit, use the following formula:
sharp melting point, that is, they pass C=5/9 (“F-32)
feaaddmium 621
610 327
321 11.3
8.7 21.2
7.6 16.6
16.4
Zinc 787 419 7.2 28.0 18.0-12.B3
Magnesium 1204 651 1.7 35.5 14.3
Aluminum 1215 660 2.7 53.0 13.3
p;eyic :497
!761 961
814 10.5
5.73 100.0
4.8 2.14
10.5
Gold 1945 1063 19.3 66.0 8.0
Copper 1981 1083 8.9 94.0 9.1
Manganese 2268 1260 7.2 12.8
Berylliuffl 2345 1350 1.85 6.8
Silicon 2600 1420 2.4 1.8-4.1
Nickel 2646 1455 8.9 iii 7.6
Cobalt 2714 1480 8.9 16.3 6.7
Iron 2795 1535 7.87 17.7 6.6
Palladium 2831 1553 12.0 6.4
Platinum 3224 1774 21.45 ‘fy; 4.3
Chromium 3275 1615 7.14 4.5
Molybdenum 4748 2509 10.2 ii+ 3.0
Tungsten 6098 3370 19.3 28.9 2.2
‘Silver=100 percent conductivity
‘Thermal expansion per degree F at room temperature. Value in millions, or = X10w6.
‘18.0 for hot-rolled zinc with grain; 12.8 for hot-rolled zinc across grain.
~~@~~~cj~~~QI ~x~~~s~~~. With few ex- find that it weighs 549.12 pounds. One cu-
ceptions, ;o!ids expand when they are bic foot of water weighs 62.4 pounds. If we
heated and contract when cooled. They divide 549.12 by 62.4, we get 8.9, which
increase not only in length, but also in we call the specific w;ight of copper. The
breadth and thickness. The number which specific weight or gravity of the common
shows the increase in unit length of a solid metals is listed in Table 6-4. If we wish to
when it is heated one degree is called its fird the weight of a cubic foot or centime-
coefficient of linear expansion. ter of any of these metals, then all we have
to do is to multiply 62.4 by the specific
ecific gravity. Somnrimes it is an ad- gravity as listed in the table, or with centi-
vantage to compare :Oc density of one meters by 1.
meta! with that of anot.ler. For such a pur- easuring Mechanical Properties.
pose, we need a standard. Water is the Generally we are very much concerned
standard which physicists have selected with the mechanical properties of metals
with which to corrpare the densities of and alloys. The mechanical properties,
solids and liquids. Hence, the weight of a such as hardness, tensile strength, com-
substance compared to the weight of an pressive strength, ductility, etc., are those
equal volume of water is called its specific measured by mechanical methods. These
density or specific gravity. properties and their testing are discussed
If we weigh one cubic foot of copper, we in Chapter 7.
EVE
1. Name and define the most impor- 6. Name four typical products made of
tant physical property of steel. medium-carbon steel.
2. Define toughness. 9. What is most of the high-carbon
3. What speciai property of steel has steel used for?
promoted its use in buildings, steel prod- 10. Carbon steel contains four minor
ucts and the repair of steel structures and constitussnts, two beneficial and two detri-
products? menta!. Name the constituents in each
4. Define a carbon steel. area.
5. What are two properties of low- 11. What does manganese do as an ad-
carbon steel? ditive to improve steel?
6. What steel products use most of the 12. What does silicon do as an additive
low-carbon steel tonnage produced? to imprcse steel?
7. What is the percentage range of 13. What is ingot iron ar,d of what com-
carbon in medium-carbon steel? mercial use is it?
103
14. Why do square and rectangulal~ 22. Define brittleness.
forging billets have rounded corners? 23. What is the notch effect and what is
15. What physical property is desirable done in the design of mechanical parts to
for screw machine work? avoid it?
16. What are :he two types of screw 24. Define hardness.
machine steel :q use? 25. Define the electrochemical series
17. Define strength. of metals.
18. Define plasticity. 26. Vlhat is sacrificial action and how is
lg. Define tensile strength. it empioyed?
20. Define elasticity. 27. What two metals have high electri-
21. Define ductility. What commercial cal conductivity and are commonly used in
product depends on this property? electrical wiring?
The design of metal parts for industrial of destructive testing are certain types of
and commercial use requires precise hardness tests, tensile tests, impact tests,
knowledge of the mechanical and physi- torsion tests and fatiglie tests. Other
cal properties of the metal. This knowl- methods of testing do not harm the sam-
edge is obtained by physically testing ple parts nor impair them for future use.
representative samples of the material in Such tests are known as non-destructive
various special testing machines. tests. These tests include X-ray and Y-ray
Some tests involve testing the part or inspection, ultrasonic inspection and mag-
material sample to complete failure. This netic particle (Magnaflux) inspection.
is known as destructive testing. Examples
105
men, by dividing the toad required to which the elongation ceases to be propor-
break the specimen by its area, the ulti- tional to the load, Fig. 7-2, is known as the
mate tenSite strength of the material is ob- proportional limit. The elastic !imit is the
tained. Tensile strength accordingly is ex- greatest load which may be applied, after
pressed in pounds per square inch (psi) or which the material will return to its un-
in Newtons per square millimeter (N/mm’) strained condition. For practical purposes
or (kN/m”). the elastic limit is the same as the propor-
If an accurate gage is clamped to the tional limit. This is an important factor in
specimen and its efongation measured designing, as it is usually of more impor-
and piotted against the load, the point at tance to know what load will deform a
i
:
Fig. 7-2. Stress-strain diagram. I
r
CIIGELENGIH
ROUND SPECIMEN
tmpact Test
will swing through a smaller angle. This pact in order to check for any tendency
machine enables us to measure the angle toward brittle behavior. Two of the most
through which the pendulum swings, and common tests are the lzod and the Char-
thus to calculate the energy consumed in py. In the former test, a square notched
breaking the specimen. This is usually re- bar is gripped vertically in a vise, and a
ported in foot-pounds. The energy con- measure is made of the number of foot-
sumption for a piece of cast iron (which is pounds necessary to break the bar by a
very fragile) will be low, and we say that blow struck just above the notch. In the
the shock resistance is small; while for a Charpy test, the specimen, usually square,
piece of wrought iron, energy consump- is supported freely at its ends and is hit at
tion will be high and shock resistance cor- a point just behind the notch at the middle
respondingly large. of the span. In both cases the blow is ap-
Standard tests exist in which notched plied by a freely swinging pendulum. See
specimens are fractured by a single im- Fig. 7-6 for notched bar details.
CHARPY TYPE
IZOD TYPE
Fio. 7-6. Notched bar imoact test soecimen. Charpy type, keyhole notch, shown at
toi. lzod type, V-notch, shown at boitom.
110
F;g. 7-7. Fatigue fracture of grinding ma-
chine spindle.
A number of types of fatigue-testing for long fatigue life is the smoothness and
machines are available. In the most com- lack of stress-raising imperfections on
mon type, a round test bar is rotated hori- metals used. Fatigue limit increases with
zontally with a load applied by means of a the tensile strength and in ductile steels is
weight hung on one end, and the stresses approximately 50 percent of the tensile
are calculated from the applied load and strength. Lack of surface uniformity, such
the dimensions of the test bar. In such a as decarburization, lowers the fatigue
test, the load varies from a tensile stress limit. Further, roughened, notched, or
to a compressive stress of equal magni- threaded surfaces serve to decrease
tude. In another type of machine, a bar is pronouncedly the fatigue limit. Damaging
alternately compressed and elongated. corrosive conditions will greatly decrease
For testing samples of sheet metal, a ma- the fatigue strength of a metal at even
chine has been developed in which a flat small stresses.
specimen is clamped to one end of a cali- In figuring allowable stresses under re-
brated spring and the other end to a shaft peated stress, it must be remembered
from an eccentric. Stress in the specimen that stresses above the yield strength of
is calculated from the movement of the the metal will cause elastic failure. The de-
calibrated spring. signer and user of steel parts must be on
Much knowledge has come to us in re- guard against both elastic and fatigue fail-
cent years which enables us to use metals ure. Machinists, machine operators, and
in a safe and economical way and to meet inspectors share the responsibility of
the rigid requirements for metals in our keeping stress raisers out of parts and as-
modern machines. Of prime importance semblies.
111
! Fig. 7-8. Typical S-N (stress-cycle) diagrams for fatigue tests of various metats. (Materi-
als of Engineering by Moore, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.)
112
Testing oi ~at~~~at$
It is a known fact that offsets, slots. the impression, and tables are available
holes, notches, and sharp re-entrant an- from which the hardness may be m-d!
gles build up stresses excessively when once the diameter of the impression is ob-
they are loaded. Use of generous fillets, tained. A small optical viewer is used for
rounding off the ends of keyways and measuring these impressions.
slots, smoothing out corners and shoul- Fig. 7-9 shows a Brine11 hardness tester.
ders, and avoiding sharp tool cut marks The specimen is placed upon the anvil,
will do much to eiiminate stress raisers.
Any sharp grooves or no?ches may so
change the distribution of stresses as to
alter greatly the usual mechanical prop-
erties of the material and cause the part
to react to loading in a wholly unex-
pected way.
113
which is raised or lowered by means of the
screw. The anvil is then raised until the
specimen is in contact with the steel ball.
The load is men appfied by pumping oil;
the handie of the oil pump is shown direct-
ly under the dial. The load is applied for SO
seconds; then the diameter of the result-
ing impression is measured. The Brinell
hardness of annealed copper is about 40.
of annealed tooi steel about 200, and of
hardened tool steel about 650.
The Vickers ha:dness testing method is
almost the same as the Brinell method.
The penetrator used in the Vickers ma-
chine is a diamond pyramid, and the im-
pression made by this penetrator is a dark
square on a light background. This im-
pression is more easily read than the cir-
cular impression of the Brine\! method.
There is also the advantage that the dia-
mond point does not deform.
In making the Vickers test, a predeter-
mined ioad is applied to the specimen.
After removal of the load the ratio of the
impressed load to the area of the resulting
impression gives the hardness number.
The operation of applying and removing
the load is controlled automatically. Sev-
eral loadings give practically identical
hardness numbers on uniform material;
Fig. 7- 10. Vickers diamond pyramid hard-
this is much better than the arbitrary ness tester. (Riehle Testing Machines.)
changing of scale with the other hardness
testing machines. Although the Vickers
tester is thoroughly precise and very
adaptable for testing the softest and hard- materials. The hardness is given by the re-
est materials under varying loads, its cost lation H=P/A where P is the load in kil-
precludes its use where a Rockweil suf- ograms and A the area in square millime-
fices and is far more rapid. The Vickers ters of the surface of indentation.
machine, Fig. 7-10, is limited definitely to Hardness as determined by the Vickers
size and shape of the object to be tested, method is about the same as the Brinefl
and is extremely well suited to very hard hardness numbers up to a value of 500.
The Rockwell hardness tester, iltustra- indrcated directly on the scale attached to
ted in Fig. 7-11 measures resistance to the machine. This scale is really a depth
penetration as does the Brinett test, but gage graduated in special units. In testing
the depth of impression is measured in- soft materials a l/16” (I.6 mrrl) steel ball
stead of the diameter, and the hardness is with a IOO-kilogram load is used, and the
hardness is read on the 6 scale; for test-
ing hard materials, a diamond cone is
used with a 150-kilogram load, and the
hardness is read on the C scale. The ad-
vantages of the Rockwell tester are that
the test can be made quickly; that only a
small mark is left on the sample; and that
very hard material can be tested with the
diamond cone.
The Rockwell superficial hardness tes-
ter employs a light load, causing very lithe
penetration of the diamond cone. This su-
perficial hardness tester does not differ in
principle from the standard machine. The
hardness number is based on the addi-
tional depth to which a test point pene-
trates the material under a given load be-
yond the depth to which the penetrator
has been driven by a small initial load. The
initial load is 3 kilograms, while the major
load varies and may be 15, 30, or 45 kilo-
grams, depending on the thickness of the
hard surface. The machine is very useful in
testing exceptionally high surface hard-
ness, such as case-hardened or nitrided
surfaces. Thus, sections of razor blades,
clock springs, etc. react favorably to this
method of testing.
With the Shore scleroscope, Fig. 7-12,
the hardness is measured by the height of
rebound of the diamond-pointed hammer
after it has been dropped on the sample.
The harder the material used, the greater
the rebound. The height of rebound is
Fig. 7- 11. Rockwell hardness tester. (Wit-
son Mechanical lnsirument Div., American read on the gage. The scleroscope can be
Chain & Cable Co.) used for large sections; it is portable; and
115
imen than of its tensile strength, and
therefore the machine does not measure
exactly the same type of hardness as do
the indentation methods. The specimen
must be solidly held in a horizontal posi-
tion, and the hammer must fall exactly
vertically. The smallness of the impression
made by the Shore scleroscope leads to
variations in reading. thus necessitating a
range of readings rather than any single
one. More than one penetration should
not be made on the same spot. Because
of its portability, it can be transported to
the work and tests can be made on speci-
mens too large io be taken conveniently
to the other machines.
Another useful hardness-testing ma-
chine is called the Monotron. This tester
measures the indentation made by press-
ing a hard penetrator into the material un-
der test. The difference between it and
other testing machines is that the depth of
impression is made constant instead of
the pressure. Two dials a! the !op of the
machine enable the operator to read
depth of impression on one and p?ssure
on the other. Pressure is applied L~?~IIthe
penetrator sinks to the standard depth,
9/5000”; the amount of pressure so r,+ed-
ed is read on the upper dia!. The penetra-
tor used is a diamond having a spherical
Fig. 7-12. Shore sc/ero.;cope model D point about 0.025” in diameter. One ad-
shown with standard test block. (Shore In- vantage for this method, based on con-
struments & Mfg. Co.)
stant depth of impression, is that the
same amount of cold work is performed
regardless of whether the material tested
is extremely hard or comparatively soft.
the indentation made by the test is very Because of this, a wider range of materials
slight, an advantage where surface finish can be tested without making any change
is important. The amount of rebound is a in the penetrator or the methods of the
factor more of the elastic limit of the spec- tests.
116
CQrrostQ~ Tests service required. Such a test is suitable
for testing the corrosion resistance of all
The aoility of metals to resist atmos- of the coatings used on steel. Coated steel
pheric corrosion, or corrosion by liquids will withstand the attack for varying
or gases, often is of primary importance. periods depending on the protection the
Common types of corrosion are the pitting coating affords. More resistant coatings
or localized type, the direct chemical or will withstand attack for some hundreds
solution type, and electrolytic or galvanic of hours.
corrosion. Accelerated corrosion tests
have been devised whereby the behavior
oi the materials in actual service may be Strauss Solution Corrosion Test
deduced from conditions applied for
weeks, instead of for years as in actual Attacking a metal with the so-called
use. Corrosion may be measured by de- Strauss solution and microscopic exami-
termining the loss of tensile strength of nation for precipitation of carbides are
specimens, by loss of weight in materials two of the tests employed in looking for
which dissolve in the corroding medium, intergranular corrosion. In the former test,
or by gain in weight when a heavy coating the steel is boiled in the Strauss solution
of rust is formed. In applying such tests, it for about 24 hours. The soiution usually
is important to know just what the service consisis of 47 miiiiiiiers of concentrated
will ‘?, for a given material might be at- sulfuric acid and 13 grams of copper sul-
tacked rapidly by fruit acids and not by ni- fate crystals per liter. If intergranular cor-
tric acid, for instance; while with another rosion is present, the attacking reagent
material the reverse might be true. will cause the metal to lose its metai-
Although no standard tests for corro- lit resonance, cause a corsiderable de-
sion exist, many tests now exist which crease in the eiectrical conductivity, or
have proved to be of great practical value. cause the metal to develop cracks follow-
A few of these tests are discussed briefly ing a bend test.
in the following material. In all such tests, In the test employing microscopic ex-
it is of utmost importance to see to it tllat amination for precipitation of carbides,
corrosion test conditions nearly duplicate one side of the specimen is polished and
the conditions of service. then electrolytically etched in an oxalic ac-
§~/f-S~r~y Test One of the most gen- id or sodium cyanide solution. Such an
erally accepted tests is the salt spray test. etch causes precipitated carbides to ap-
For this test, specimens that nave been pear as black particles. If carbides are
thoroughly cleaned are placed in a spe- found, the specimen is given an embrittle-
ciaily prepared box or chamber and ex- ment test.
posed to a fog or spray of salt water for a Brass and bronze objects are tested by
designated number of hours. The concen- the mercurous nitrate test. The specimen
tration of the spray and the exposure peri- is dipped in a 40 percent solution of nitric
od vary depending on the severity of the acid, and then immersed in a solution con-
taining 1 percent nitric acid and 1 percent tins piece. One side of each sample is
mercurous nitrate. After a few minutes, smoothed by means of a file or an emery
the specimen is removed cleaned, and wheel. This side, which is to be examined.
dried. Upon low-power microscopic exam- is then ground with several emery papers
ination, if no cracks are visible, the speci- of different coarseness, beginning with
men will prcbabty not crack because of in- coarse and ending with a very fine paper.
ternal stresses. The sample is held so the scratches made
An accelerated weathering or exposure by each emery paper are at right angles to
test uses intermittent watering and drying the ones made in the preceding operation.
to simulate the effect of sunshine and The sample is then polished on a rotating
moisture in producing corrosion. Cabinets moist cloth, using very fine alumina or
with suitable heating and watering units rouge as a polishing agent After this
are needed for this iest. preparation, the sample should be nearly
flat, free from pitting, and almost free
from scratches when viewed through the
microscope.
Several types of automatic polishing
Metals. as ordinarily fabricated, are machines are now available for the g-‘.ld-
composed of very small particles which ing and polishing of specimens; one is
are visible only with the microscope. Since shown in Fig. 7-13. Specimens to be
H. C. Sorby’s pioneer work with ,the micro- ground and polished on this machine are
scope, the use of that instrument has con- first mounted in bakelite or other mount-
tributed inestimably to the development of ing epoxy, six mofunts being used each
the metal industry. For the student of met- time. These mountings are then placed in
allurgy !he microscope is of utmost im- a fixture, and the fixture with the speci-
portance. Microscopic examination will mens is rotated in one direciion. in con-
show. for exampie, whether or not the
most desirabte structure has been pro-
duced, and if the material contains an ex-
cessive amount of dirt or nonmetallic in-
clusions. Such studies not only determine
whether the best possible material has
been produced. but they also teach us
how to modify the manufacturing process-
es to obtain more desirable metals or
al!oys.
In order to present the true structures of
metals, it is important that the samples be
carefuily prepared. For such examina-
tions, small samples are selected, repre- Fig. 7- 13. Jarrett polishing machine. (Beu-
senting as neariy as possible the en- hler Ltd.)
tact, progressively. with stone, pitch, wax, used in viewing transparent substances in
and cloth laps. which rotate in the oppo- that a vertical illuminator is placed just
site direction to the fix!ure and speci- above the objective, which is the lens next
mens. Abrasive is fed to the face of the to the specimen. By means of this vertical
laps during each operation. P,fter the ISSt illuminator, light from the small lamp is
lap, which is a cloth disc with a finely thrown onto the specimen through the
ground alumina abrasive, the specimens objective. The vertical illuminator may
are removed from the fixture. Examination consist either of a thin piece of glass or a
will reveal a highly polished surface, free half mirror. Both types are mounted so
from scratches, and flatter than those they may be rotated by a small disc; in ex-
usually obtained by hand grinding and amining specimens it is imporiant to ad-
polishing. Time is saved by keeping the just the illuminator for the best view.
specimens rather small. Too much care A microscope designed especially for
cannot be taken in the selection and prep- metallographic work and equipped with an
aration of specimens for microscopic ex- attachment for faking photomicrographs
amination. Each cutting, grinding, and is shown in Fig. 7-15. In this machine the
polishing operation may alter the surface image of the specimen is projected on
structure of the metal so as to destroy the ground glass at the end of the bellows,
evidence wanted in the analysis. just as the portrait camera projects the
A microscope suitable foi the examina- image of a person onto a ground glass. To
tion of metallic specimens is shown in Fig. record the magnified image, a photo-
7-14. This microscooe differs from those
Fig. 7- 74. Table type metallurgical micro- Fig. 7-75. Bench type research metallo-
scope. (Bausch & Lomb) graph. (Bausch & Lomb)
graphic plate or film is substituted for the
ground glass and exposed for the proper
length of time. With such a machine, mag-
nifications ranging from 10 to 10,000 may
be obtained. The magnifications most
used are 75, 100, 200, and 500, although it
is frequently necessary to use higher mag-
nifications to see the finer structures.
When a polished but otherwise untreat-
ed sample is examined under the micro-
scope, a few accidental scratches may be
seen, together with some dirt or nonme- Fig. 7-17. Same as Fig. 7-16, etched;
tallic impurities, such as slag and man- magnified 200 times.
ganese sulfide in iron. If an alloy is exam-
ined which consists of two or more
constituents, one of which is appreciably
softer than the other, the sofler element otherwise untreated sample of gray cast
will have eroded away somewhat in po!ish- iron magnified 200 times. Gray cast iron
ing, and the eroded space will appear Consists of a mixture of iron, throughout
black. An example of ihis is shown in Fig. which there are flakes of graphite. These
7-16, a photomicrograph of a polished but graphite flakes are eroded away on polish-
ing, and the areas these flakes occupied
show black ir?the mic:ograph.
To reveal the structure, it is necessary in
most cases to etch the polished samples.
Fig. 7-17 is the same specimen as shown
in Fig. 7-16 except that it has been etched
in dilute nitric acid. The light structural
background in Fig. 7-17 has now dark-
kened and is revealed as a structural com-
ponent called pearlite. This pearlitic struc-
ture is a very fine lamellar structure
consisting of layers of ferrite and cemen-
tite (Fe3C), as shown at higher magnifica-
tions in Fig. 7-18. Fig. 7-19 is a photomi-
crograph of malleable cast iron magnified
500 times. In etching, the sample is im-
mersed in a dilute acid or other reagent
which will dissolve a portion of the surface
#Fig. 7-16. Photomicrograph of gray cast
iron, onetched, showing the flakes of gra- or tarnish the different constituents selec-
.Dhitic carbon; magnified 200 times. tively. Fig. 7-20 shows a sample of iron
F;g. 7-20. Photomicrograph and typic;
chemical analysis of pure open-hearth
iron. Carbon 8.015 percent; manganese
0.020 percent; phosphorus 0.005 percent
Fig. i-18. Same as F;g. 7-17. but magni- sulfur 0.035 percent; silicon 0.005 per-
fied 500 times. cent; lotal metalloids 0.080 percent.
Fig. 7-22. Standard Fracture Grain Size Chart as developed by Shepherd. (Visual EX-
amination of Steel by Enos, American Society for Metals)
consists 01 a series of ten steels of varying Malleable cast iron cannot be forged or
grain sizes. The test is made by compar- worked cold, but it will be found hard to
ing fractures with these actual standards. iraciure, being much tougher and more
From the examina?ion of frac!ures, it is ductile than either white or gray cast iron.
possible to tell whether a bar is high or The fracture has the appearance of a case
low-carbon steel. A fractured casting will and core. The case at the edge of the frac-
also show whether it is grey cast iron, ture has the appearance of low-carbon
white cast iron, wrought iron, or malleable steel, and the core or interior of the frac-
cast iron. ture is similar to gray cast iron but some-
When fracturing, low-carbon steel will what darker in color.
bend and be quite tough. The fracture will Wrought iron is very tough and hard to
be light grey, and often the grain size can fracture. Heating and quick cooling, as of
be noted if the fracture has not been dis- low-carbon steel, have little or no effect.
torted badly. If heated to a bright Due to streaks of slag that often can be
red heat. about 1500°F (815°C) and seen on the surface after cleaning off the
quenched in water. not much change in scale, the fracture seems fibrous and dar-
properties can be noted upon fracturing ker than low-carbon steel. This fibrous
after this treatment. condition and streaks of slag are the oui-
High-carbon sfeel will fracture more standing characteristics of this material.
easily tinan low-carbon steel since it is
more brittle and so will stand less bend-
ing. The fracture will glis!en more, and the
grain size will be readily seen. If heated to
a red heat, 1425°F (about 775°C) and !n testing metals, certain characteristics
quenched in water, marked changes in which may not be apparent to the naked
properties occur. The steel becomes very eye often can be brought out by deep
hard and brittle, and the fracture will be etching of the specimen. Although a good
very fine and silky in appearance after this surface finish is desired for this type of
treatment. test, it is possible to deep etch a specimen
Gray cast iron cannot be forged, but that has been machined or ground without
sometimes it becomes necessary to dis- resorting to the fine grinding and polishing
tinguish it from white or malleable cast necessary in preparing a specimen for mi-
iron. The gray iron will fracture very easily, croscopic examination. Deep etching with
and the metal wile be soft and brittle. The Nytal, a 10 percent solution of nitric acid
iracture is coarse grained and dark gray in in alcohol. will be found useful in revealing
appearance. soft spots in hardened steels, case depth
White cast iron will fracture very easily in casehardennd steel. welds, and small
and is very hard and brittle. The fracture cracks. A drastic deep etching may be ob-
will show the grain size and be very white tained with a 50 percent solution of hy-
in color. White cast iron cannot be forged drochloric acid in water. This solution,
or machined, except by grinding. which is heated to 160” to 175°F (71 to
123
Fig. 7-23. Axle forging cross-section.
7g”C), will disclose the fiber or flow lines showing the flow lines or direction of forg-
in a forging, as well as segregation, blow- ing is illustrated in Fig, 7-23 while Fig. 7-24
holes, cracks, seams, pipes, dendritic shows the effect of deep etching a sec-
structures, etc. A deep etched forging tioned cast ingot of steel.
124
ascetic Testing method, but at the same time they will be
Two types of magnetic test are used: destroyed by the deep etching; whereas,
one to discover defects such as cracks, by the magnetic particle inspection meth-
seams, blowholes, etc., and the other od, indications of defects remain intact
to determine variations in structure and and may be examined under the micro-
properties of a metal as compared with a scope to identify their character and ex-
standard specimen that is known to be tent. Parts to be examined must first be
satisfactory. magnetized, then coated with finely divid-
This test method may be used with the ed iron powder or magnetic iron oxide.
magnetic metals, such as iron, nickel, co- The powder may be dusted onto the mag-
bait, and their alloys. The test may be netized specimen or applied by immersion
used to determine the presence of any de- in a solution of kerosene and carbon
fects that would affect the soundness and tetrachloride containing the magnetic iron
mechanical properties of the metal. This oxide powder. A deposit of the magnetic
type of test. being nondestructive, can be powder will adhere to any defects which
applied to all the material of many work may be present; see Fig. 7-25. This test
pieces instead of to a sample specimen. has been used sirccessfully to reveal fa-
In the Sperry test, cracks and other tigue cracks developing in machinery in
flaws in rails may be uncovered by the service. Where safety is all important, as
passage of a heavy direct current longitu- in aircraft, this test has become very
dinal!y through both rails, by means of a popular.
test car that moves along the iail at about In the use of magnetic tests for check-
six miles an hour. Any flaw greater than 1 ing variations in structure and mechanical
percent of the cross-section of the rail- properties of metal parts, it is assumed
head causes an abrupt change in the thai any two identical meiai paris having
magnetic field induced by the current. identical mechanical properties should
Both r~ails may be completely inspected at show identical magnetic properties. Un-
the same time. Periodic inspection also is fortunately there appear to be many fac-
possible by this method. tors that upset this assumption, so this
A powder method of magnetic particle phase of the test has not been so success-
inspection (Magnaffux) is used a great ful. The simplest term of the test consists
deal to detect defects on or just below the in comparing the characteristics of the un-
surface of steel forgings. Such defacts known t;laterial with those of an accept-
might be revealed by the macro-etching able or standard test sample, on the
125
for this purpose, a photographic plate is
placed on one side of the specimen or
part to be examined, and the source of ra-
diation on the other sicfe. The X-rays or
Y -rays penetrating the sample are regis-
tered on the photographic plate. If the
sample has blowholes or large inclusions.
for example, such defects will allow more
rays to pass through and will be identified
by dark spots on the photographic plate.
These methods have been used to find
defects in small cas!ings, Fig. 7-26.
X-rays have also been used in studying
the crystal structure of metals and alloys.
In this use, the atoms deflect the rays in
such a way that it is possible to deter-
mine just how the individual atoms are
built up to form metallic crystals. Such
studies have conclusively demonstrated
Fig. 7-25. Magnetic particle inspection on
defective forging; forging crack before the crystalline arrangement of metals.
magnaflux test (left); after (right). (Wyman-
Gordon Co.)
a~iog~a~~y Tests
129
i. wnat are the two main divisions of the preparation of a specimen for micro-
physical testing? scopic analysis. Why is etching neces-
2. What properties does tensile testing sary?
determine? 11. From the fracture tests describe the
3. Describe briefly how a tensile test is following drain structure:
made on a specimen. low-carbon steel
4. Describe fatigue failure. high-carbon steel
5. Describe the hardness test as per- wrought iron
formed by a Brineff tester. grey cast iron
6. Describe a Vickers hardness tester white cast iron
and its advantage over a Brine11tester. malleable cast iron
7. Describe the hardness test as per- 12. How is the fracture method used in
formed by a Rockwell tester and its ad- testing for grain size?
vantages over the Brinel! and Vlckers 13. What etching fluid is used for deep
tests. etching in preparing specimens for testing
8. Describe the operation of a Shores by macro-etching? What is the fluid’s
scfeioscope test. composition?
9. Why is the salt spray corrosion test 14. Describe briefly Magnaflux testing.
a common test used by the automobile in- 15. Describe a thermocouple as used in
dustry? a thermo-electric pyrometer.
IO. Describe briefly the steps taken in 16. Describe an optical pyrometer.
From the study of the nature of pure Alloys are much more complex in their
metals, we next come to the subject of al- behavior and treatment than are the near-
loys. We are concerned here with a study ly pure metals. A great many aspects of
of the properties and structural character- the behavior of our common alloys are still
istics of a pure metal when atoms of a sec- not clearly understood or explained.
ond metal or a nonmetal are combined Most of the alloys were made hy the
wiih ii. “cut-and-try” method, and we have
Increased strength, durability, and other learned how before we have fully learned
qualities have made alloys of much great- why.
er industrial importance than pure metals. Meta!!u:gy may be one of the oldest
There are many combinations of prop- practices of man; but until the iatter part
erties that can be obtained by alloying of the nineteenth century we were con-
metals with each other, or with nonmetals, cerned chiefly with the extraction and pro-
in various proportions. Knowledge of the duction of the metals and alloys, rather
properties of alloys makes it possible to than with the reasons for the behaviors
determine the uses to which a specific al- they exhibited. During all this early work, it
ioy is best ad+ted, and to make reliable was believed that nearly all the character-
predictions as to the behavior in service of istics found in the metals were created
that alloy. Today is indeed the age of during the refining and producing stages,
metafs. and that if the manufacturing methods
etallurgy
could be controlled, a metal or an alloy tern that will predict the structural and
could be produced that would possess the physical characteristics of any alloy, is of
desired properties. great value to workers in the metallurgical
Shortly after the beginning of the pres- field. Let us then consider briefly how
ent century, however, it became increas- these alloy diagrams are constructed and
ingly apparent that the properties of the interpreted.
common metals and their alloys were af- Thermal cur~ea. The alloy diagram is
fected by many factors aside from meth- constructed from ,a series of cooling
ods and practices used in their manufac- curves, which are obtained from a study of
ture. It became clearly evident that the the cooling characteristics of any metal or
properties of metals and their alloys were alloy. These curves are obtainable be-
markedly affected by heat treatment, or cause of the fact that bodies, while un-
heating followed by rapid cooling, and by dergoing certain changes, liberate or ab-
the methods used in forming, such as roll- sorb heat faster than their surroundings.
ing, drawing, etc. In an effort to under- Thermocouples placed in contact with the
stand and ultimately control these alloy while it is being heated or cooled uni-
changes, meiallurgists have engaged in formly within a certain temperature range,
active research in metals. Their work in provide a means for studying the changes
chemical research, microscopic analysis, occurring during the heating and cooling
and stl;dy of the changes taking place cycle.
during the heating and cooling of metals Time-temperature curve. The simplest
has resulted in a vast amount of Iuseful type of curve is obtained by taking tem-
knowledge. Consideration of the ch,anges perature readings at fixed intervals of
during heating and cooling, referred to as time, and then plotting the results with
thermic-analysis. has been especially temperatures as ordinates and time read-
helpful. Information gathered by this ings as abscissae. So long as the metal is
method can be assembled to form 1:he al- being raised or lowered in temperature at
loy diagram. a steady rate, this curve follows a smooth
The difficulties encountered in the study course. Any departure from this smooth-
of the characteristics of any series of al- ness indicates that there has been either
loys are lessened by use of the alloy dia- an abnormal absorption or evolution of
gram. The purpose of this study based on heat within the specimen. Fig. 8-l illus-
the alloy diagram is to simplify a difficult trates the common types of curves using
subject. The alloy diagram can be used by the simple time-temperature method. Al-
the student to predict what the normal loys when cooled from the liquid state to
structure of certain alloys will be. From room temperature do not all undergo the
this knowledge of the structural character- same characteristic evolutions of heat;
istics of any alloy, certain effects ton the thus their thermal curves differ in appear-
physical and chemical properties can be ance. The two most common types of al-
predicted also. Therefore, knowledge of loys having different appearing thermal
these alloy diagrams, representing a sys- curves are: alloys that form a solid solu-
132
Theory of Alloys
LLAP5zD
rw.s D”FzlNG
COOUNG
___9
Fig. 8- 1. Simple time-temperature curves.
133
Metallurgy
but have zero solubility for each other be- the separation of a eutectic or a eutectoid
low bb’. With this condition, a eutectic or mixture, similar to Case 1. but instead of
eutectoid mixture is formed, as indicated the excess or primary metal to freeze
by the horizontal arrest in the cooling being pure, it consists of a saturated solid
curve at bb’. the excess of either metal solution.
being separated from solution along the Curves similar to those in Fig. 8-1 can
curve from a to b-the resultant alloy be plotted by several different methods.
being composed of either a eutectic or eu- Other methods of study of these changes
tectoid and a pure metal. Case 2: where also can be used. However, the time-
two elements are soluble in each other temperature method will serve as an ele-
above a. but where the solubility becomes mentary illustration.
limited below bb’. This condition results in
The at/oy diagram. It is difficult to dis- diagram of the copper-nickel series. The
cuss the changes taking place during the following is a brief discussion of this
cooling of an alloy from the liquid state to diagram.
normal temperature without the aid of a The upper line is known as the liquidus,
diagram. The alloy diagram is to the met- for the alloy is completely liquid abovu this
a:;urgist what the blueprint is to the tool- line. This liquidus line indicates the lowest
maker. The alloy diagram is made up from temperature to which a given liquid com-
a number of cooling curves of a series of position can be lowered without freezing.
a!!oys of the meta!s used in the investiga- It also indicates the compositon of tne liq-
hon. T-he coordinaies for tne diagram are uid alloy on the verge of freezing at any
temperature as the ordinate, and concen- known temperature. The lower line of the
tration or analysis as the abscissae. If diagram is known as the solidus, for all
temperature-time curves are used, time is compositions in the area of the diagram
visualized as in the plane perpendicular to below this line are in the solid state. The
the paper and is not shown on the dia- solidus line indicates the composition of
gram. Taking the simplest possible exam- the alloy which freezes at the given tem-
ples, the freezing of alloys is classified in peratures within the limits represented by
five ways, as follows: the solidus curve. The area between the
Type I alloys: the solid solution alloy liquidus and solidus !ines represents the
system. The single cooling curve of this mushy state of the alloy, partly liquid and
type of alloy is shown in Fig. 8-1, curve 4. partly solid.
Fig. 8-2 illustrates this alloy system by a Now, let us consider briefly the changes
134
I I
0 20 40 60 83 IW
Cb Ni
PERCENTm?7E
OF NKKEL
that take place during cooling, when an al- solidifies. The primary axes of the crystals
loy of 50 percent copper and 50 percent which form from a 50-50 liquid are not
nickel is at a temperature indicated by Z, pure, but consist o’f a solid solution, !he
Fig. 8-2, and the temperature is lowered. composition of which is found on the soli-
The alloy remains a uniform or homoge- dus line at b’, 78 percent nickel and 22
neous liquid solution until the temperature percent copper.
drops to a value indicated by the intersec- As the mass cools, the composition of
tion of the liquidus line at b. Here the alloy the growing crystals changes along the
begins to solidify, forming not pure crys- solidus line from b’ to b5, while the re-
tats, but sotid solution crystals. It is to be maining liquid alloy varies in composition
remembered that crystals form by pro- along the fiquidus line from b to b4. The
gressive sotidification along primary, sec- solid that first solidifies from the liquid
ondary and ternary axes which form a contains less copper than the liquid as a
skeleton onto which the remaining liquid whole. The remaining liquid is thus left
richer in copper than it was originally, and
it therefore possesses a lower freezing
point. As solidification proceeds, metal
progres,sively poorer in nickel is deposited
around the primary solid, that which solid-
ifies last being richest in copper. The so-
lidification, therefore. is not that of a sin-
gle solution. but of an infinite number of
solid solutions, and the solutions formed
have a corresponding number of solidifi-
ca!ion temperatures, the result being a
number of solid solutions of different
chemical composition.
Hence. the structure of solid cast alloy
differs from that of cast pure copper or
nickel; it consists of dendritic crystals,
originally so called from their branched Fig. 8-3. Cast monel metal showing the
tree-like appearance. These vary in com- dendritic or segregated structure; magni-
position, being rich in nickel at the center fied 25 times.
and rich in copper on the outside. Their
lack of homogeneity can be corrected by
diffusion if the rate of cooling is sufficient-
iy siow. or It me aitoy is rendered homoge-
neous by annealing at temperatures below
the melting point. The rate of diffusion
varies greatly for different metals, and the
hemrogeneous (non-uniform) cored struc-
ture persists longest in alloys having the
slowest rate of diffusion. it is persistent in
nickel alloys. Figs. 8-3 and 8-4 illustrate
heterogeneity in a Monel metai. 67 per-
cent nickel and 28 percent copper. Uni-
formity of composition of the crystal
grains is assisted by mechanical work, i.e.,
by rolling, forging, etc., followed by an-
nealing. All copper-nickel alloys in the
rolled and annealed condition have a simi-
lar structure-that of a homogeneous sol-
id solution, as indicated in Fig. 8-5. Fig. 8-4. Same as Fig. 8-3, biii magnified
7Vpe !f, ecrlecfic alloys. These alloys 100 times; the rough cored structure is
are made up of two metals which are en- very apparent.
Theory of Alloys
137
Metallurgy
b
.--- -----;“---. \ b’
--
PImxNI HEli I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
a’ I
-eo-ZjA
PEPCENlE”mmC h PwCENrCADMIUM ,
Cd PERSINIAGE OF BISM”,”
cent cadmium and 60 percen? bismuth. If ing crystals of nearly pure ca,dmium and
the solution contains more than 60 per- nearly pure bismuth.
cent bismuth, then nearly pure bismuth The photomicrographs in Figs. 8-7 to
separates from the liquid, and the separa- 8-10 show the structures developed in
tion of bismuth and the lowering of the Type IL eufectic alloys, as illustrated by
freezing point go atong the curve SE, Fig. the cadmium-bismuth alloys.
8-6, until the remaining liquid solution You will note that in this discussion we
contains the eutectic composition. say that the crystals which separate are
No matter what the original analysis nearly pure cadmium or nearly pure bis-
was, the liquid solution of cadmium and muth. Careful analysis will show that the
bismuth at temperature 284°F (140°C) cadmium crystals actually contain some
(the eutectic temperature) always contains bismuth, and the bismuth crystals some
40 percent cadmium and 60 percent bis- cadmium. Only in a very few instances are
muth. This so-called eutectic mixture the crystals which separate really pure
freezes at a constant temperature, form- metal. In most cases the separating crys-
138
Fig. 8-7. The sfrucfure obtained if an alloy
containing 75 percent cadmium and 25
percenf b;smufh is cooled from the molten
slate lo room temperature. This alloy con-
fains approximately 42 percent eufecfic Fia. 8-9. The structure developed with an
(wavy, flake-like structure) and approxi- a/Toy containing 20 percent cadmium and
mate/y 58 percent nearly pure cadmmm 80 percent b/smufh. The structural com-
(dark structure). (Principles of Mefallogra- position consists of approximate/y 50 per-
phy by Williams and Homerberg, McGraw- cent eutecfic and 50 percent nearly pure
Hill Book Co., Inc.) bismuth (fight constituent). (Principles of
Me:a//ography by Williams and Homer-
berg, McGraw-Hi// Book Co., Inc.)
Fig. 8- 11. High-lead end of antimony-lead equilibrium diagram. (American Society for
MefalsJ
which the entire alloy will be in the solid cooled, in a manner typical of solid solu-
solution range. tions, Type I, and wilt exhibit the charac-
It will be noted that !he limit of solubility teristic cooling curves of the Type I alloys.
of antimony in lead is reached at the point On the other hand, ?hose alloys of this
M, and that as we lower the temperature series having compositions which place
this solubility decreases along M-N as the them beyond the limit of solid solubility of
temperature falls. This is analogous to the the metals, at either end of the series, be-
separation of salt from the liquid solution have in most respects very like the alloys
of it in water as a hot solution is cooled which are entirely insoluble in one another
below its solubility limit. in the solid state. The only difference is
Now this solubility limit and the change that the solid which first crystalizes is not
of solubikty with temperature vary with ev- pure metal, but a safurafed solid solution
ery pair of metals. In some cases the limit of one metal in the other, similar to the
of solubility becomes infiniie, that is. the saturated solid solution formed in the
two solid metals form solutions in all pro- lead-antimony alloys. A complete diagram
portions. as water and aicohol form liquid of such a system therefore, is made up of
solutions. Such a case is copper-nickel three distinct parts: a central portion EC,
(Fig. 8-Z). resembling the diagram of Type II alloys,
Ty,oe 111~~~0~s. Very few alloys which and portions AB and CD at each end, typi-
form perfect molten solutions crystallize cat of the Type I alloys.
into two pure metals as described in Type The areas AB and CD of Fig. 8-12, as
II solidification. Nevertheless, a large ma- well as the Type I alloys (Fig. 8-2) repre-
jority of the alloys which form molten solu- sent the same characterisitic behavior of
tions separate during freezing to form two the alloys during solidification. Both form
kinds of crystals. These crystals are com- solid solutions upon solidification, which
posed of the metals which are not pure, in the cast state are heterogeneous, with
but which carry with them some part of the crystals having a cored or dendritic
the alternate metal in the state of solid structure. The solubility or miscibility of
solution. In other words, the two metals one metal in another in Types I, II and Ill
crystallize and separate, but the crystals alloy systems, then, are as follows:
are not piire; each contains some of the Type I. The metals are miscible in both
other metal as a solid solution. the liquid and solid states; the crystals
The behavior of these alloys during separating from the liquid contain both
freezing, and the shape of their diagrams metals in solution.
is of an intermediate nature when com- Type II. The two metals are miscible in
pared to the diagrams of the alloys of the liquid state but separate as nearly
Type I and Type tl. A diagram of this type pure crystals of the two metals when the
is shown in Fig. 8~12, the copper-silver melt solidifies.
system. Si!ver is capab!e of retaining 8.8 Type I!!. The two metais are miscible in
percent copper in solid solution. and al- the liquid state, but are only partially mis-
loys in this series will solidify, if slowly cible in the solid state.
141
PIICENT COPPER
Type Wafloys. Not all metals are misci- where any metal becomes miscible.
ble in the liquid state. Thus lead and zinc Fig. 8-13 shows an equilibrium diagram
or lead and copper do not mix when melt- for lead-zinc.
ed together, but form two layers, as do Type V compound-forming alloys. In
water and oil. This immiscibility is of com- the study of alloys, we find that one of the
mercial importance in making bearing most important of all pussible behaviors
bronze in which droplets of lead are mixed takes place when two metals are added to
through molten copper like an emulsion of each other and they combine to form a
oil in water, and the whole is solidified. compound. Such a compound is called an
Two metals, however, are rarely complete- intermetallic compound and is similar to
Iy insoluble. Each one dissoives some of the common compounds or combinations
the other, and as the temperature is in- such as water or ice, H,O, or sodium
creased, eventually a point is reached chloride, NaCI, etc.
142
Theory of Alloys
formed from a reaction between the liquid been called a peritectic reaction.
and solid phases may be a solid solution Such alloy behavior is illustrated by the
or an intermetaffic comnni~nrl
..F”....“. This reac- diagram Fig. S-15, where H corresponds
tiGn, resulting in the disappearance of two to the formation of a compound AmBn.
phases and the creation of a new one, has This compound Am& forms along the
Theory of Alloys
I
I
I
I
I
I
/ B + EIDTECIIC
I
I
I
I
I
I
Fig. 8- 15. Diagram of aNoy behavior that results in a peritectic reaction, which causes the
formation of a ,.:o,mpopound
AmSn.
CHS line of the diagram from the reaction 8, the result of this peritectic reaction
of a nearly-pure solid (metal A), sholwr by gives birth to a pure compound Am&
point C, and the liquid solution of compo- In the discussion of this dtagram, we
sition S. If the original melt contained just discover that nearly pure metal A sePa-
80 percent metal A and 20 percent metal rates from the liquid along the line GS,
Metallurgy
and upon cooling, from GS to C/-/S. we certain changes in their structural makeup
have a soiid A and a iiquid soiution which that may completely alter their properties.
may vary in composition from G to S. Such changes can be shown by the alloy-
Upon cooling to the C/-/S line, the solid A diagram principle. Some of the most com-
reacts with the liquid solution of composi- mon changes that occur include:
tion S, forming the compound Am&. In 1. Changes in solid solubility upon
case the original liquid contained less than cooling.
20 parcent metal, 6. the final structural 2. Changes from one allotropic form to
composition would contain metal A plus another.
the constituent Am&. 3. Formation of eutectoid structures.
With an original composition between 4. Grain growth.
20 and 40 percent metal B, the reaction 5. Recrystallization.
along the CHS line would be evidenced by The first two changes, changes in so/id
the formation of the compound AmBn and solubility and changes from one allotropic
a liquid. Cooling from the HS line to the form to another, are common changes
PE line would result in more compound that may be illustrated by the alloy-
forming from the liquid solution and the diagram method.
remaining liquid becoming richer and rich- The iron-carbon alloys, which will be
er in metal 8 until the temperalture has discussed in more detail iater on, may be
dropped to the PE line, at which time the used as an illustration of these two impor-
remaining melt would have a composition tant changes taking place during the cool-
as shown by point .E,or a eutectic compo- ing of a solid. Fig. 8-16 is a simplified iron-
sition. The remaining liquid at this time carbon diagram showing the changes that
would solidify to form a eutectic structure. take place within a solid solution, which
The final alloy would consist of crystals of exists in area AESGA, when the solid SOIU-
AmSo and the eutectic. tion is cooled to normal temperatures.
The eutectic of this alloy solidifies along The maximum solubility of Fe,C in gamma
the PN line, Fig. 8-15, with a eutectic ( Y) iron is shown by point E. As cooling of
composition which contains 20 percent A the solid solution takes place, the solubili-
and 80 percent B, and consists of crystals ty of gamma iron for Fe,C follows along
of the compound Am& and crystals of the ES line to poic! S.
nearly pure metal 13. The eutectic struc- At pain? S, all iron becomes alpha (01)
ture of this alloy would be similar in ap- iron, changing from the gamma form, and
pearance to that of any common binary al- the solubility of the new alpha iron phase
lays solidifying with a eutectic structure. becomes practically zero, represented by
Changes in the so/id state. In dealing point P. Point G represents the change of
with the alloy diagram, we have discussed pure iron from one allotropic form to an-
changes occurring during the prsocess of other, the change involving a rearrange-
solidification. The study of the alloy be- ment of a face-centered cubic atomic lat-
havior is complicated by the fact that sol- tice form of iron to a body-centered cubic
ids, during heating and cooling undergo form of iron. The structure born along the
146
Theory ot Alloys
F’SK line, from a solid solution, is similar note the similarity in appearance of the
to that formed along the EBC line from the diagram in the area of solidification and
liquid solution. However, one is born from the changes that follow during the cooling
a solid, and the other from a liquid. of the solid solution alloy. Line AB is simi-
The structure formed at 6 is called the lar to GS, BD similar to SE, PSK similar to
eufectic; whereas the structure born at S EBC, and AES similar to GPN. The two
is called the eutectoid. The student should changes, i.e., one of changing solubility
147
Metallurgy
148
Theory of Alloys
1
l- I I I I I I I I
Fig. S- 19. Tensile strengh of lead antimony alloys, after quenching from 450 o F (232 ’ C),
and after aging at room temperature.
with temperature, as described for !ead- ly divided particles of one metal in the oth-
antimony. Such alloys may be greatly er. Such a finely divided mixture of alloy
hardened by heating to the solid solution crystals is much harder and stronger than
range and cooling suddenly, as by the same mixture in coarser particles. The
quenching in water, and subsequent aging tensile strengths of quenched and aged
at room or elevated temperature. The lead-antimony alloys are shown graphical-
quenching preserves the solid solution ly in Fig. 8-39.
which by the aging process becomes fine-
Alloys of iron and carbon are the most metal alloys. The importance of iron-
widely used and least expensive of all carbon alloys is due to the fact that their
149
Metallurgy
properties may be very decidedly changed The coo/iflg curve for water. A cooling
by heating and cooling under controlled curve for water is shown in Fig. 8-20. At
conditions. 212°F (1OO’C) steam condenses into wa-
Iron, as an elemental metal, is relatively ter. This is a critical point and is shown as
soft with low tensile strength, incapable of a plateau in the cooling curve. Again at
being hardened and of little use in indus- 32°F (0°C) the water changes to ice. This
try. One important discovery about iron is the second critical point with a second
was that it is allotropic, meaning that it plateau. Steam, water and ice are all
can exist in more than one type of crystal- forms of water (H,O) but with much differ-
line structure, depending on temperature. ent physical characteristics.
The term critical point is a name for a Notice also in Fig. 8-20 that a certain
particular temperature at which iron or amount of time is required for steam to
steel will undergo a molecular change change to water and for water to change
which alters the metal’s crystal!fne struc- to ice. While these changes are taking
ture and physical characteristics. An ex- place, the temperature remains constant
amination of the critical points of a com- (isothermal) until the complete transfor-
mon substance, water, will give a clearer mation has taken place. These plateaus
view of the temperature-related physical on the chart are typical of allotropic
changes as steam is cooled. change and result from internal energy
150
Theory 01 Alloys
- - - 2,950 UO”lD mm
253.50 DELTA wlohl
-_------ --- -
\ GbMMn IRON
151
sulting alloy, steel, may be strengthened
and given hardenability in proportion to
the percentage of carbon added. Steel is
defined as having a carbon range of from
0.008 to 1.7 percent carbon. Irons with
carbon percentages above 1.7 percent
are known as cast irons; these are dis-
cussed in a later chapter.
The hot, liquid metal produced by a
blast furnace is known as pig iron and is a
solution of carbon dissolved in the liquid
iron, much like sugar dissolved in water.
The percentage cf carbon in pig iron is
from 3 percent to 5 percent but never
Fig. 8-22. Body-centered cubic crystal. more than 6.68 percent which is the solu-
bility limit of carbon in iron. Subsequent
refining processes reduce the carbon con-
tent into the usable ranges for steels. 0.02
to 1.7 percent and cast irons, 1.7 to 4.5
percent.
Plain carbon steels are classified by
carbon content into three groups; (1) low-
carbon steel often called mild steei, with
0.02 to 0.30 percent carbon, and non-
hardenable, (2) medium-carbon steel with
0.30 to 0.60 percent carbon, and moder-
ately hardenable, and (3) high-carbon
steel with 0.60 to 1.7 percent carbon and
greatly hardenable. The steel men reier io
percentaggs of carbon as points so that
0.30 percent is called 30 points, etc.
Fig. 8-23. Face-centered cubic crystal. As hot liquid steel cools below 28OOOF
(about 154O’C) and begins to crystallize,
the carbon drops out of solution (precipi-
tates) and chemically combines with the
The CQOh,~ 6llrve fOf carrion steels. iron to form a very hard compound, iron
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon and is carbide (Fe& which is czlled cementite.
properly referred to as carbon steel or The greater the percentage of carbon pre-
plain steel to differentiate this alloy from sent, ihs greater the amount of cementite
the multi-alloyed steels called a//oy steels. formed.
When carbon is added to iron, the re- If a series of samples of iron-carbon al-
Theory of Alloys
loy with varying percentages of carbon ry, a composite cooling curve called the
from 0 to 6.68 percent are made and their iron-carbon diagram may be charted. This
critical points determined in the laborato- chart is shown in Fig. 8-24.
Fig. 8-24. Partial equilibrium diagram of iron-carbon a//oys. Inset of delta iron region.
(After Frank Adcock)
153
#ion. Pure iron. represented ered to EB, Fig. 8-24. At EB. the eutectic
by the point A, and the iron-carbon eutec- line, there is some residual liquid, which is
tic represented by the point 6, melt and of the eufecfic composition. This liquid
solidify at a constant temperature. All oth- then solidifies at a constant temperature,
er alloys represented in the diagram melt forming the eutectic mixture.
and freeze over a range of temperatures, The eutectic of the iron-carbon system
Alloys containing 0.0 to 4.3 percent car- consists of alternating layers of FesC (ce-
bon begin to solidify with the separation of mentite) and saturated solid solution (aus-
solid solution (austenite) crystals from the tenite) crystallizes simultaneously at E6 to
liquid. form the eutectic structure. Therefore, al-
Alloys containing more than 4.3 percent loys containing from 1.7 to 4.3 percent
carbon begin to solidify with the separa- carbon, just below the E6 line, consist of
tion of FesC (cementite) from the liquid, on mixed crystals of two constituents, aus-
cooling to the BDline. tenite and eutectic. The amounts of each
!:: the CSS~of all~p Cofiiaining i.7 per- vary irom iO0 percent austenite and 0.0
cent cr less, solid solution (austenite) be- eutectic with 1.7 percent carbon alloy, to
gins to freeze out on cooling from AB to 100 percent eutectic and 0.0 auenite
ALRE, Fig. 8-24. At ALRE all the alloy is with 4.3 percent carbon iron alloy.
solid, an:? consists of dendritic crystafs. 1:: &!oys .cgtaining more than 4.3 per-
These dendritic crystals are formed, not of cent carbon, FesC (cementite) freezes out
a single solid solution, but of an infinite on cooling from BD to EC, Fig. S-24; the
number of solid solutions. The first to residual liquid at BC is of eutectic compo-
freeze is a solid solution relativeiy low in sition and solidifies at a constant temper-
carbon content: the last to freeze is rela- ature, forming the eutectic constitt!en!.
tively rich in carbon concentration. It is to These alloys just below BC consist of
be recalled that this lack of homogeneity mixed crystals of cementite and eutectic.
can be corrected by diffusion if the rate of In the discussion of the other diagrams,
cooling is sufficiently slow, or if the alloy is Types I, II, and Ill alloys, it was considered
rendered homogeneous by hot working or that the structure of the solid alloy just be-
by annealing at temperatures below the low the solidus line and the eutectic line,
melting point. For the present it can be as- remained unchanged during the cooling to
sumed that the area JRESG of the dia- room temperature, except for diffusion
gram represents an alloy in one homoge- taking place when dealing with a hetero-
neous phase, austenite. geneous solid solution phase. The struc-
In alloys containing from 1.7 to 4.3 per- ture at room temperature was that of the
cent carbon, solid solution (austenite) cast alloy. However, with iron-carbon al-
f:eezes out of the iiquid, beginning ai AB loys, very marked changes occur during
and continuing as the temperature is IOW- the cooling from the solidus ALRE and
eutectic EBC, Fig. 8-24, to room tempera- exists in the form of a distinct allotropic
ture. These changes are brought about modification which has been called beta
principally because iron has the ability to iron. As the structure of both alpha and
exist in several allotropic forms, and dur- beta iron is body-centered, this structure
ing the cooling the iron changes from one remains unchanged in passing from alpha
of these forms to another. to beta iron. It is stated that the marked
In the JRESG area and the change in the physical properties which
SEBCK area, Fig. 8-24, iron exists wholly takes place at 1414OF (768°C) is caused
in the form known as gamma. This gamma by a change within the atom of the iron.
iron has its atoms arranged in the face- Ferrite solubilily curve. Pure gamma
centered cubic lattice. Gamma iron dis- iron exists on cooling from J to G. Fig. 8-
solves carbon; its grain size depends on 24. At Gall the pure gamma iron changes
temperature, time and working; and it is to beta iron. This beta iron exists during
nonmagnetic. Gamma iron is denser than cooling to M, changing at M to alpha iron,
alpha iron. At normal temperatures, and in and this alpha form remains unchanged
the areas PSWN and WSKZ, Fig. 6-24, below M. No change takes place at Pwith
iron exists wholly in the form known as al- a pure iron. This alpha iron is capable of
pha. Aipha irm has a body-centeied cubic holding in sol&on considerable amoi;n!s
iattice, is found to be magnetic, dissolves of various elements such as nickel, silicon,
little carbon, and its grains do not change phosphorus, etc. The solubility for carbon
under normal conditions. Forging oi the is very slight and is not definitely known,
alpha iron at room temperature causes a being perhaps less than 0.015 percent
distortion of the grains. carbon at normal temperature. The term
es sl iron. It is reported ferriteis applied to solid solutions in which
that at 2535°F (1390°C) gamma iron alpha iron is the solvent.
changes to a different form called &/ta The temperature at which alpha iron
iron. This deita iron is said to have a body- forms from gamma iron on cooling is lo~v-
centered atomic arrangement similar to ered by the presence of carbon in solid
alpha iron. soWion in the gamma iron, that is, in aus-
Pure iron undergoes certain discontin- tenite. This is represented in the diagram
uous changes in physical properties at by the line GOS, Fig. 8-24, which shows
1414°F (768°C). These are small changes that the temperature of formation of fer-
in the internal energy, volume, electrical rite decreases from 16S”F (900°C) with
conductivity, etc. There is a marked pure iron, to 1292°F (700°C; !nr an alloy
change in the magnetic properties. At containing 0.85 percent carbon. l’iie for-
temperatures a little below 1414°F mation of ferrite from the solid solution
(768°C) iron is strongly magnetic, while at austenite is analogous to the precipitation
higher temperatures it is not. of cadmium from the liquid solution of
Because of these changes, it has been cadmium and bismuth (Fig. 8-6). The line
heid that at temperatures beiween GOS, Fig. 8-24, expresses the sokibility of
1414°F (768°C) and 1652°F (9OO”C), iron ferrite in austenite, and may be referred to
155
as the ferrite solubility curve. The straight
line GOS is often represented by a curved
or broken line.
cww. At the eu-
“F (1130°C) aus-
tenite will hold 1.7 percent carbon in solid
solution. When austenite of this composi-
tion is cooled, FesC (cementite) precipi-
tates from solution. The solubility of car-
bon in austenite at various temperatures
is shown by the line SE, Fig. 8-24, which
may be called the cementite solubility
curve, as cementite is the phase which is
separated as the temperature drops be-
low this line. The maximum solubility at Fig. 8-25. 0.85 percent carbon steel, a//
pearlite. Magnified 2800 times.
2066°F (1!30”C) is 1.7 percent ca:bon; at
1292°F (700°C) the maximum solubi!i?y
becomes 0.85 perceni carbon.
The ~~~~~Q~~. It is thus seen that, no
matter what carbon content is started COOKfIg of a slrucfural steel. If a struc-
with, austenite reaches a temperature of tural steel containing 99.75 percent iron
1292°F (700°C) on slow cooling with a and 0.25 percent carbon is cooled slowly
carbon content of 0.85 percent carbon. from above the liquidus A6 to normal
This situation will exist only so long as the temperature, it will solidify in the usual
metal remains at 1292OF (700°C). It can- manner of a solid solution of its compo-
not cool below this point without a com- nents, carbon and iron. But with a slow
plete separation of all the solid solution rate of cooling, this solid solution will not
austenite into crystals of ferrite and ce- remain in the state of chemical solution
mentite. below the GOS line, Fig. 8-24. When it
On coo!ing through this temperature, reaches the lowest temperature at which
austenite containing 0.85 percent carbon the solid solution austenite can retain all
deposits simultaneously a mixture of fer- the iron in solid solution, approximately
rite and cementite. This mixture is called 1550°F (840°C) any further cooling will
the eutectojd, from analogy to the eutec- result in the separation of beta iron crys-
tic. The eutectoid structure formed from a tals out of the austenitic crystals. The
saturated solid solution austenite at structure of the steel will then consist of
1292°F (7OO”i; is often referred to as beta iron crystals formed around the solid
Pecrlite, because its appearance when solution austenitic crystals.
viewed with the aid of a microscope is As cooling continues, more beta iron
simi!ar to that of mothei-of-pearl, see Fig. crystals are precipitated from ihe austen-
8-25. ite, there being a constantly increasing
Theory of Alloys
number of grains of beta iron among the austenite. This temperature corresponds
solid solution crystals. to the intersection of the SE line, Fig.
When the temperature drops to the MO 8-24, which is at approximately 1900°F
line, Fig. 8-24, all the beta iron crystals (about 1040°C). The precipitation of FesC
change to alpha iron crystals; no other cementite crystals continues during the
change takes place at MO. Any further cooling.
cooling results in more iron crystals sepa- When 1292°F (7OO’C). indicated by line
rating from the remaining austenite, the SK, Fig. 8-24, is reached, the steel is com-
iron cr-tstals now being the alpha iron posed of part solid solution austenite.
form. This separation continues until the containing 0.85 percent carbon, and part
line PS is reached, Fig. 8-24. At this tem- Fe,C (cementite). containing 6.67 percent
perature the steel consists of a mixture Of carbon. Finally, at SK, Fig. 8-24, the re-
solid solution (austenite) crystals con- maining austenite separates into crystals
taining 0.85 percent carbon and crystals of alpha iron and cementite, forming the
of alpha iron (ferrite). Practically all of structure pearlite. The ultimate structure
the carbon is now concentrated in the sol- consists of crystals ot free cementite (ap-
id solution; the alpha iron (ferrite) grains proximately 10 percent) forming a net-
wili be almost free from it. The steel can- work around thg crystals of eutectoid
not be cooled below this F’S line, 1292°F peariite, see Figs. 8-26 and 8-27. This
(7OO”C), without a complete separation of steel is classified as a hypereutectoid
all the solid solution into crystals of alpha steel.
iron (ferrite) aild FesC (cementite). There- Slow rPe&ing and slow cooling of
fore at a constant temperature of 1292°F steel. It should be understood that the de-
(7OO”C), two changes in the austenite take scription of changes taking place during
place simultaneously: first, the gamma
solid solution iron changes to alpha iron:
second, the carbon that was dissolved in
the solid solution ausrenite is separated
from it to form separate crystals of Fe,C
(cementite). Further cooling to room tem-
perature takes place without change of
structure.
~~o~~~~ cf 8 tool &eel. When a tool
steel containing 1.5 percent carbon is first
frozen, it is composed structurally of a sol-
id solution of gamma iron and carbon. As
it coots, however, the alloy soon reaches a
temperature where the gamma iron can-
not hold this amount of carbon in solid
Fig. 8-26. 1.43 percent carbon steel; the
solution. which results in a separation of dark is pearlitic and the light area is Free
Fe,C (cementite) from the solid solution cementite. Magnified 50 times.
tite is responsible for the hardness of
white or chilledcast iron.
The decomposition of the cementite in-
to graphite and iron is influenced not only
by the rate of cooling, but by the other e-
ements present in the iron. A high silicon
content tends to increase graphitization;
thus when thin sections of soft iron are de-
sired, a high silicon iron is used to insure
the decomposition of the graphite. Man-
ganese has the opposite effect; and irons
having a high manganese content may
Fig. 8-27. 7.43 percent carbon steel; have hard portions because the man-
same as Fig. 8-26. Magnified 500 times.
ganese prevents the formation of
c,raphite.
CrysfaNine grain. The grain size
changes that occur durir;g the heating and
the cooling of steel refers to cooling at a cooling of metals and alloys are very im-
rate slow enough to allow the changes to portant. The changes can be classified as
occur in a normal manner. Each change follows: crystallization, crystal growth, re-
requires some time, perhaps several min- crystallization.
utes, and normal change is not obtained Crystallization of the liquid into a solid
unless the p:oper rate of cooling is em- usually results in relatively large dendritic
ployed. It should also be understood that grains. The best way to break down these
changes occurring on slow cooling are re- large dendritic grains is by hot working.
versed on heating. Crystal growth takes place in most met-
~eco~~osffioo of cemenfife. if alloys als and alloys at relatively high tempera-
which contain more than 1.7 percent car- tures, but below the solidus. Crystal
bon are slowly cooled, the cementite de- growth results as an individual grain steals
composes into iron and graphite. The particles from grains surrounding it, thus
graphite, in the usual form of fine soft becoming larger in itself. Ultimately, the
flak,?% tei?ds to weaken and embrittle the number of grains is diminished, and the
alloy. Most iron castings are made in sand average grain size is increased. This grain
molds which allow the iron to cool com- growth is rapid and is accelerated as the
paratively slowly; this permits the forma- temperature is increased. The tendency of
tion of graphite. The graphite as it occuis the structure is to become single grained.
in slowly cooled or grey cast iron is shown The term single grain is used to describe
in Fig. 7-16. If the iron is cast into metal the structure of a piece of metal in which
molds, it cools so rapidly that the cemen- grain growth has advanced to such a de-
tile does not decompose and come out of gree that there is only one grain in the
solution in flakes of graphite. This cemen- cross-section of the piece.
Theory of Alloys
No grain growth wil! occur with the al- During the raising of the temperature
pha form of iron, unless it has been cold from PS to GO.?, Fig. 8-24, the free ferrite
worked and subjected to temperatures recrystallizes from alpha to gamma iron
around 1200°F (650°C). However, gamma and is absorbed by the austenite. The re-
iron grains grow rapidly, so that heating crystallized structure of gamma iron re-
above the GOSK line, Fig. 8-24, causes mains fine grained during this change be-
grain growth; and heating to near the soli- cause it is being disturbed and grain
dus line results in marked grain growth. growth is being prevented by diffusion
Recrystallization is the changing of crys- and recrystallization of the free ferrite. P.f!-
talline grains into other crystalline grains er the temperature has been raised to
withou! the aid of fusion. It can result from above the GOS line, all the iron has
two causes: first, allotropic transforma- changed from alpha to gamma and gone
tions, such as changing alpha iron grains into solid solution with the austenite; grain
to gamma iron grains; second, by me- growth then sets in and continues up to
chanical straining, such as working of the the ALREsolidus line, Fig. 8-24.
metal. When gamma iron (austenite) The changes taking place in grain size
changes to alpha iron (ferrite) and Fe,C during the heating cycle are illustrated in
(cementite), as on cooling from GOS to Fig. 8-28 which shows the relative grain
below PSK, Fig. e-24, complete recrystal- size changes which may be expected dur-
lization takes place. Grains which crystal- ing the slow heating of a 0.25 percent car-
lize milt (recrystallize) above PS are rela- bon steel to 1800°F (about 980°C) and
tively coarse; grains which crystallize out the slow cooiing back to normal tempera-
at PS 1292°F (700°C) are relatively fin3. If tures.
a piece of steel is heated through PS At 1800°F (about 980°C) ttje grain size
1292°F (7OO”C), to GOS, recrystallization of the austenite would be relatively
completely obliterates the original grain coarse. Upon slow cooling, no marked
structure, and new, small grains of gamma change takes place until the GOSline, Fig.
iron (austenite) are formed. 8-24, is reached, at 1475°F (about
Grain size changes on heating. At nor- 6OO’C). Here the austenite precipitates
mal temperature a 0.25 percent carbon fine ferrite crystals to the boundaries of
steel consists of pearlite and free ferrite the austenite crystals. During the slow
grains. No change of grain occurs during cooling from GOS to PS, this precipitation
the heating below the PS line, Fig. 8-24. continues with gradual growth in volume
On reaching the PS line, however, the and size of the newly formed ferrite grains.
grain structure of pearlite recrystallizes to The grain size of the austenite is decreas-
form a very fine-grained austenite, the al- ing, and the grain size of the ferrite is in-
pha iron changing to gamma iron. This creasing. Upon reaching the PS line,
change affects only the original pearlite, 129O’F (SSS’C), the remaining austenite
approximately 29 percent of the structure, recrystallizes to form pearlite. This pearl-
the 71 percent of iree ferrite remaining ite is a very fine mixture of crystals of fer-
unchanged. rite and cementite (Fe,C). From slightly
159
-1350’
Ar, I?90
ORP-l
i ON COOUNG
ep PEARLITE
0 ,g;, @ b”SltN,,E
Fig. S-28. Changes in grain structure do-ring heating and cooling of 0.25 percent carbon
steel.
below F’S no further changes take place; take place and a spheroidizing of the lay-
however, if very slow cooling is employed, ers of cementite in the pearlite may occur.
further growth of the flerrite grains may From this it may be seen that the size
and shape of the original austenitic grains The splitting up of the temperature lines
influence to a marked degree the resultant in Fig. 8-24 is due to a change in the tem-
grain size and distribution of free ferrite perature of transformation during cooling
and pearllte. A very fine grain size in the of iron-carbon alloys, as compared with
original austenite will result in a very fine the temperature of transformation upon
aggregation of free ferrite and pearlite. heating. That is, the transformation of an
If a 1.5 percent carbon steel containing 0.85 percent carbon steel from austenite
mixed grains of pearlite and free cemen- to pearlite during cooling occurs at
tite is heated, it is found that no change of 1292°F (700°C) (point S in Fig. S-24) but
grain structure occurs below the SK line, !he change from pearlite to austenite,
Fig. 8-24. At the SK line the pearlite upon heating, occurs at 1350°F (730°C).
changes to austenite (alpha iron to gam- This difference between the heating and
ma iron and dissolving of the FesC crys- cooling transformations, Fig. 8-29, is ap-
tats), resulting in a very fine-grained aus- proximately 50°F (iO”C), if very slow heat-
tenite. The excess cementite is unaffected ing and cooling are employed. In reading
at this temperature. this critical temperature diagram the AC
On further heating, up to the SE line, temperature lines are used if the iron-
Fig. 8-24, this excess cementite is dis- carbon alloys are being heated, and the Ar
solved by the fine-grained austenite. Dur- temperature lines are used if cooling is
ing this heating, marked grain growth of taking place.
the fine austenite is prevented by the ab- The method of designating the various
sorption and diffusion of the excess ce- points, which is borrowed from the
mentite. However, some grain growth French, needs a word of explanation. The
takes place, which resuhs in a coarser- halt or arrest in cooling or heating is des-
grained austenite, and when the SE line is ignated by the letter A standing for the
iaached and al! the excess cementite is French word arret. An arrest on cooling is
dissolved, marked growth sets in and con- referred to by the letters Ar, the rstanding
tinues up to the ALREline. for refroidissemenf-cooling. An arrest on
~~~M~ediagram. The dia- heating is designated by the letters AC,
gram shown in Fig. 8-29 is seen to be part the c standing for chauffage-heating. The
of the iron-carbon diagram and is often various arrests are distinguished from
referred to as the critical temperature dia- each other by numbers after the letters,
gram. It is through this temperature range being numbered in the order in which they
during heating and cooling that steels u,n- occur as the temperature increases.
dergo the marked structurai changes that Lag. The temperatures mentioned and
have been described. it is apparent from given in the diagram refer to conditions of
Fig. 8-29 that the line PS in Fig. 8-24 has equilibrium. Under practical conditions
formed two lines Acl and Arl. Also, what there is a delay or lag in the attainment of
is true of the PS line wilt be true of all oth- equilibrium, and the critical points are
er lines in this section of Fig. 8-24. found at lower temperatures on heating
than those given. That is, there is a differ-
161
Fig. 8-29. Simplified iron-carbon equilibrium diagram showing the critical temperature
and lag between the heating and the cooling temperature.
ence between the Ar points and the AC The equilibrium temperatures represent
points. This difference increases with the very siow cooling or heating.
rate of cooling or heating. For instance, Effect of impurities on etloys. Impuri-
the AC temperatures can be raised about ties other than carbon, when added to
300°F (about 15O’C) from their normal iron, will modify or change the tempera-
occurrence by fast heating, and the Ar ture of occurrence of critical points, or the
temperatures can be lowered about transformation from alpha to beta to gam-
1000°F (54O’Q in fact, can be forced be- ma iron. For instance, the addition of nick-
low room temperature by rapid quenching el will lower the AC critical tempera?ures
ef thin sections. about 30°F (-1°C) for each 1.OOpercent.
Theory of Alloy5
Critical range. The critical points, con- of a 0.45 percent carbon steel, on heating,
sidered collectively, are known as the criti- extends from the Acl, 1340°F (about
cal range. For instance, the critical range 73O”C), to 1410°F(765”C). See Fig. 8-29.
164
The properties of all steels may be 4. Annealing=Furnace or pack cooling
changed greatly by heating and cooling 5. Hardening=Quick cooling
under definite conditions. Heat treatment The object of heat treatment is to make
is a broad term that may have reference to the steel better suited, structurally and
any one of a number of heating and cool- physically, for some specific industrial ap-
ing operations thai will provide desired plication. Among the many purposes of
properties in a metal or alloy. It is neces- heat treatment is to soften the steel for
sary to specifically describe the type of easier machining operations, to improve
heat treatment such as normaiizing, an- the ductility and to increase the hardness
nealing, or hardening. and strength. Other heat treatments are
NOTES: used to relieve internal stresses in forg-
1. Heating should be slow and uniform ings and castings to eliminate the effects
2. For best results never heat higher of cold working of the metal and to give a
than necessary more uniform grain size. The first heat
3. Normalizing=Air cooling treatment to be considered is normalizing.
If a normalizing heat treatment is speci- critical range, Fig. 9.-t, followed by cooling
fied, it usually refers to a heat treatment in air. The maximum temperature, the
that involves heating steel to above its time at that temperature, and the cooling
165
Metallurgy
Fig. 9- 1. Iron-carbon equilibrium diagram showing the critical temperahire and the visual
normalizing, annealing, and hardening ranges.
conditions are very influential, and in any have a banded and laminated type of
application should be carefully worked structure, see Fig. 9-2. Fig. 9-3 illustrates
out. The normalizing heat treatment is ap- the improvement of structure obtained
plied to steels that are known to have from a normalizing heat treatment applied
poor structures, structures that are une- to a forging of low-alloy steel, carbon 0.30
ven in grain size and segregated. to 0.04 percent. Normalizing also is used
Normalizing is used for forgings that as a treatment to improve the uniformity
Heat Treatment of Steel
and refine the structure of castings as well er treatments, including annealing and
as forgings. It improves steel from the hardening. Also, some steels develop Sat-
viewooint of better results obtained in oth- isfactory physical properties from a single
normalizing heat treatment, so that they
are put into service without additional
heat treatments.
Steel forgings may vary in physical
characteristics even when made out of the
same lot of steel. This is due to the differ-
ent handling each may receive while being
forged and while cooling from the forging
heat. The temperature of the forging at
the finishing operation and the cooling
rate from the finishing temperature play
an important part and influence the struc-
ture of the finished forging. Any variations
in these factors account, in a large mea-
Fig. 9-2. Structure of hot-forging, show-
ing bad/y banded structure and mixed sure, for the variations found in forgings
grain size, magnified 75 times. Undesira- and constitute one of the main reasons for
ble structure. specifying a normalizing heat treatment.
Occasionally, in high-carbon steels, hot-
worked steel may be treated so as to de-
velop a structure as illustrated in Figs. 9-4
167
To break up this type of eggshell structure
of cementite and distribute the cementite
more uniformly throughout the entire
structure, we might specify a normalizing
heat treatment. Heating to within the nor-
malizing temperature range, Fig 9-1,
followed by air cooling would cure this
condition.
Occasionally very much higher tempera-
tures than those recommended in Fig. 9-l
are used in normalizing. This is true when
the structures are difficult to break up. Us-
ing higher temperatures increases the sol-
ubility and diffusion rate, thus aiding in the
operation.
Fig. 9-5. Same as Fig. 9-4, but magnified
500 times. Cooling in air means removing the steel
from the heating furnace and exposing it
to the cooling action of air in a room. The
best practice consists in suspending the
steel objects in air, or placing them on a
special cooling bed so that they become
and 9-5. This cementite surrounding surrounded by the cooling action of the
pearlite is a network structure which may air. Careless practice, such as dumping
be described as an eggsheli-like structure, the steel objects into a pile on the floor of
causing a very poor physical condition if the shop, may result in very poor treat-
subjected to a hardening heat treatment. ment and very non-uniform structure.
ANNEALING
The usual annealing heat treatment re- the structure to become completely
Wires heating steel to above the AC 7-2-3 refined.
critical temperatures, Fig. 9-l followed The rate of cooling from the annealing
by suitable cooling. The heating is carried temperature varies with the analyses of
out slowly and uniformly, usually in regular the different steels and with the properties
oven-type furnaces. The time at heat most desired in the annealed steel; how-
shou!d be long enough to insure heating ever, in general, the steel is cooled very
to the selected temperature and to allow slowly, e:ther with the furnace (furnace an-
(66
nealed), or cooled in a container sur-
rounded by heat-insulating material (box
or pot annealed).
The principal reason for specifying an-
nealing is to soften the metal so as to
make the steel easier to cold-form, ma-
chine, etc. Annealing may be carried Out
to develop mechanical properties that are
required and obtained only by this treat-
ment; for example, high ductility.
169
Metallurgy
170
Heat Treatment of Steel
results of any annealing operation follow- nealing operation. However, if the parts to
ing cold working. be stress-relieved do not need an anneal-
ing operation, they may be treated by
heating to a much lower temperature than
Stress-Relief Treatment the annea!ing range.
In fact, inter& stresses may be partly
Forgings, castings, and welded struc- removed at room temperature, but this
tures may retain a high residual internal may require montns; whereas heating to
stress or load due to uneven cooling and above room temperature but below the
shrinkage effects. These internal stresses critical temperature of steel or cast iron
may be the cause of serious warping and will remove the internal stresses in a few
even failure by rupture. Due to internal minutes. Frequently a temperature of
stresses, castings that have been accur- 1200°F (650°C) is recommended for the
ately machined and assembled into a stress relief of cast steel, cast iron, and
complicated machine tool may warp (af- welded structures. Cooling from the
ter going into service) and cause the fin- stress-relieving temperature should be
ished machine to become inaccurate or carried out so as to prevent any uneven
prevent its proper operation. These inter- cooling. This usually requires furnace
nal stresses may be removed in any an- cooling to at least 800°F (about 430°C).
171
This slowiy cooled steel has a relatively 1, the alpha iron in the steel changes to
soft and plastic condition. gamma iron. The newly formed gamma
If the soft steel is to be hardened, two iron dissolves the cementite and greatly
operations are performed: refines the grain structure of the steel.
1. The steel is heated to a temperature When the grain structure has been refined
in excess of the criticai temperature or the and the cementite dissolved to form the
AC f-2-3 line of Fig. 9-l. austenitic structure, !he first operation in
2. : he red-hot steel must be cooled rap- the hardening of steel has been accom-
idly (quenched) to bring the metal back to plished. It is with the austenitic type of
room temperature. structure that the second and equally im-
The object of the heating operation is to portant operation in the hardening of steel
charge the steel from the normal, soft can be carried out, the rapid cooling or
pear!i!ic structure to a solid structure of qllenching af the austenite.
austenite~. Many find it hard to imagine The object of the second operation in
a solid solution. This would occur, for the hardening of steel is to undercool or
example, if sea water, which is a salt solu- prevent any change in the austenite other
tion, were subjected to a very low temper- than that of cooling until a temperature of
ature and frozen. The conversion of the approximately 200°F (93°C) is reached. If
pearlitic structure to an auslanitic struc- the austenite is successfully undercooled
ture is accomplished by resting any car- to 200°F (93°C) it will rapidly change to a
bon steel to within the temperature range hard and relatively brittle structure known
suggested for the hardening of steel as as martensite, the structure of fully hard-
shown in Fig. 9-l. ened steel. It is born from austenite at ap-
Steels with less than 1.0 percent car- proximately 200°F (93°C) by the rapid
bon, when heated into this range will be- change of gamma iron of austenite to the
come tO0 percent austenitic; whereas alpha iron found in pearlite. However, this
steels with greater than 1.0 percent car- is the only resemblence of martensite to
bon will contain an excess of free cement- pearlite, as martensite is hard and pearlite
ite (iron carbide, FesC) in the austenite. is soft. Pearlite contains cementite in rath-
The amount of free cementite in the higher er coarse particles whereas martensite
carbon steels will depend upon the totai apparently retains the carbon or cement-
amount of carbon contsined in the steel ite in a dissolved or nearly dissolved state.
and on the maximum temperatures to At least the microscope does not reveal
which the steel is heated. the form of carbon in martensite.
It will be recalled that the AcCm line in The second operation in the hardening
Fig. 9-l indicates the solubility of carbon of steel, that of quenching or rapid cooling
in austenite and can be used to determine of red hot steel transforms a relatively
the amount of free cementite present in soft, plastic steel to a hard brittle steel.
th,? stee! a? any selec!ed temperature. The techniques of quenching and the var-
When any carbon steel is heated through ious quenching media, as well as close
the temperature zone, AC 7-Z-3 of Fig, 9- control of maximum heating tempera-
172
Heat Tr~?a~m~rl~ of Steel
tures, and the time a part is held at those state of steel is one of the most famous
temperatures, are most important and and common structures found in steels.
must be understood and carefully ob-
served for optimum hardening.
Why Qwnching is
173
Metallurgy
1.c
Fig. 9-8. Chart showing schema:icai/y the time and temperature curve of initial fransfor-
matiOn of a erltectoid steel as ccoied at various uniform rates. Logarithmic abscissa.
(Transactions of the American .Soc;ety is: Steel Treating, Vol. 20, American Society for
Metals).
1000°F (583°C) and thereby prevent for- mately a one-second cooling time. Faster
mation of the softer pearl&e is approxi- cocling will enhance the opportunity to
West Treetment of Steel
175
Metallurgy
I I I I
‘4ooT’ 1 .! I /// I
.-A- -&----!----1- --- ---_
/ I
laoa
t-
ii
,/%
Fig. g- 10. Schematic diagram illustrating the M-point for an 0.80 percent carbon steel.
(TOO/steels bY ROSe, Roberts, Johnston, and George. American Society for Metals)
Cold treatments are now being used for ball bearings, and other products having
increasing the strength and hardnsss lev- high surface-carbon content and which
els of carburized and hardened gear teeth, are subjected to high working stresses.
176
Heat Treatment of Steel
177
allows the hot steel to come in direct con- ing rate. However during this stage of
tact with the cooling liquid. During this cooling, a fast rate of quenching is not as
stage, as the cocling liquid wets the hot necessary as during the earlier stages.
metal surfaces. violent boiling occurs. This Fast quenching is particularly necessary
greatly activates the cooling liquid and during the second stage when the steel is
creates the fastest stage of cooling. This passing the temperature range where the
action was referred by the old-time smith transformation of austenite is at a maxi-
as when “The water bites the steel.” See mum. See Fig. 9-13.
Fig. 9-12. The vapor film formed during the first
The third stage of cooling occurs when stage of quenching may prevent the suc-
the hot metal cools down to approach the cessful hardening of steel. Soft steel, soft
boiling ooint of the liquid quenching medi- spots, warping and cracking may be the
um Cooling continues by the thermal result of the vapor state. A great majority
process of !iquid conduction and convec,. of the common hardening difficulties oc-
tion. The results in a relativelv siow cool.. cur during this stage. Vigorous agitiation
vapor transport staae. Violent action of Fia. 9- 73. Liouid cooling stage. Vapor no
bibbles tears scat; from work. (Meta/ longer forms, 2md coolino is bbg conduc-
Progress) tion and convection. (Met& Proiress)
Heat Treatment of Steel
of the steel by the smith holding the steel (caustic soda) quenching bath is also rec-
in his tongs and thrusting it through and ommended as a good quenching medium
around in the water was a common sight for carbon steels. This bath cools even
in the old blacksmith shop. What he was faster than the sodium chloride bath.
doing was breaking down the vapor film. Oil is frequently used as a quenching
Water is the most commonly used medium and may be used when the oper-
quenching medium and is used in the ation involves the hardening of carbon
hardening of many of the common carbon steels Of such a thin section that quench-
and low-alloy steels. Steels that have a ing in oil results in the formation of mar-
very rapid transformation rate require wa- tensite. Thin sections such as knives, ra-
ter or some aqueous solution as a zor blades and wire may be successfully
quenching medium. In order that the hardened in an oil-quenching medium.
quenching rate may be great enough to Oil is recommended as a quenching me-
consistently harden carbon steel, water dium in preference to water whenever it
should be kept at room temperature or cap be used because there is less danger
below and be continuously agitated during of cracking, with less distortion of internal
the quenching operation. quenching stress. The action of oil is quite
As the heat from the steel is absorbed different from that of water as it has a
by the water, the water must be cooled more rapid quenching rate during the first
during continuous quenching operations. or vapor stage but a much slower rate
In small shops, ice is added to the quench during tF,c: second stage when the oil is
tanks to cool the water. In larger installa- wetting the hot metal surfaces. Oil can be
tions, artificial cooling by cold water or re- used only with light sections of shallow
frigerantthat is ~ir~~!a!ed throug!: &Is ic hgde+nn J ataalc
- . - - - 2nd for bea\yy spct~ons
the quench tank must be employed. Agita- when a hardening operation is applied to
tion to break down the phase one vapor steels that have a slow transformation
film can be accomplished by using under- rate from austenite and are deep harden-
water jets that spray streams of cooled ing as is true of many alloy steels.
water onto the steel. This action is neces- Oil cools steel much more slowly during
sary to permit more uniform and faster the last cooling state. This is desirable be-
cooling action. cause it results in much less danger of
A brine solution is of%n employed to a severe internal stresses, warping and
better quench to carbon steels. A 5 per- cracking. Also, as this last stage is usually
cent sodium-chloride solution is cc:,lmon- below the M-point for most steels, no un-
ly used. The salt acts to lower the freezing desirable results occur. Oils differ in
temperature and give the solution a great- quenching characteristics and should be
er capacity to absorb heat. As a result, the carefully selected. Such properties as
brine gives a faster and more uniform flash point, boiling point, density and spe-
quenching action and is less affected by cific heat should be considered.
an increase in the quenching bath temper- Control of the temperature of the oil
ature. A 3 to 5 percent sodium hydroxide quenching bath is very important as is the
Meta!lurgy
volumetric capacity of the bath in relation tween 80” and 150°F (27” and 66°C).
to the tonnage of hot steel that will pass Keeping the oil between 120” and 130°F
through the bath. In general it requires ap- (49” and 54°C) is advantageous. It will
proximately one gallon of oil for every give a good quenching rate and reduce
pound of steel quenched per hour. If 100 the danger of cracking and warping of the
pounds of steel are to be hardened every steel by lowering the residual quenching
hour, a tank of 100 gallons capacity is re- stresses.
quired. Air cooling is employed with some high-
Some method must be used to maintain alloy steels of the air-hardening type.
the temperature of the oil in the tank be- Steels to be hardened are removed from
fig. 9-14. Effect of carbon content upon hardness of carbon steel in martensitic and
peartitic conditions.
f-feat Treatment of Steel
the heating furnace and exposed to still making it martensitic rarely exceeds h
air. The rate of cooling in air may be modi- Rockweil hardness of C-67 or Brine11 hard-
fied by the use of an air blast. ness of 745, regardless of the maximum
Hot-quenching treatments are used in carbon content or the addition of alloys.
an attempt to combine the principles of (A nitrided case may exceed C-74. See
hardening and tempering in the same op- page 216.)
eration. This method consisis of quench- Increasing the carbon content beyond
ing the hot steel in a molten salt bath held the eutectoid point, 0.65 percent increas-
at a constant temperature (isothermal) es the hardness of the steel in both the
usually between 350” and 600°F (177” pearlitic and martensitic condition. In ad-
and 427”Cj. The steel is quenched in the dition, the high-carbon content increases
hot bath and held long enough to equalize the rate of iransformation of austenite to
a? the temperature of the bath, or long pearlite and makes it more difficult to suc-
enough to transform from austenite into cessfully harden this steel to a full marten-
martensite isothermally, or to some softer sitic condition. Although the curve for fully
type of structure. hardened steel in Fig. 9-14 shows that it is
possible to obtain an appreciable increase
in hardness in low-carbon steels by heat-
Effect of Carbon
ing and quenching, it becomes increasing-
ly difficult to trap 100 percent alpha mar-
The hardening capacity of steel clearly tensite in lower carbon steels. Steels with
increases with the increase of carbon up less than 0.30 percent carbon are seldom
to about 0.60 percent carbon. Carbon hardened because of this difficulty.
plays two roles in the hardening of steel: The curve in Fig. 9-14 shows a pOSSible
i. Up to about 0.60 percent carbon it hardness of Rockwell C-55 with a 0.30
is easier to undercool austenite therefore percent carbon steel. This hardness can-
making it easier to harden steel. Appar- not be obtained unless the section is very
ently, in this case carbon acts as a retar- thin and is dras!ically quenched in a water
dant, slowing up the rate of trans- spray of severely agitated brine or caustic
formation. solution. With a carbon content of 0.20
2. The carbon present in the fresh percent, it is not practical to expect maxi-
formed martensite increases the hard- mum hardness of Rockwell C-45 from an
ness. Carbon, either dissolved or partly ordinary quench-hardening operation.
precipitated in the form of ctmentite, is When the carbon content of steel exceeds
probably the greatest single factor in 0.30 percent carbon it becomes easier to
causing the martensite to be hard. harden the steel to a fully martensitic con-
Fig. 9-14 illustrates the effect of carbon dition and obtain the maximum hardness
upon the hardness of carbon steels in indicated in Fig. 9-E. In the hardened COn-
both the hardened and normal pearlite dition, 1.00 percent. carbon steel consists
condition. An interesting fact is that the of martensite with some free cementite
maximum hardness obtairzed in steel by particles as shown in Fig. 9-15. The great-
elallurgy
hardening results of carbon steels. Steels size refers to the grain size that a given
with the same chemical composition, giv- steel develops when heated to the proper
en identical heat treatments, yield varia- hardening temperature. The steelmaker,
tions during hardening; some steels hard- during the steelmaking operations, can
en satisfactorily, others harden with a very control the inherent grain size of a steel
deep penetration of hardness, and siiii and theiefore can control, within Certain
other steel objects harden to a shallow limits, the grain size the steel will develop
depth, and in some cases with soft spots. upon heating to above the critical temper-
This condition is the reason that the dif- ature, as in hardening of the steel.
ferent steel heats are kept separate. (As It has been determined that fine-
each heat of steel is kept separate, it soon grained steels have a fast rate of transfor-
became evident that individual heats vary mation from the austenitic condition and
in such important properties as hardening are therefore shallow hardening; whereas
ability and distortion during hardening.) It the coarse-grained steels are deep hard-
has been determined that one of the most ening and more easily hardened, with a
important factors con:ributing to this con- slower rate of transformation. The stand-
dition is the inherent grain size with which ard grain-size chart as determined by the
a steel is first made. The inherent grain American Society for Testing Materiais is
fig. 9-16. No. 1 coarse to No. 8 fine grained steels, ,show effects of penetration of hard-
ness. Hardened steels have been sectioned and etched to bring out depth of hardening.
White is hard; dark core is soft. (Transactions of the American Society for Steel Treating,
l/c/. 20, American Society for Metals)
183
Metallurgy
shown on the page facing this chapter. tion or even breakage of the piece, Warp-
With this added control of grain size, car- ing or cracking is caused by severe stress-
bon steels are treated with much greater es or toad, set up by uneven contraction
uniformity and receive much favor, as they and expansion that takes place during the
are inherently better suited for many ap- hardening operation. Some of the sec-
plications than special or alloy steels. Fig. tions of the steel object being hardened
9-16 illustrates the effect of inherent grain may be expanding while other parts of the
size upon the depth of hardness of one same steel may be contracting. At least
inch rounds of 1.0 percent carbon tool the contraction that takes place during the
steels. severe cooling as in quenching will never
Effecf of varying hardening fempera- be an even contraction; therefore, some
fure. The penetra!ion of hardness in any distortion always occurs.
standard carbon tool steel may be affect- Distortion or warping will always take
ed to a large degree by control of the Place, and if the stresses become severe
maximum temperature selected by the enough and the steel is made martensitic
hardener. It will be recalled that the grain and brittle, danger of breakage by crack-
size of austenite is a minimum at a tem- ing is always present. The distortion that
perature close to the AC I-2-3 line of Fig. takes place as a result of the hardening
9-l. Heating just over the AC I-2-3 tem- operation leads to the costly operations
perature results in a shallow hardening. involved in straightening and grinding the
Heating beyond the critical temperature hardened steel in an attempt to remove
and developing a coarser-grained austen- the distortions and make the steel parts
ite will produce a deeper hardening effect. true to shape. A study of the part to be
Larger pieces to be hardened, forging hardened may often save a great deal of
dies, etc., which require a deep penetra- future trouble and cast.
tion of martensite are usually heated to a The heat treater may exhibit real skill
much higher temperature in the hardening and craftsmanship in the manner he se-
operation to insure uniform surface hard- lects to treat a given steel object to be
ness and rather deep penetration of hard- hardened. Some of the many factors influ-
ness. Small dies and thin sections may encing warping and cracking may include:
be hardened from a temperature close to (1) unbalanced and abrupt changes in
the critical temperature with satisfactory section; (2) sharp corners and deep tool
results. marks, which act as crack formers; (3) in-
Warping and cracking. Warping and tricate shapes, with many cut out sections;
particularly cracking are serious menaces (4) defects in the steel, such as seams,
in nearly every hardening operation. In dirty steel, segregation, and coarse
fact, one of the most severe tests a piece grains, which may weaken the steel and
of steel receives is that of quenching in cause trouble. Fig. 9-17 illustrates a slag
water or brine from the hardening temper- stringer in steel that caused failure in the
ature. The quenching operation may ruin hardening operation. Fig. 9-16 illustrates a
the steel object by causing severe distor- common type of failure in shallow harden-
fig. 9- 17. Slag srringer in steel is source
of trouble in hardening operation.
ing carbon tool steel. that of spalling fail- leaving this decarburized surface soft aft-
ure. Corners or surfaces of the steel Wall er the hardening operation. Fig. 9-20 illus-
from the body of the object. Fig. 9-19 illus- trates a badly decarburized carbon tool
trates the bursting or splitting type of fail- steel.
ure occurring in deep hardening type of Decarburization may be prevented by
steels, steels that harden nearly all the proper control of the atmosphere sur-
way through the object. Fortunately, these rounding the steel during the heating op-
failures may be avoided in the majority of eration. The proper use of lead or salt
the hardening operations. baths, or the control of the gaseous at-
Scff skin or surface. Soft skin or sur- mosphere in an oven type of hardening
face on hardened steel is the result Of furnace, may prevent any decarburization
burning off the surface carbon or decar- from taking place. However, all steels as
burization of the steel. Decarburization of received from the steel mill retain a decar-
steel causes a low-carbon or nsarly pure burized skin which will cause trouble un-
iron layer to form on the surface of steel, less it is removed prior to the hardening
F/g. Y-21. Soft spots in hardened steel.
Soft spots, black in light martensite, mag-
nified 500 times.
at 1000°F (538°C) in the quenching oper-
ation. Allowing the quenching medium to
get too hot or dirty, poor agitation of the
Fig. 9-20. Decarbwized tool steel, magni- quenching medium, scale or dirt on the
fjed 200 times. Surface of steel is white
against black; The decarburized zone ;s steel surface, interference to the quench-
the middle-section; and the high-carbon ing action by the tongs or holders used in
zone is at bottom, dark. handling the steel, or anythi,ng else that
will retard the quenching action may con-
tribute to soft spots. Deep recesses in the
operation. All steel should be bought steel surfaces where pockets of vapor
oversize so that it may be ground or ma- may collect will prevent proper quenching
chined, removing the decarburized sur- action and cause soft areas. To avoid soft
face, before the hardening operation. spots, a spray quenching practice, which
Soft sjx&.. Soft spots or soft areas may allows the cooling medium to flow rapidly
occur on the surface of hardened tools past the parts to be hardened may be
and dies. These soft spots are caused by necessary. Fig. 9-21 illustrates soft areas
the transformation of austenite to pearlite in martensite.
EFFECT OF ALLOVS
In general, alloy steels, steels containing steels are less sensitive, and allow more
special alfoying eiements, are easier to latitude in the selection of a hardening
harden than plain carbon steels. Alloy temperature and in the manner of quench-
noat Treatment of Steel
ing. This makes it easier for the heat tfeat- those containing cobalt require higher
er to carry out the hardening operations hardening temperatures than the molyb-
and obtain the desired results. In general, denum and molybdenum-tungsten steels.
alloy steels may be quenched in oil to pro- Salt bath furnaces are usually complete
duce the hardened state. Oil, being a in themselves, consisting of a preheat, a
s!oh,er coo!ing medium than water or high heat, and a quench bath. The preheat
brine, causes less distortion and reduces salt operates at about 1500°F (815°C)
danger of cracking. and the steel is placed in this bath for a
period of time that allows it to reach the
heat of the bath. From the preheat salt,
the work is placed in the high-heat bath
and held in this bath for a predetermined
Heat Tieating of ~i~~-§$~e~ Steefa length of time.
The time in the high heat is determined
Heating for hardening may be carried by the usual trial and error method, al-
out in controlled-atmosphere furnaces or though with the use of hardness tests and
in salt baths, or the tools, before heating, microscopic examination of the treated
may be dipped in a saturated solution of steel, the correct time can be determined
borax and water that is heated to between accmately. The time and temperature of
150” and 180°F (66 to 82°C). Tools dip- the high heat are governed by the amount
ped in this warm solution will dry when re- of carbide solution and the grain size oe-
moved and will be covered with a thin vetoped. Fig. 5-22 illustrates the type of
powdery film of borax that will not rub off microstructure obtained from heating a
if the tools are handled with moderate piece of 6-6-2 type (molybdenum-
care. If too much borax is used, blisters tungsten) high-speed steel to 2250°F
may form on the surface of the hardened (1230°C) for 5 minutes and quenching in
tools. After hardening, the tools will be hot salt.
found coated with a thin layer of borax, The hot salt quenching bath acts as a
which can be removed with a wire brush, quenching medium, undercooling the aus-
or a 10 percent solution of acetic acid. tenitic structure formed at the high heat
Salt baths offer one of the best methods and also helping in the removal of the salt
available for the heat treating of high- that adheres to the work from the high-
speed steels; particularly when the maxi- heat bath.
mum temperature for hardening does not Under ideal operating conditions, ,the
exceed 2300°F ( 1260°C). Some composi- salt-bath method of heat treating for a
tions of high-speed steel required a hard- high-speed steel furnishes full proteciion
ening temperature in excess of 2300°F against any surface skin such as decar-
(126OOC). and therefore it may be found burization or carburization. Fig. 9-23 illus-
inadvisable to use a salt bath. Some other trates a slight skin of about 0.0903” that
heating medium may prove more satisfac- was formed in a salt-bath treatment for
tory. The straight ttrngsten types and hardening of high-speed steel. This slight
SC,~Mis neglegrbie insofar as it influences
Pht, risebul pmperties of the Steel :9r :ookG.
FreqwntLy. ~~~~~,.,s~e@steel is heated
for Pardening in a standard !ypc rf wen
turnkce with protection offered bt 3 wit-
abit gaseous atmosphere. ‘Irw 9riws-
cre co~~5~~y used is rich ‘: c ir:im
owo’...de, running about
only a trace of co,.
co~t~5~~ed atmosphere, high-spek2 steels
f any cQ~~5s~tio~ can be sw::essfuOy
ardened without any ~etri~ent~~ ~:fiects
urizing action. Hardeni~vj
of the tungste type (10-4-l) or cobalt
steels can be carried cb: suc-
in gas or electric-fired furnaces
ith a suitable gaseous atmosphere.
urizatior-8 of the surfaces \3f high-
steek, particular!; of the tungsten
en a rich CO atmos-
rotaction. Car~u~ize~
surfaces wilS cause the ~~ste~~tic structure
Thi+ preheati,ng should be carried Out ona mare, or nearly so. For light sections. this
:b‘lrnar,e separate tFom the one used for may take only ti few minu:es. whereas for
the hardening heat. She Fmoiybdenram a SecFion of a FO2 in@hes. il v ..y requwe a
high-speed S&,eetScan be pPeheated Frua heatireg time al 20 minute:~ Carefui ob-
lower temperatuse~khan the tumgstefl high- se~~atiom a3f the steel dwimg the healing
speed $Peeis. This appsaremtly helps to cycle will alkwd the hardener to jud
avoid decarhuFiraeion. Srnail to5is of light time needed for heating.
section, andcr i i- (6.35 mm) cam be hard- Anyone who has hardeiled the 18-4-I
emedWkthoLta pn&eahq type of tungsten highFeed steel can
harden ~olybdem~~ high-speed steel.
The hardening is carried out in a similar
of high-s,peed sleet., srrch as the 70-4-1. way, preheating at 1200°F to 1500°F
can be hardened by heating to a tempera- (650” to 015’6) and transferring the steel
ttiae range from-l 2500- to 2375°F !1260” to the ~~~~-te~~e~ature furnace for hard-
:a ?XX“C). faiiowed by quenching in an ening. ~~eflc~i~~ and drawing are carried
oii bath The (ime wquEred to heat will de- out as with the 18-4-t type. The steel
pef-td upon the size of the section and should never be soake excessively at the
Lipon 8-E type of heating mediu hardening temperature but should be re-
ing shnuid be such as tc ailow the steel t5
om up to the tempefaf~we of the fur-
Metallurgy
190
temper or draw the steel after har
‘The crbjectiwe of the drawing treat
%ar@y to tra~st~~~ the re~lsi~~~~ austen-
artensile. Tllis is accomplished by
re~eaF~n~ the harciened steel between
1QQO” a 1100°F (about 540” to 595°C).
usually 0°F (555”C), followed by slog
cooling to room temperature. By this
ent, the re,tained austenite of the
~~e~~b-hardened steel is transformed to
martensite, and the internal stresses in
the hardened steel are removed. The new-
ly developed martensite of the tempered
or drawn See! should now be drawn to re-
lieve any stresses set up by its growth.
This is accomplished by repeating the
drawing operation, i.e., heating to 1050°F
Fig. 9-26. ~~~~~~e~ high-speed steel of (565”C), followed by slow cooling to room
mo~ybden~m”~~n~s~e~ type 6-6-2. magni- temperature. The steel is now in the best
fied 500 times. ate @hf carbides. condition for use. The microscopic ap-
pearance of high-speed steel after a dou-
ble draw following hardening is shown in
the austenite transforms lci martensite. Fig. 9-27. The structure consists of white
but not ~~~~tetely~ se, that the hardened
~~gb-s~ee~ steel always retains at room
F~~~~~~~~~~ some au$tenit@ from the
quench. in fact. as much as 30 percent
austenite may be retained in the
quenched b~~b-s~eed steel.
icroscopic exa~~~at~o~ of the quench-
hardened steel shows a structure that ap-
pears to be austenitic with undissolved
carbides @es Fig. 9-22). ‘he original aus-
tenitic grain outlines can be plainly seen.
The size 0% the austenitk grain is one of
the factars FhaF influence the properties of
tool or die ad is a criterion of
194
ened carbon or low-alloy steels may be the tempering range. Fig. 9-30 illustrates
transformed to martensite or a tempered the change that might be expected when a
form of martensite upon reheating to hardened 1.10 percent carbon steel is
500°F (260°C). The changing of austenite tempered. it is certain that tempering of
to martensite upon tempering is accom- hardened plain carbon too! steel, at tem-
panied by an expansion which may be peratures above 390°F (abcut 2OO”C), re-
very marked. Such a change resu!?s in ad- duces i?s cutting hardness and its hard-
ded internal stresses and should be taken ness as measured by the Rockwell and
into consideration by increasing the tem- Brine11 hardness testing methods.
pering time so as to at least partially re- Tempering of carbon tool steel at tem-
move them. Transforming the retained au- peratures near room temperature has
stenite to martensite by reheatinq to been reported as increasing the hardness
500°F (260°C) will effect a change in the of some quenched, hardened steels. It has
original martensite resulting in a loss of been noted that quenched, hardened
maximum hardness. steels increase in hardness with time when
It has been discovered that any austen- aged or tempered at room temperature.
ite retained at room temperature may be This increase in hardness may be due to
transformed to martensite by cold treat- some retained austenite in the quenched
ing, i.e., cooling the hardened steel to steel slowly changing to martensite at
subnormal temperatures j(79” to -1lO’F) room temperature.
(21 to -79”C)]. Coid treating to transform It should be understood ciearly that the
the austenite will not result in any loss of purpose of tempering is not to lessen the
hardness of the original martensite, as hardness of quenched steel. but to in-
that which occurs during tempering, and crease the toughness so as to avoid
will result in maximum hardness being ob- breakage and failure of the heat-treated
tained. The cold treating of hardened steel steel. Fully hardened steel with a carbon
may be followed by the usual tempering content greater than 0.60 percent carbon
treatment and is sometimes used after a is brittle and therefore dangerous as a
tempering treatment. There is some dan- ,tool or structural part of a machine. Any
ger of cracking due to residual stress and slight overload or sudden shock load may
added stresses during a cold treating op- cause failure.
eration: however, this may be avoided by The heat treater by means of tempering
first tempering the hardened steel and may reduce the brittleness and increase
then subjecting it to the cold treatment, the plasticity of martensite, thereby im-
followed by another tempering treatment. parting a greater degree of toughness to
the steel. Measuring hardened steel for
a toughness and resistance to failure has
the influence of tempering upon the hard- been difficult, particularly in fully marten-
ness and toughness of hardened steels. It sitic steels.
is assumed that softening of the marten- Tests have been made by impact tesr-
site is progressive throughout the who!e of ing and torsional impact testing methods
:c//!.+~YYke+.~, / ,
l.‘lOA&N 1
I I I I i i I I
Fig. 930. Influence of tempering heat on fully hardened 1.10 percent carbon steel as
represented by RockweN hardness, torsional impact, and unnotched Charpy impact test-
ing. (After Palmerj
and some very interesting results have not progressive over the entire tempering
been obtained. Fig. 9-30 illustrates the ef- range. In fact, tempering to within a tem-
fect of tempering on a fully hardened car- perature range of 500 to 600°F (260 to
bon tool steel as measured by the Charpy 315°C) may show a loss of toughness. Be-
impact testing methods, and the torsional cause of this effect, the region of 500 to
impact method. If we assume that these 600” F (260 to 315%) has been referred to
methods of testing are measures of as the brittle tempering range. Also some
toughness, then it becomes apparent that steels, particularly in the chromium-nickel
the gain of toughness upon tempering is steels of relatively high carbon-content,
196
develop a seemingly brittle condition if steel. Aging of freshly formed martensite
tempered around 1150°F (620°C). The at room temperature, results in a contrac-
cause of this condition has not been clear- tion in volume, and upon tempering, the
ly explained. Such steels may be cured of cortraction continues. This volume
this brittle condition by quenching from change, and other changes taking place
the tempering temperature when the steel during tempering, are accompanied by an
wili have its expected toughness. evolution of heat. This change in volume
adds to the problem in controlling the size
and shape of steel during heat-treating
tempering temperature the better the re- operations. ‘Tempering usually will bring
sults from tempering. Longc: time seems the steel back to more nearly the original
to release, to a greater extent, the locked- volume; in some steels, the tempering
up stresses of the quenched steel, and to temperature selected for the steel is
increcse the plasticity and toughness somewhat determined by the amo’Jnt of
without marked decrease in the hardness. contraction that takes place, or at what
Apparently, increasing the temperature temperature it returns to more nearly its
during tempering increases the rate of any original volume.
transformation. such as precipitation and ering metho . Tempering of
growth of the cementite, but changes in steel may be accomplished in liquid baths
the structure seemingly continue with time such as oil, salt or lead. These baths are
and allow a more con,plete change to take heated to the correct temperature, and
place. it is recomme:?ded that at least one the steel is immersed in the bath for the
hour be allowed at any temperature for determined length of time, after which the
satisfactory results. Some tempering op- steel is removed and allowed to cool to
erations require room temperature. Tempering is very suc-
cessfully carried out in air tempering fur-
austenite changes to martensite during naces. In these furnaces, air is heated by
the hardening operation, a marked expan- gas or electric means, and the hot air is
sion takes place. Martensite has the circulated around parts to be tempered.
greatest volume of all the structures in These furnaces are fully automatic.
Heating steel for the purpose of anneal- pends largely upon the type of heat-
ing, hardening, tempering, etc., may be treating operation and upon the size and
carried out in a number of different types tonnage of the steel involved. Large-scale
of furnaces. The choice of any furnace de- heat-treating operations are carried out in
batch type or continuous type furnaces muffle type is so designed that the gases
which are equipped with a means of auto- of combustion are deflected and do not
matic temperature control and mechani- impinge directly upon the steel being
cal devices for the handling of the steel in heated, although they circulate around it.
and out of the furnace and into the This affords better control of the heat,
quenching baths. A great many of the fur- which results in a more uniform product.
naces are designed and constructed to See Fig. 9-31.
carry out some specific heat-treating op- In order to protect steel from oxidation
eration; accordingly, a great diversity of during any heat-treating o,peration, flir-
types and designs of furnaces are in use. naces of the full-muffle type are commonly
Furnaces are of the oil-fired, gas-fired, used. These full-muf’le furnaces are so
or electric type. Oil-fired or gas-fired fur- constructed that they provide a chamber,
naces may be designed as direct-fired, known as the muff/e, separate from the
semi-muffle, or rnuf;:-~ The direct-fired combustion chamber, into which the steel
furnaces allow the steel to come into di- to be heated is placed. The gases of ccm-
rect contact with the hot gases of com- bustion circulate around the chamber or
bustion and are mainly used for heating muffle and cannot come in contact with
steel for fcoi-q operations. The semi- the steel being heated. See Fig. 9-32.
in .ht electric-type furnace, the resis- ing gas may be supplied to the interior of
tors are usually placed around the outside the muffle so as to greatly increase the de-
of the muffle. The muffle is made of a spe- gree of protection afforded the steel dur-
cial heat-resisting alloy or special refrac- ing the heat-treating cycle. The full-muffle
tory material. The hot gases of combus- type furnace is commonly employed with
tion, or in the case of an electric furnace, the so-called atmosphere-type furnace
electric resistors. heat the muffle and the and is used when maximum protection
steel within the muffle. A neutral or reduc- from oxidation is required. See Fig. 9-33.
Metallurgy
Furnace Atmospheres
200
T48LE 9-1. PREPARED GAS ATMOSPHERES USED IN
HEAT TREATING 2PERATION.S.
TYPICAL APPLICATION
co2 cl-6
l- GAS CONSTITUENTS-PERCENT BY VOLUME
H,O N,
F
:I’-:. 1 Case carburizing low or
medium-carbon steels _--- 20.7
,.5 i “,z 0.8
-t-
39.8
KJ 2 Bright annealing copper 10.5 ---- -&3- I 8f 0
NV~j 3 Process annealing copper,
IL
low-carbon and stainless
steels 0.05 0 ____ - - - - Remainder
P.9. 4 P/M sintering-bright
an:!oa:ing (cracked anhydrous
--- ar,i,,nonia) __--
I
____ ---- 1 25.0
Another :‘..:~Y: of
heating equipment
commonly en;:oyed in heat treating oper-
ations is th* pot type furnace used for
r;qlrrS heating baths such as showrr in Fig.
9-a
Both molten lead and rnc. Y-Isalt baths
are used for the heating of steel in opera-
tions involving hardening, annealing, tem-
pering, etc. Molten lead is a fast-heating
medium and gives complete protection to
Fig. g-35. Pot type electric furiiace used
the .:xrfaces of the steel. With a melting for liquid heating, cyaniding, and martem-
point of 621°F (327°C) lead may be used pering (Pacific Scientific Co.)
201
MeWfurgy
eras to the atomic struc- 46. What three energy sources are
wtvm it is tem- used to heat furnaces?
47. What is the ideal furnace atmos-
rpose of tempering? phere?
e ~~~~~~rn time to be 48. What is dross and why is it trouble-
used at ariy tern ing temperature for some?
49. What simple operation will protect a
atef%ct does tempering of steel part from dross?
50. Why must cyanide salts be used
45.Whatliquidbathsmay be used in with extreme caution?
~~~~~Fi~~?
Many metal objects made from either increase surface hardness, or to obtain a
ferrous or nonferrous metals may be sub- combination of hardness and toughness
jetted to s0me form of surface treatment in the same object that would be difficult
that affects only a thin Layer of the Outer or impossible by any other method. Sur-
surfaces. Such treatment may be carried face treatments include hardening treat-
out for the purpose of developing greater ments. metallic, organic, oxide and ce-
resistance to corrosion, for greater sales ramic coatings, and mechanical finishing.
appeal from an appearance viewpoint, to
205
quenching. The balance of the inter!: of either of three methods.: (1) pack carburiz-
the steel is unaffected by the surface :< ing, (2) gas carburizing or (3) liquid carbur-
bon absorbtion and remains low in ca izing. The pack carburizing process in-
bon. This area is the core, which does not valves packing the low-carbon workpiece
harden and remains strong and tough. into a heat resisting meta! box, usually
Carburizing may be achieved through cast iron, and completely surrounding the
Fig. 10-I. Machine steel, 0.10 to 0.20 percent carbon, carburized. The unsatisfactory
case produced of network or eggshell cementite is in hypereutectoid layer. ficral etched,
magnified 75 times.
part with solid carburizers such as case of a pack carburized steel specimen
carbon-rich charcoal or fine ground is shown in Fig.lO-2 and a satisfactory
charred bone. The container is sealed at case is shown in Fig.lO-3. Applications for
the edge of the cover with clay and placed the carburizing process include case hard-
in a furnace, with the heat held at 1600 to ening of gears, cams, crankshafts, firearm
1700”F(about 870 to 925°C). parts, roller bearings, ball bearings, con-
During the heating period, large quanti- veyor chain and some inexpensive tools.
ties of carbon-rich gas evolve from the Pack carburizing is relatively slow and
carburizing compound. This gas, primarily dirty and has been supplanted to a great
carbon monoxide, is absorbed by the aus- extent by gas and liquid carburizing.
tenitic steel and diffuses siowly into the in- Carbon will gradually diffuse into the
terior of the part being carburized. The steel, and by controlling the time at the
rate of carburizing is slow as shown in Fig. carburizing temperature the penetration
10-l. A carbon pick-up of less than 1.15 may be controlled. The rate of penetration
ercent carbon is considered good prac- may vary a great deal with different steels
tice, although a carbon content of 0.90 and carburizing practice; however, a pen-
percent is the best for maximum hardness etration of approximately 0.006” per hour
and toughness of the case. for shorter carburizing time should be ex-
The microstructure of an unsatisfactory pected. if a very deep or thick case is
needed, over O.lOO”, an average hourly
penetration of only 0.002” might be ex-
pected so as to require some 48 hours
carburizing time.
The case depth may be measured by
several different methods. In Fig. 10-4 the
case thickness obtained from a carburiz-
ing cycle is revealed by deep-etching a
section of the carburized part. Cooling
slowly in the box or pot after carburizing
will result in a high-carbon case on a low-
carbon core, but both case and core will
be in a soft and pearlitic condition.
Figs. 10-5 and 10-6 illustrate the condi-
tion of low-grade, low-carbon, screw-
stock steel after carburizing and slow
cooling. The banded and segregated con-
Fig. 10-2. Carburized and hardened sur- dition of the original steel results in the
face of ball race .Yusustratesdefective case uneven penetration of the carbon seen in
due to excess free cemenlite in the mar- this steel.
tensitic structure. Magnified 1000 times.
The area of the fr&e cai;?en:~:e is !he :vOhita The carburized case is not machinable
area at top, just below the surface. after hardening; therefore any parts to be
Fig. 10-3. SAE- 1020 steel, carburized to woduce a satisfactory eotectoid case. Picral
e&/led, magnified 75 time.&.
machined or drilled after carburizing must ening. To overcome such difficulties, inert
be kept soft. The work may be cooled materials are packed around places to be
from the box or oat and any machine work kept soft, and holes and other places are
done before hardening; however, this is packed with fire clay and other suitable
not possible if the work is pulled out at the materials to keep them unaffected by the
carburizing heat and quenched for hard- carburizing compounds.
Fig. 10-4. Daep-etched section of case-
hardened steel. The light outer layer illus-
trates case depth. Etchant 5 percent Nital,
not magnified.
210
Surface Treatments
Fig. 10-7. ~a~~~~~zi~~ rates using natural gas as the carburizing agent.
SO cfh of carburizing gas wfff then yield an duces the carbon concentration at the
efficient carburizing atmosphere. The time surface of the steel by diffusion of carbon
and temperature are closely controlled from the outside toward the lower carbon
with the carburizing temperature running core.
between 1650” to 1 “F (895” to Liquid-4ath cartnwizing and harden-
930°C). After a predetermined time at the ing. Many small parts, made from low-car-
carburizing temperature, the carburizing bon steel, that require a high surface
gas is shut off. and the steel is allowed to hardness with only a light or thin case,
cool in the neutral atmosphere. Cooling in may be successfully carburized and hard-
the neutral atmosphere increases the case ened in the cyanide liquid baths. Steel to
depth or penetration of the carbon and re- be casehardened is immersed in a molten
211
Metaliurgy
bath containing more than 25 percent so- be free from moisture, or danger from an
dium cyanide held at a temperature usual- explosive spattering of the bath may oc-
ly around 1550°F (840°C). At this temper- cur. The operator should be well protect-
ature, the steel wilt pick up both carbon ed by gloves and goggles or helmet. The
and nitrogen from the bath, and in 15 min- fumes given off by the bath, because of
utes a penetration of approximately their dangerous nature, should be re-
0.005” is obtained. The nitrogen in cyan- moved by means of a hood over the bath
ide-hardened cases is present as finely and suitable exhaust system.
dispersed iron nitrides which impart high Liquid-bath carburizing and hardening
hardness and brittleness. If deeper pene- result in distinct advantages over pot or
tration is required, a longer time is neces- pack carburizing. Lower temperatures are
sat-y. A treatment of one hour results in used, which reduce the depth of penetra-
about O.giO” depth of case. To harden the tion because of the lower diffusion rate
case. qMe~~bi~g direct from the carburiz- but also reduce distortion. The process al-
ing temperature into water or brine is lows for rapid heat transfer to the parts
practiced. If less distortion is needed than and also results in the elimination of oxi-
from the usual Practice, lower carburidng dation during heating. The hardening ac-
temperatures may be employed, or it may tion of the nitrogen is added to that of the
be cooled to lower temperatures before carbon. When parts are removed from the
quenching. cyanide bath, a film of cyanide adheres to
TO keep the liquid carburizer active as a the surfaces and acts as excellent protec-
carburtztng agent, the concentration of tion from oxidation or decarburization
the sodiwn cyanide must be maintained during transfer to the quenching medium.
above 25 percent concentration. This may These are a few advantages of cyanide
be accomplished bv frequent additions of hardening over pack hardening. It might
new carburizer or by additions of a salt be added that the clean, superficial hard-
mixture rich in sodium cyanide. ness of surfaces resulting from cyanide
The pots used in this process may be hardening, done speedily and at low cost,
made from PresSed steel, although special makes this process more adaptable than
00% containing nickel and chromium are pack hardening of small parts where
frequently used because of their much service requirements permit the use of a
longer life and tower ultimate cost. Steel thin case.
Parts may be wired and suspended in the
molten baths, and in many instances small
parts are pt in wire baskets while in Chapmanizing
the carburizing bath. If a wire basket is
used, Care must be exercised in the In developing thin cases harder than
quenching 5 ation to insure even and those from cyaniding and faster than
fast cooling of aft the parts treated to ob- those from nitriding, a process called
tain uniform surface hardness. Chaprnanizing is used in which dissociat-
All parts plac in the molten bath must ed ammonia gas is bubbled through the
212
I
molrsn cyanide baFh Fhereby ~~~~easi~~ Ac3 critical temperature followed by
me mitrogen cc?ntent of the case. quenching. preferably in oil. to avoid ex-
cess distortion. Following this treatment,
est-cost Freatment after ~aF~~~~~i~~ is te often referred to as the regenerative
tl the steei cwt of the ~a~b~F~~im quench, the steel may be reheated to the
e ~af~~ri~~f~~ heat afid proper temperature of the case (1400” to
ater 0~ brine for piain carbon sleek. 1450°F [about 760 to 79O”C]) followed by
iai alloy ~a~b~~~~i~~ steels may be quenching to produce a martensitic case
quenched in oil from the casburizing tem- with its maximum hardness of Rockwell C-
perature. This treat enl wiil result im a ful- 67. This double heat treatment, following
ty hardened case with a Rat carburizing, will result in the maximum
RCCC
_,--- rrf
“I 15\,9”
%I1IbvIC”$G. combinaiion of physicai properties that
will aiso be Rard~eFY2 can be developed by carburizing and
WhEChmay P;drliess Fhan Rockwell c-20. hardening. Fig. 10-B illustrates the frac-
The disa~vamta~es of tlais F~eaFmemFare ture appearance of a steel treated by the
due to me amount of war double quench, resulting in a hard brittle
tioo resrslting krom the case and a tough core.
temperalure, arid perhaps a ra Carburizing that produces a case with a
~amditian of the steel due to excessive carbon content in excess of 0.90 percent
large grains in both case an is one of the major causes of trouble argd
be recalled that heating steel shove its may be greatly aggravated by the method
critical ~ern~~ra~~F~ results in grain
h, and due to the iengt
sleei is held aF the car urizing tempera-
sure, rather Iafge grains may $eve~op.
A praclke that might be selected to
avoid excessive ~isFo~Fi~m would involve
cooling the car urized steel t
temperature bef re ~~e~e~~~~.
ing Femper3F~Fe of 1400r Fo 1500°F (760”
to 815°C) may be selecte ; FRis will result
in fess distortion but witl not improve the
grain size. To refine the case and fully
harden it requires coaling from the car-
burizing heat to below the critical temper-
alure Ac I-2-3 and reheating Fo slightly
above this temperature and quenclaing.
Tlais wilt result bn a very fine and hard
case. if the core is to be refined, cooling to Fig. 10-8. Fracture of case-hardened
below the critical te~~e~at~re Acl is re- steel which has been given a double
quived and then ~e~ea~~~~tc~ above the qwrch.
higher carburizing temperatures, such
steels may be quenched direct from the
carburizing treatment without excessive
distortion and brittleness. Even if these
steels are slow-cooled to room tempera-
ture, they usually require only a reheating
to the hardening temperature of the case,
and upon quenching, the core properties
are satisfactory and no regenerative
quenching is required.
Tempering of ihe quench-hardened car-
burized steels may be done at a low tem-
perature for the reli? of stresses; and
tempering at high tempera?ures may be
carried out to increase the toughness of
the hard and otherwise brittle case. Most
Fig 10-9. Carburized and hardened sur- casehardened steel is finished in the ma-
lace of ball race illustrates defective case chine shop by grinding. If tempering has
due lo excess free cement&e in the mar-
lensite structure. gniffed 1000 times. been carried out, there will be less danger
The white portion of the area is free ce- of further warping and less danger of
mentite. grinding cracks developing.
veloping rather thin cases, a high core Nitriding operation. In the nitriding
hardness is required to withstand any high process, nitrogen is introduced to the
crushing loads. lirgh tempering tempera- steel by passing ammonia gas through a
tures call for a steel with a higher carbon muffle furnace containing the steel to be
content in order to develop this increase nitrided. The ammonia is purchased in
in core hardness. In addition to higher car- tanks as a liquid and introduced into the
bon content, various a!loying elements are furnace as a gas at slightly greater than
called for in the steel to bring about an in- atmospheric pressure. With the nitriding
crease in the formation of these nitrides. furnace operating at a temperature of
Aluminum seems to display the strongest 900” to 1000°F (480’ to about 54O”C),
tendency in the formation of these ni- the ammonia gas partially dissociates into
trides. The aluminum precipitates the a nitrogen and hydrogen gas mixture. The
compound AIN in a finely divided state, dissociation of ammonia is shown by the
accounting for the extreme hardness of following equation:
these nitriding steels. Chromium, molyb- 2NW,F?2N+3H2
denum, vanadium, and !ungsten, all being The operation of the nitriding cycle is
nitride former.% also are used in nitriding usually controlled so that the dissociation
steels. Nickel in nitriding steels hardens of the ammonia gas is held to approxi-
and strengthens the core and toughens mately 30 percent but may be varied from
the case with but slight loss in its 15 to 95 percent depending upon operat-
hardness. ing conditions. The gas mixture leaving
In general, steels used in the nitriding the furnace consists of hydrogen, nitro-
process contain the elements within the gen, and undissociated ammonia. The un-
percentage range given in Table 10-l. dissociated ammonia, which is soluble in
215
cane. The thin while
the depth of hardness. The technique of care must be exercised to prevent surface
flame hardening may be carried out in cracking. If special alloy steels are used,
several different ways. Small parts may be the low-alloy type seems to respond satis-
individually heated and then quenched. In factorily and works the best. Applications
the case of cylindrical shapes such as of the flame-hardening process include
shafts, gears, etc., the surface may be rail ends, gears, lathe beds, track wheels
heated by slowly rotating the part and ex- for conveyors, cams and cam shafts, etc.
posing the surface to the flame of a torch
or a series of gas burners as illustrated in induction heating or Tocco process as ap-
Fig. 10-13. plied to the surface hardening of steel,
Upon reaching the hardening tempera- heating is accomplished throljgh the use
ture and when the heat has penetrated to of inductor heating coils placed around
the desired depth, the part may be the surface to be hardened. A high-
quenched for hardening. Both steel and frequency current at high voltage is trans-
gray cast iron may be treated by ihe formed into low-voltage current with high
flame-hardening process. !x gene:al, a amperage and passed through the induc-
steel to be hardened by this method tor coils or blocks surrounding but not ac-
shouid have a carbon content of at least tuaity in contact .with the surfaces to be
0.40 percent. The best range of carbon is hardened. The inductor coils induce a cur-
between 0.40 and 0.70 percent carbon. rent in the surface of the steel. This in-
Higher carbon steels can be treated, but duced current rapidly heats the metal to
Fig. lU- 14. Set-up for induction hardening of a gear.
Fig. ?O-15. Surface hardening of a grinding machine spindle. Upon its reaching the cor-
rect hardening temperature, the spindle is removed and quench-hardened.
S~r?a~e treatments
COATINGS
224
Surface Treatments
by several methods, such as (I) etectro- fication of the Parkerizing process, a thin
plating, which is the depositing of a coating of protection is obtained by im-
metal onto the surface of a metal object mersion in a hot phosphate solution for a
b; electrolysis, (2) by means of dipping the period of 30 seconds or longer. Such a
metal object into a molten bath of the coating is primarily intended as a base for
metal to form the coating (this method is paint and in itself offers only a temporary
used extensively for tin plating known as protection to the surfaces so treated.
tin plate, and for plating of zinc, zinc gal- A phosphate coating has proved advan-
vanizirrgi. (3) depositing of metal on to a tageous in resisting excessive wear and
surface by action of a vapor, such as in seizure of machine parts and to minimize
the sherardizing process. where the ob- scuffing during the wearing-in period. It
jects to be coated are placed in a tight has been successfully used on parts such
drum with zinc powder and heated to as pistons, piston rings, camshafts, and
575’ to 856°F (about 300 to 455°C). A other engine and machine parts.
surface coating of zinc is formed by the Surface oxidation. Oxide films formed
action of the zinc vapor whrch penetrates on metal surfaces will build up resistance
and forms a zinc surface coating, (4) by to corrosion and change the appearance
means of a spray of atomized molten met- of metal objects. Aluminum may be treat-
at directed onto the surfaces of heated ed to develop a very thick adhering film of
metal objects, known as the Schoop surface oxide which enhances its resist-
metallizing process, (5) a surface plating ance to corrosion by means of electrolytic
called Parkerizing. (See Phosphate coat- oxidation. Steel objects with a bright,
ings below.) (6) a process known as hard clean surface may be treated by heating in
facing for hardening surfaces of iron and contact with air to 500” to 600°F (260” to
steel, in which a hard metallic layer is 315”C), and thus a color oxide film is
welded to a softer metal by the fusion formed (temper color) which adds to sales
welding process. Hard facing may also be appeal in some instances and increases
the application of tungsten carbide parfi- the resistance to corrosion. A heavy blue
c/es to a surface bonded by a brazing or black oxide film may be formed on steel
metal. by heating the steel in a bath of salts of
Phbsphafe coafings. Phosphate coat- low melting point. These salts are sold un-
ings, produced by immersion of metal der various trade names, and the opera-
parts in a hot solution of manganese dihy- tion is referred to as bluing or blacking of
drogen phosphate for 30 to 60 minutes, steel, being used on gun parts, small
resuh in a surface that is gray in color but tools, spark plug parts, etc.
after oiling or waxing becomes black. Metal spray process. Through the use
Thinner coatings, modifications of this of a gas-fired pistol, metal in the form of
process, are applied in a much shorter wire or powdered metal is fused and then
time by spraying or dipping in hot phos- sprayed from the gun and deposited upon
phate solutions coniaining cataiyzers. in the surface that is to be coated. The ac-
the Sonderizing process, which is a modi- tion is similar to that of a paint gun. See
225
sprayed onto surfaces by this process.
However. Ihe process is limited commer-
cially to the m~etals having a relatively iow
melting point. The coating is somewhat
thicker than those produced by hot dip-
ping and electroplating methods, ranging
from 0.004” to 0.025” (0.010 to 0.64 mm).
-fa~~~~. In the hard-facing
process, air-hardening steels such as
high-speed steels, natural hard alloys
such as stellite, tungsten carbide, and bo-
ron carbide, and special stainless steels
may be fused to metals requiring a harder
or tougher wear and shock-resistant sur-
face. The hard-facing alloy may be fused
to almost any metal part by either the oxy-
acetylene torch or the electric-arc meth-
od of welding.
Fig. 70-78. etaNizing a splined shaft us- In applying hard-facing alloys, it is im-
ing a corrosion resistant powdered metal. portant to prepare the surfaces to be hard
(Metco. Inc.) faced by grinding, machining, or chipping,
so as to clean and remove rust, scale, or
other foreign substances. The work to be
hard faced is often preheated before
applying the hardfacing alloy. This pre-
Fig. 10-18. The sprayed metal adheres to heating may be carried out in a furnace or
the surfaces of the part due to impact of by use of an oxyacetylene flame.
the tiny particles. This adherence is aided If arc-welding methods are used, the
by the proper preparation of the surfaces atomic hydrogen process is recommend-
to receive the metallic coating. ed; however, good results can be ob-
Usually a rough surface, such as pre- tained with straight arc-welding equip-
pared by sand biasting, is required for ment when a short arc and low current are
good adherence. The coating is not very used.
strong as it is somewhat porous in nature, If the oxyacetylene blowtorch is used, it
but it has proved satisfactory for the is recommended that the flame be adjust-
b~i~diflg up of worn parts of machines, ed to a reducing or excess of acetylene
such as shafts, cylinders, rolls, etc., and flame. The iacbnique employed when us-
may be used to build up resistance to cor- ing the oxyacetylene blowtorch is to heat
rosion and wear. A number of different !he surface to be hard faced to a sweating
metals, including aluminum, zinc, tin, cop- temperature, heating only a small section
per, lead, brass. and bronze, may be at a time. The hard-facing rod is then
Surfs-- Treatments
REVIEW
1. For what purposes are surface treat- hardening baths be hooded and
ments of metal carried out? vented?
2. Name several kinds of surface treat- 13. What are the advantages of liquid-
menis for me?als. bath carburizing and hardening?
3. As applied to case carburizing and 14. Describe the nitriding process for
hardening, what does case mean? steel.
4. During the carburizing process, 15. How much time is required in the ni-
what is considered the best carbon triding operation of steel for a shal-
pick-up? Why? low case?
5. What commercial items are carbur- 16. Name the advantages of nitriding.
ized for hardening? 17. Define carbonitriding.
6. What depth of carbon penetration 18. What is the advantage of ion bom-
per hour should be expected? bardment in chromizing?
7. What two methods can be used to 19. What physical improvement is made
avoid a brittle case? by siliconizing?
6. Describe the low-cost treatment af- 20. What physical properties does alu-
ter carburizing. What disadvantages minizing give to steel?
has this treatment? 21. How is the flame hardening carried
9. ‘What t:eat.ment wit! r&fine and fuiiy on?
harden the case of steel? 22. What is the time cycle for an induc-
10. Name the special advantages of tion hardening operation?
special grain-controlled carbon and 23. Name six methods of plating metals
specialty ahoy steels. on metals.
? ‘t. What type of work is carburized and 24. What products are coated by vapor
hardened in cyanide liquid baths? deposition method?
12. Why must iiquid carburizing and 25. What are oxide coatings used on?
----
Fkhe;;;eand tnfluence of Special
The steeds produced by the addition of classifications. These four groups are indi-
albying elements deveIop structures and caled in Fig. 11-l and Fig. 1 t-2.
properties ‘6Rat may be divided into four
Metallurgy
Fig. 11-2. Influence of special element on the position of the critical point. (after
Sauvuer)
234
lloy or Special Steels
Fig. 77-3. Comparative reaction rate curves for plain carbon steel, nickel steel, and
chromium steel. (Bain)
tools. The medium-to-high carbon steels lustrates this effect and indicates the
of this group are subjected to heat treat- rate of cooling needed in order to pro-
ments and used in highly stressed parts duce martensite with a carbon steel, as
of structures and machines or find ap- compared with a chromium and nickel
plications in tools. steel. Because they may be hardened
Because a great many of these alloy fully by oil quenching, these steels are
steels have a slower rate of transforma- hardened with less danger of warping
tion from austenite to pearlite during and cracking. However, due to their
cooling, they are more easily made mar- slower rate of transformation, these
tensitic and may often be quenched in steels will become hardened through
oil instead of water or brine. Fig. 11-3 il- their section, leaving no soft core. In a
235
Metallurgy
tool this increases the danger of break- Group Ill. Austenitic Alloy Steels
ing in service.
These steels, indicated in Fig. 11-l and
Fig. 11-2, are steels that remain austen-
Group II. Martensitic Alloy Steels itic in structure (gamma iron) upon slow
cooling froin the temperature of solidifi-
As indicated in Fig. 11-1, when the car- canon. These steels do not undergo any
bon content and amount of alloying ete- change in the condition of the iron and
ment exceed that of the pearlitic type of therefore exhibit no critical temperature
alloy, a series is formed of compositions upon cooling. These steels cannot be
that retain a natural martensitic structure hardened by heat treatment although
upon air cooling. The addition of a they may be cold work-hardened and an-
greater amount of special element than nealed. Also, if any precipitation occurs
found in pearlitic steels has resulted in with these steels upon slow cooling from
the slowing up of the transformation rate a high temperature, they may be re-
so as to allow undercooling of the aus- heated and quenched to redissolve the
tenitic structure to around 200°F (93°C) precipitate and keep it in solution. These
even when cooled in still air. The alloying austenitic steels exhibit great shock
element acts as a fast quench in the strength and low elastic strength and are
lowering of the transformation from aus- very ductile. They workharden very rap-
tenite to pearlite. This effect is indicated idly and develop great resistance to wear
in Fig. 11-2, which illustrates the influ- by abrasion. The chrome-nickel austen-
ence of the special element upon the itic steels are very resistant to corrosion.
transformation temperature.
If the transformation from austenite
takes place above 600°F (315”C), a pearl- Group IV. Cementitic Alloy Steels
itic structure is formed. If the transforma-
tion upon cooling takes place below As indicated in Fig. 11-1, some alloying
400°F (about 205°C) but above room elements, on being added to steel in in-
temperature, a martensitic type of struc- creasing amounts, fail to convert the steel
ture is formed. The properties of marten- into an austenitic type. A steel containing
istic alloy steel are not unlike those of 18.0 percent of a special element, and
fully-hardened and martenistic carbon 0.60 percent carbon, upon slow cooling
steel, although they are much more sta- from above its critical temperature, would
ble above room temperature and resist have a structure of ferrite or martensite
tempering effects and are therefore used with numerous particles of cementite
for tools and dies that are subjected to embedded in the ferritic or martensitic
hot work. These steels are usually hard- matrix. Such a steel has been referred to
ened by air cooling from above their as a cementitic or Group IV steel.
critical temperature and annealed by un- The cementitic type of alloy steel is
usually slow cooling in a furnace. usually a difficult steel to use. It requires
236
Alloy or Special Steels
special care to properiy anneal the steel excess cementite or carbides add to the
so as to make it machinable. Also, these wear resistance of the martensitic struc-
steels are subjected to such hardening ture. These steels are largely used in
treatments as to cause most of the ce- tools, particularly where hardness and
mentite or carbides to be absorbed and resistance to Lvear are important.
retained in a martensitic structure. The
ALLOY STEELS
237
Metallurgy
both gamma iron and alpha iron, but in than fur reasons of increased hardenabili-
the presence of carbon it combines with ty. The lower-carbon chromium steels can
the carbon to form a very hard carbide. To be casehardened, resulting in greater sur-
steel, chromium imparts hardness, wear face hr-rdness and wear resistance.
resistance, and useful magnetic proper- The SAE-5120 type of steel is used in
ties, permits a deeper penetration of hard- the casehardened condition for general
ness, and increases the resistance to cor- purposes. Engineering steels of the SAE-
rosion. 52:OO class find many applications where
Chromium content in steels varies from deep and uniform hardening from oil
a small percentage to approximately 35 quenching is needed. These steels devel-
percent. Chromium is the principal alloy- op good wear resistance and fatigue re-
ing element in many of the alloy or special sistance with moderately high strength.
steels. Also. a large tonnage of steels is Steels of this type, the SAE-52100 series,
manufactured in which other alloying ele- are used for Qears. pistons, springs, pins,
ments than chromium are added, such as bearings, rolls, etc.
vanadium, molybdenum, tungsten, etc. Chromium is used quite frequently in
The low-carbon or pearlitic-chromium tool steels to obtain extreme hardness.
steels are the most important of the chro- Applications of such include files, drills,
mium Steels although Stainless Steels con- chisels, roll thread dies, and steels com-
taining chromium from 12 to 35 percent monly used for ball bearings, which con-
are becoming more and more important. tain approximately 1 percent carbon and
When chromium fs used in amounts up 1.5 percent chromium. The extreme hard-
to 2 percent in medium and high-carbon ness and resistance to wear associated
steels, it is usually for the hardening and with the chromium steels seems to be a
toughening effects and for increased wear specific property of the chromium car-
resistance and increased resistance to fa- bides such as Cr,Cs, Cr,C, and (FeCr)3C
tigue failure. Chromium, when added to found in these steels.
steel, raises the critical temperature and Increasing the chromium content of
slows up the rate of transformation from steels beyond 2 and up to 14 percent in-
austenite to pearlite during the hardening creases the hardenability, the wear resist-
process. This slower transformation rate ance, the heat resistance in steels used
allows the use of a slow quench in harden- for hot work, and the corrosion resistance.
ing and produces deep-hardening effects. The high-carbon high-chromium steels,
With additions of less than 0.50 percent with chromium from 12 to 14 percent and
chromium to the steel, there is a tendency carbon from 1.50 to 2.50 percent, are
to bring about a refinement of grain and used when wear resistance is of prime im-
to impart Slightly greater hardenability portance, as in knives, shear blades,
and toughness. Chromium is added to the drawing dies, lathe centers, etc.
low-carbon steels for the purpose of ef- Although high percentages of chromi-
fecting greater toughness and impact re- um, such as those in the high-carbon
sistance at sub-zero temperatures, rather high-chromium steels, lead to the proper-
239
ty of corrosion resistance, this property resistant and stainless characteristics,
requires that the chromium carbides be other attributes of stainless steels are the
dissolved at a high temperature and re- property of resisting oxidation and scal-
tained in solution by quenching. In order ing, and the maintenance of strength at el-
to obtain corrosion resistance, it is neces- evated temperatures. Types 309 and 310
sary to keep the chromium carbides in in Table 1 l-l are primarily heat-resistant
solution or to lower the carbon content to alloys in which the chromium content is
a value that will reduce the formation of sufficiently high to obtain resistance to
chromium carbides. So-called stainless scaling up IO approximately 2000°F
steel is a chromium alloy steel with a rela- (about 1090°C). with sufficient nickel to
tively low carbon content. maintain this type of steel in its austenitic
condition.
The oxide-film theory is offered in an ef-
stainless Steels. fort to explain the corrosion resistanca of
chromium alloys. It is believed that an ox-
Stainless, or corrosion-resistant, steels ide film forms naturally on the surfaces of
include a large number of different alloys. all metals and protects them to some de-
However, modern stainless steel is an al- gree, at least temporarily, from corrosive
loy made principally from iron and chromi- action. The oxide film that forms under
um, referred to as straight chromium steel normai atmospheric conditions on the
and identified as the 400 series of steels, surface of stainless steels of the high
see Table 11-I. Nickel is added to the chromium-iron type is said to be very sta-
chromium-iron alloys to form a series of ble, tough, and self-healing. If the oxide
stainless or corrosion-resistant alloys film is maintained, stainless steels are very
identified by the 300 series of steels, see effective against any corrosive media. Or-
Table 11-I. Nickel improves the corrosion dinary compositions of stainless steels do
resistance of the basic iron-chromium not satisfactorily resist common acids
alloys and greatly increases their mechan- such as hydrochloric, hydrofluoric, sulfur-
ical properties by improving their plastici- ic, or sulfurous, although special composi-
ty, toughness, and welding characteris- tions that resist such attack have been
tics. Stainless steel, originally intended for developed.
high-grade cutlery and tools, has since
developed into a steel of inestimable value
iron-Chromium Alloys
for engineering purposes and is of great
economic value in present-day ferrous
metallurgy because of its resistance to a Stainless steels containing from 14 to
wide range of corroding materials. Metal 18 percent chromium and a maximum of
waste due to corrosion has become an im- 0.12 percent carbon are magnetic and
portant engineering problem. It has been consist structurally of a solid solution of
stated that no waste, except of numan life, iron and chromium. Tt sy are a ferritic type
is more important. Besides corrosion- of stainless steel used for general require-
240
-i’
TABLE 11-l. STAINLESS STEEL SPECIFICATIONS.
-
--.- ANALYSIS
ALLCiv CHROMIUM NICKEL OTHER CARBON MANGANESE SILICON STRUCTURE
TYFLX PERCENT PERClfNT ELEMENT’ PERCENT PERCEN’T PERCENT AS-ANNEALED
Dt=RCFhlT
, LIIYLI..
.-, .
505 4.0-6.0 0.5 max . .. . . .. 0.10 max 0.60 max 0.75 max Pearlite-Ferrite
501+tv?o 4.0--6.0 0.5 max o:50‘.~~ Over 0.10 0.60 max 0.75 max Pearlite-Ferrite
410 11.5~-13.5 0.5 max . . .. .. . .. .. 0.15max 0.60 max 0.75 max Pearlite-Ferrite
0.60 max 0.75 max Pearlite-Ferrite
4i6
3’4 12.0.-14.0
11.5-13.5 2.0
0.5 max
t?liW 0.45~-0.60
,,_,_...__,....__,.,..MO 0.150.15max
max 0.75-1.20 0.75 max Pearlite-Ferrite
420 12.0-14.0 0.5 max, _..,__...,.....,...... 0.30~0.40 0.50 max 0.75 max Pearlite
431 14.0-18.0 2.0 max ,,__.,.._..._......... 0.15 max 0.50 max 0.75 max Pearlite-Ferrite
430 16.0-.1&O 0.5 max .._.~,..I....._.._..... 0.12 max 0.50 max 0.75 max Pearlite-Ferrite
430-F 16.0-18.0 _.....__.............. S,Se .07 Min 0.12 max 0.75-1.20 0.30~.0.75 Pearlite-Ferrite
440 16.0-18.0 0.5 max 0.45-0.60 MO 0.65.-0.70 0.35.~0.50 0.75 max Pearlite
440 16.0-18.0 0.5 max ,,.__...._.___..” 1.00.-1.10 0.35-0.50 &I; “,n; Pearlite-Carbide
446 23.0-30.0 1.O max . .. .._................ 0.35 max 1.50 max Ferrite-Carbide
301 16.0-18.0 7.0-9.0 . .._........__........ 0.09-0.20 1.25 max . . .. . .. .. Austenitic
302 17.5-20.0 8.0-10.0 _..,............__.... 0.08.-0.20 1.25 max 0.75 max Austenitic
304 18.0.-20.0 8.0-10.0 . ..._...............,. 0.08 max 2.00 max 0.75 max Ausienitic
303 17.5-20.0 8.0-10.0 S,Se,P2 0.20 max 1.25 max 0.75 max Austenitic
316 16.0-18.0 10.0-14.0 2.00-3.00 MO 0.10 max 2.00 max 0.75 max Austenitic
317 18.0-20.0 10.0-14.0 2.00m4Tig0 MO ;:3; 1;; 2.00 max 0.75 max Austenitic
321 17.0.-20.0 7.0-10.0 A 0.75 max 0.75 max Austenitic
347 17.0-20.0 8.0-12.‘0 Cb4 0.10 max 2.00 max 0.75 max Austenitic
309 22.0-26.0 12.0-14.0 . .. ... .. . . .._........ 0.20 max 1.25 max 0.75 max Austenitic
--._ 310 24.0-26.0 19.0-21.0 .........I_,..._I.....
-- 0.25 max 1.25-1.75 0.75 max Austenitic -
‘Sulfur acd phosphorus shown in this column when sufficient; not shown if normal
%ulfur and selenium 0.07 min; phosphorus 0.03 10 0.17
3Titi\nium content min=4 times percent carbon
4Columbium content min= 10 times percent ,carbon
Data from Stainless Steels, an Nementary Discust;ion, pamphlet by Allegheny Ludlum Steel CorP
Metallurgy
ments where resistance to corrosion and from the austenitic condition, they de-
heat is needed, but where service condi- velop a martensitic structure that has a
tions are not too severe and where slight hardness value dependent upon the car-
discoloration of the surface during service bon-chromium ratio. Steels of this type
can be tolerated. Steels of this type, that are called marfensitic stainless steels.
contain less than 0.10 percent carbon with These martensitic steels transform to
chromium from 14 to 20 percent, are not austenite at elevated temperatures and
heat treatable except for an annealing therefore are essentially austenitic at the
treatment. They cannot be hardened by quench-hardening temperature. The chro-
heat treatment as they do not transform mium dissolved in the austenite slows up
into austenite when heated to an elevated the transformation rate so that steels of
temperature. this type can be made fully hard, or mar-
These steels are susceptible to grain tensitic, by oil quenching. Some composi-
growth at elevated temperatures, and with tions can be hardened by air cooling from
a larger grain size they suffer a loss in the austenitic temperature range. The
toughness. The ferritic stainless steels structure of the hardened steel is similar
may be cast and forged hot or cold, but to that of other steels.
they do not machine easily-a character- Following a quench-hardening treat-
istic of all stainless steels. They possess a ment, the fully-hardened steel is usually
high resistance to corrosion in an ordinary tempered or drawn within a range up to
atmosphere, providing they have been 1000” F (about 540°C) depending upon
highly polished and are free from foreign the toughness requirements. The anneai-
particles. Improvement in their machina- ed condition of this type of steel, after
bilitv-I can
--” be obtained by additions of mo- slow cooling from the austenitic tempera-
lybdenum and sulfur, or phosphorus and ture range, consists of compiex carbides
selenium. Although sulfur improves ma- in an alpha-iron struc?ure.
chinabiiity, ii reduces toughness, ductility, Corrosion resistance of the steel in this
and corrosion resistance. The additions of condition is poor, and it is therefore nec-
phcspkor~s a& &ei-,ium are iess detri- essary io heat the steel into the austenitic
m6tnial ihen suifur so far as the corrosion range and dissolve the chromium carbides
resistance of these steels is concerned. and retain this solution condition by
quenching. Because of this requirement
with this type of stainless steel, it has been
Iron-Chromium-Carbon Alloys replaced for structural purposes by the
(Martensitic Stainless Steels)
low-carbon type of steel that is naturally
stainless and does not require a solution
Everyone is familiar with cutlery stain- heat treatment. However, when a relative-
less steels which give hardness, resist- ly hard stainless steel is required, a highe:
ance to abrasion, high strength, and cut- carbon content ic- essential, as in types
ting qualities. These steels contain enough 420 and 440 shown in Table 11-1. The
carbon so that when they are quenched Type 420 steel coniaining 12 percent
242
May or Special Steels
chromium and 0.35 percen! carbon is less steels may bt; employed to develop
known as the regular cutlery grade steel. high strengths and increased hardness.
In the hardened martensitic condition, it The strength of the Type 18-8 may be var-
develops a hardness of about 55 Rockwell ied from that of 90,000 psi (620,600
C and attains its maximum corrosion re- kNim2) in the annealed condition to as
sistance. The Type 440 is a general pur- high as 260,000 psi (1,792,700 kN/m’) in
pose hardenable stainless steel used for the cold work-hardened condition, with
hardened steel balls and puinp parts and the hardness varying from 120 to 480 Bri-
is particularly adapted to resist corrosion nell. The extreme high toughness of aus-
for parts of machinery used in the oil in- tenitic steels results in poor machining
dustry. qualities which, however, may be some-
what improved by the addition of phos-
phorus and selenium, or through the addi-
Julius-nickel-Iron Stainless Alloys
tion of sulfur, as in the free-machining
austenitic steels (Type 303).
The 300 series of stainless steels listed The austenitic chromium-nickel steels,
in Table 1 l-l, contain considerable nickel when heated in the temperature range of
in addition to chromium. The addition of 800” to 1500°F (about 430” to 815 “C) for
nickel to these steels is sufficient to ren- a sufficiently long period, suffer from a
der the alloy austenitic at room tempera- precipitation of chromium carbides, large-
ture; these staeis are often referred to as ly forming at the grain boundaries of the
austenific stainless steels. Austenitic austenitic grains. Tne precipitated car-
stainless steels are highly resistant to a bides are less resistaM to corrosion than
large variety of corrosive agents and find the balance of the austenitic structure,
a wide range of applications. and under conditions of marked precipita-
The most important of the austenitic !ion of carbides at the grain bolundaries,
stainless steels is the so-called Type 18-8 the steel may disintegrate when exposed
containing :e percent chromium and 8 to 3 cnrr”@&Je me-‘:‘m. 5;. !1-4 ill,us-
percent nickel and including the modifica- trates a condition of severe intergranular
tions represented by Types 301, 303, 316, corrosion resulting from exposing a piece
321, and 347, Table 11-l. These steels of 18-8 austenitic stainless steel to a sul-
possess extraordinary toughness and furic acid and copper sulfate solution after
ductility, but they are nonmagnetic (gam- the steel had been subjected to a long
ma iron) and cannot be hardened by heat heating cycle at 1400°F (760°C). The cor-
treatment. They are used in their natural rosive medium has disintegrated the steel
condition as cast, forged, cold worked, along the austenitic grain boundaries.
and annealed. The only heat treatment The susceptibility of this type of steel to
given these steels is that of annealing af- intergranular corrosion after heating to a
ter cold working or annealing for the pur- red heat is influenced by the combined
pose of stabilization. chromium and nickel contents with re-
Cold working of these austenitir stain- spect to the carbon content. Carbide pie-
243
r
2
lM?~llUrgy
246
s.t+E-40QQ 5eries find many applications principal alloying elements are tungsten,
intended for heat-treatecf parts. The mo- molybdenum, chromium, and vanadium.
iybde~ium Enthese steels strengthens the The tungsten type of high-speed steel
see&i both staamiiy and dynamically. contains up to 20 percent tungsten, from
eliminates remper biittleness aimmt com- 2 to 5 percent chromium, usually from 1 to
pk%6?iy7Felines the structure. and Widens 2 percent vanadium, and sometimes co-
the CFitiCimifiifT$Ef. balt. which is added for special properties.
MrJkyhdenum is alloyed &a? bQ%hsiwc- More recently. molybdenum has been
turil steel and looi slee8. The low-caabon successfully substituted for tungsten in
hmoiybdenum sleets are often subjected t5 these steels, with molybdenum up to 9
case-hardening heat trea%ments. percent and no tungsten, although a more
carbon moiybdenum steels aie heat treat- commcm high-speed steel contains ap-
ec for parts im3uding 5UGiliapplications as proximately equal amounts of molybde-
<;@:!:lii;,POlleFbearings. and aircraft and au- num and tungsten, 5 percent of each. The
tcr?rot~il~epsts tlm are sub~ec%ed %Ohigh most commonly used high-speed steel is
stresses. Tooi seek ior genera% use and referred to as 18-441, which means that it
for toois for i-tar WOUktkrqxe oeten alloyed contains 18 perceni iungsten, 4 percent
with, molybdenum. Greatet ~aFde~a~jljty chromium. and 1 percent vanadium. The
and improvements in physical proper%ies carbon content in the usual high-speed
are outstanding ~easuns for the selection
Gf a tOQt St’S2i C5t3k3istiFQmolybdenum. AS
a stahisizer fQK martensl?e, moEy
can be used as a substitute tar tungsten in
hG%WivFkizg ad high-speed St&s.
steel runs about 0.65 to 0.75 percent al- important. Vanadium has a strong affinity
though in some grades the carbon content for carbon, and when added to steel, it is
may run as high as 1.30 percent (see Ta- found partly combined with the ferrite but
ble 12-2). principally with the carbide or cementite.
The molybdenum or molybdenum- The presence of vanadium gre:‘:;.; in-
tungsten high-speed steels have been creases the strength, toughness, and
largely substituted for the straight tung- hardness of the ferrite matrix of steels.
sten high-speed steels of the 184-l type. The carbide, or cementite, formed with
Actual shop tests made with heavy and vanadium is likewise greatly strengthened
light lathe tools, planer tools, and milling and hardened and shows little tendency to
reamers demonstrate that the heavy pla- segregate into large masses.
ner and lathe tools stand up as well as or The most important effect of vanadium
better than tungsten or the tungsten- in steels is to produce a very small grain
cobalt tools. The molybdenum grades of size and induce grain control in the steel.
high-speed steels have one drawback to The vanadium steels are inherently fine-
their use: viz., they are much more sensi- grained, and this fine grain size is main-
tive to decarburization than the tungsten tained throughout the usual heat-treating
steels during the hot-working and heat- temperature range. Steels containing va-
treating operations. This problem can be nadium are also shallow hardening be-
overcome by the use of borax which is cause they have a faster transformation
fused in a thin coating over the steel, rate from austenite to pearlite during the
forming a protective film during the heat- cooling cycle from the hardening tempera-
ing and hot forging and during subse- ture. However, due to the grain-control
quen! forging operations. The borax may characteristics imparted by the addition of
also be used during the heat-treating op- vanadium, steels may be heated over a
erations, but it causes a cleaning problem wide range of temperatures during the
and is injurious to the furnace hearth. In hardening operation without danger of de-
the place of borax, a furnace designed veloping a coarse and weak structure. See
with the correct atmosphere will prevent Fig 1 l-7.
any serious decarburization. Also, it has Another important effect resulting from
been found that it is practical to use salt the presence of vanadium carbides is that
baths for the heat-treating operations these carbides are extremely stable and,
since the molten salt protects the surfaces when in solution, resist precipitation from
of the molybdenum high-speed steel from the solution. As a result, after vanadium
decarburization or carburization. steels have been quench-hardened from
the heat-treating temperature, they exhib-
Vanadium Steels
it a marked tendency to resist loss of
hardness during the tempering cycle. This
Although vanadium is not a major alloy characteristic is of major importance with
in many of the special alloy steels, the role steels that are used for hot work and con-
it plays as a minor alloying element is very tributes to the hot hardness of the special
248
Al!oy or Special S!ee!s
Fig. 11-7. Effect of vanadium addition on grain size of steel slowly cooled from 1550°F
(about 845°C): (top) without vanadium, and (bottom) with 0.26 percent vanadium. (Amer-
ican Society for Metals)
high-speed steels. This carbide stability is carbon structural steel and machine steel,
important in constructional steels and in the silicon content runs around 0.25 to
cast irons used at elevated temperatures. 0.35 percent. Silicon in this range does
Vanadium is effective in steels in not influence the properties of the steel to
amounts as low as 0.05 percent, and in any extent. With the additions of silicon
many of the common alloy steels the va- above 0.50 to more than 2 percent, we
nadium content runs under 0.30 percent. find improvement in tensile strength and
Alloy steels designed for use at elevated yield point of steels. A popular spring steel
temperatures, such as hot-work steels contains approximately 2 percent silicon,
and high-speed cutting tools, contain up 0.7 percent manganese, and 0.5 percent
to 4.0 percent vanadium. carbon. This steel, after heat treatment,
develops excellent strength and tough-
ness and is widely used for coil and leaf
Silicon Steels springs. Combinations of silicon-chromi-
um and silicon-chromium-manganese are
Silicon as an alloying element dissolves also used for spring steels.
in both gamma iron and alpha iron and Silicon has been alloyed to steels of the
does not form a carbide. The solubility of stainless and heat-resisting type, with im-
silicon in the gamma iron is approximately provements noted in their ability to resist
2 percent, whereas it is soluble in the al- certain types of corrosion and oxidation at
pha iron up to 18 percent and remains elevated temperatures. The 18-8 (austeni-
highly soluble even in the presence of car- tic) type of stainless steel has been im-
bon. Silicon is present in all steels as a re- proved for some uses by the addition of
sult of the manufacturing process. In low- silicon up to 4 percent. Steels used for
249
Metallurgy
REVIEW
1. Describe plain carbon steel. hardness developed by plain carbon or al-
2. What is the approximate maximum loy steel?
250
hy or Special Steels
3. Name the reasons for the selection 18. Give the composition of three nickel
of alloy steels in preference to carbon alloy steels and name a particular proper-
steels. ty for which each is noted.
4. Name the four ways in which an ele- 19. What use is made of low-carbon
ment added to steel may combine with i!. chromium steels that have been case-
5. What improvements in steel are hardened?
contributed by the addition of elements 20. What important property does a
which form a solid sofution with the iron? high percentage of chromium give to
6. What property makes carbide-form- steel?
ing alloys valuabfe? 21. For what is high-carbon chromium
7. What effect does the formation of steel used?
oxides have upon steel? 22. What percentages of carbon and
8. What improvement results from the chromium are used in cutlery stainless
addition to steel of elements that remain steels?
uncombined? 23. Why is sulfur added to some stain-
9. In general, what percentages of spe- less steel?
cial elements and carbon are contained in 24. What is the strength of the stainless
pearlitic alloy steels? steel known as 18-8 in the annealed and
10. Name the uses of steels in the pearl- work-hardened conditions? What is the
itic alloy group. hardness?
11. How do percentages of carbon and 25. What use is made of so-called non-
special elements in steels in the martensi- deforming steel?
tic group compare with those in the pearl- 26. Name the special properties of Had-
itic group? field steels?
12. Name the uses of martensitic al!oy 27. What four improvements does tung-
steels. sten make on the characteristics of steel?
13. Why have austenitic al!oy steels no 28. What are the two types of tungsten
critical temperature on cooling? steel?
i4. What characteristics do austenitic 29. Name one disadvantage of molyb-
alloy steels have? denum high-speed steels.
15. What use is made of cementitic alloy 30. For what are hot-working steels
steels? used?
16. What quaiities make nickel steels 31. How does the addition of vanadium
suitable for structural applications? to steel affect its physical properties?
17. What other elements are alloyed 32. Name some uses of silicon steels.
with nickel alloy steels to make special
steels?
254
Eiectric furnaces make graded steels easily.
in the early days of stee~mak~~~, great instead sold his product on its reputation.
secrecy was maintained by the steelmak- Gradually. the need of designers and engi-
2:s who had developed newer ao fleers to be able to evaluate steels as to
str~ct~rai and me steels. For many years, their mechanical properties led to the
toot steels were sold by patented trade classification and standardization of the
names and Fhe SF& salesman would not many different types and compositions of
divlalge the composiFion of a toed steel, but steels used throughout industry.
Practicaily aii steel on the market today the user may consult the specifications
is sold using t&e s~~~~~~~atio~s and com- and select a number of different steels of
posiiians devised by the Society of Auto- different compositions that might be ap-
motive Engineers and the American Iron plied to the same usage. No definite appii-
and Steel Institute. These specifications cations for the different steels are includ-
are lrnivers~aily used in industries where ed in the specifications. However, the
steels, and ~a~~~~~a~~~ aiioy steels, are complete specifications include composi-
being used. These s ecifications are pri- tions, heat treatment, and conservative
marily intended for structural applications, physical properties that might be expect-
as in machines, but they include a limited ed from the steels so that the user may
number of hig -carbon arid alloy steeis make an intelligent selection.
that cari be use A numerical index system is used to
III the selection of any of these steels, identify the compositions of the SAE/AISI
Metallurgy
steels which makes it possible to use iden- loy steels. Five numerals are used to des-
tifying numerals on shop drawings and ignate certain types of alloy steel.
blueprints that are partially descriptive of The basic numerals for the various
the composition of material covered by types of steel in the SAE/AISI system are
such numbers. In order to facilitate the shown in the following chart. The first digit
discussion of steels, some familiarity with indicates the type to which the steel be-
this nomenclature is desirable. The nu- longs; thus 1 indicates a carbon steel; 2, a
merical index is used to identify the chem- nickel steel; 3, a nickel-chromium steel,
ical compositions of the structural steels. etc. In the case of the simple alloy steels,
In this system, a four numeral series is the second digit generally indicates the
used to designate the plain carbon and al- approximate percentage of the predomi-
nant alloying element. Usually the last two copper 0.35; nickel 0.25: chromium 0.20;
or three digits indicate the average carbon molybdenum 0.06
content in points, or hundredths of one Complete, detailed tables of steel clas-
percent. Thus 2340 indicates a nickel steel sifications are too extensive to reproduce
of approximately 3 percent nickel (3.25 in this book but are available for reference
percent to 3.75 percent) and 0.40 percent in many of the industrial handbooks such
carbon (0.38 percent to 0.43 percent). as Machinery’s Handbook.
In some instances. in order to avoid
confusion, it has been found necessary to
depart from this system of identifying the
approximate alloy composition of a steel TOOL STEELS
by varying the second and third digits of
the number. An example of such a depar-
ture are the steel numbers selected for Technically, any steel used as a tool
several of the corrosion and heat-resisting may be termed a tool steel. Practically,
alloys. however, the term is restricted to steels of
The series designation and types are special composition that are usually melt-
summarized in Table 12-1: ed in electric furnaces and manufactured
The SAE numbers are the same as the for certain types of service. The current
AlSl numbers except the latter may be commonly used tool steels have been
given a letter prefix to indicate the method classified by the American Iron and Steel
of manufacture. A few of the AISI steels Institute into seven major groups and
are not included in the SAE listings. each commonly accepted group or sub-
Small quantities of certain elements are group has been assigned an alphabetical
present in alloy steels that are not speci- letter. Methods of quenching, applica-
fied as required. These elements are con- tions, special characteristics and steels
sidered as incidental and may be present for particular industries were considered
to the maximum percentages as follows: in this type classification as follows:
255
Metcrllurgy
The AK3 identification and type classifi- The oil and air hardening steels are the
cation of tool steels is given in Table 12-2. steels that may be quenched in oil or air
In the column Typica/ Application, three from the hardening temperature to attain
general classifications are shown, relating the maximum hardness. These steels are
to the quenching medium used in the usually of the higher alloy type, containing
hardening operation. The water hardening such elements as manganese, molybde-
steels are the plain carbon steels, or the num and chromium, all of which retard the
so-called low-alloy steels, in which the al- transformations during cooling and thus
loying element is not present in large allow a slower quench to obtain the maxi-
enough percentage to change the heat- mum hardness. All of the steels in this
treatment characteristics of the steel. The group may be hardened by quenching in
water hardening steels require a water or oil and a few of the higher alloyed compo-
brine quenching in order to produce maxi- sitions may be hardened by quenching in
mum hardness. However, it should be re- air when the section is such as to allow
called that thin sections cool much faster fast enough cooling. None of these steels
than heavy sections and it is possible to may be safely hardened by quenching in
quench a thin section of water hardening water or brine Without the danger of hard-
steel in oil and obtain satisfactory results. ening cracks.
WATER HARDENING
Wl 0.60 to 1.40’ - - - Low carbon: blacksmith tools, blanking
w2 0.60 to 1.40’ - - - 0.25 1 tools, caulking too!s, cold chiseis, forging
dies, rammers, rivet sets, shear blades,
punches, sledges. Medium carbon ar-
bors, beading tools, blanking dies, ream-
ers, bushings, cold heading dies, chisels,
coining . dies,
. countersinks,
.. . drills,
. forming
ares, Jeweler ares, manarers, puncnes,
shear blades, woodworking tools. High
carbon glass cutters, jeweler dies, lathe
tools, reamers, taps and dies, twist drills,
woodworking tools. Vanadium content of
W2 imparts finer grain, graater toughness
and shallow hardenability.
w5 1.10 - - 0.50 - - Heavy stamping and draw dies, tube
drawing mandrels, large punches, ream-
ers, razor blades, cold forming roils and
dies, wear plates.
256
~la~~ifi~~tion of Steel
257
twetallurgy
258
Classification of Steel
259
TA5t.E 12-2. C~ASS~~~CAT~ON AND SELECTtON OF TOOL STEELS (cant)
AlSl PERCENTAGE
CQ~PQSITION TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
TWE
c w yo cr V Other
261
TABLE 12-2. CLASSIFICATION AND SELECTION OF TOOL STEELS (cent)
AlSl PERCENTAGECOMPOSITION TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
TYPE
C w fvio ci L' GihH
262
Classification of Steel
263
Metallurgy
MOLD
P2 0.07 - 0.20 2.00 - 0.50 Ni Plastic molding dies (hobbed and
carburized).
P3 0.10 - - 0.60 - 1.25 Ni Plastic molding dies (hobbed and
carburized).
P4 0.07 - 0.75 5.00 - - Plastic molding dies, die casting dies
(hobbed and carburized).
P5 0.10 - - 2.25 - - Plastic molding dies (hobbed and
carburized).
P6 0.10 - - 1.50 - 3.50 Ni Heavy duty gears, shafts, bearing?,
plastic molding dies (hobbed and
carburized.)
P20 0.35 - 0.40 1.25 - - Mo!ds foi zinc and plastic articles,
holding blocks for die casting dies.
P21 0.20 - - - - 4.00 Ni. Thermoplastic injection molds, zinc die
casting dies, holding blocks for plastic
1.20Al and die casting dies.
‘Other carbon contents may be available. 2Cptional. 3 Contains free graphite in micro-structure to
improve machinability.
Some of these grades can be made with added sulfur to improve machfnability.
Source: AISI Tool Steel Products Manual and producers of tool steels.
The stainless and t-?at resisting steels es. The first digit indicates the class and
possess relatively high resistance to oxi- the last two indicate type. Modification of
dation and to attack by corrosive media at types are indicated by suffix letters. The
room and elevated temperatures. They meaning of this AISI system is as follows:
are produced to cover wide ranges in me-
Series 2xx.(. . Cr. Ni, Mn steels
chanical and physical proper!ies. They are
Series 3xx.(. Cr. Ni steels
melted exclusively by the electric furnace
Series 4xx.(. . Cr steels
process.
Series 5xx.(. . low Cr steels
A three-numeral system is used to iden-
tify stainiess and heat resisting steels by The c:remical composition ranges and
type and according to four genera! class- limits are given in Table 12-3.
264s
TABLE 12-3. COMPOSITION LIMITS OF STANDARD TYPE ST.4lNLESS AND HEAT RESISTING STEELS.
(Electriclurnace steels)
--
AISI PERCENliAGECHEMlCALCOMPOSlTlON
--
TYPE
NUMBER C Mn (max) P(max) S(max) Si(max) Cr Ni Mn co Se Ti Cb-Ta Ta Al N
201 0.15 max 5.5017.50 0.080 0.030 1.00 18.00116.00 3.50/ 5.50 .,,,,,,,,,..,.,,,,,,,,,......,..,,,,.,,..,.. ..~......................................~.........~...0.25 max
202 .15max 7.50110.00 ,060 ,030 1.00 17.00/19.00 4.001 8.00 ,..,.,,,,,,.......,,,,.,,............., 25 max
301 .15max 2.00 ,045 ,030 1.00 18.00/18.00 8.00/ 8.00 ..............................................................................................................................................
302 .I5 max 2.00 ,045 ,030 1.00 17.00/19.00 8.00110.00 ,,,.,,,,,,.,,,,,.,.,.,,,,~....................................................................................................................
3028 .15max 2.00 ,045 ,030 2.0013.00' 17.00/19.00 B.OO/lO.OO...... ........................................................................................................................................
303 .15max .20 .15 min 1.00 17.00/19.00 B.OO/lO.OO0.80 max' ...................................................... ....................................................... ... .. .....
303Se .15max % .20 ,080 1.00 17.00/19.00 8.00/10.00 ................................... 0.15 min ..........................................................................................
304 .08 max 2.00 ,045 ,030 1.00 16.00/20.00 B.OOH2.00.... ............................................. ,, ......................................................................................
3&L .0.3mex 2.00 ,045 ,030 1.00 18.00/20.00 8.00/12.00 ,,.,............................................... .......................................,........................................... ..
305 .12 mu 2.00 ,045 ,030 1.00 17.00120.00 10.00/13.00 ,,,.,,,.,,,.,,,,,,..... ...................................................................... ......... .....................................
.06max 2.00 ,045 ,030 1.00 19.00/21.00 10.00112.00 .,.......................,.............................~ .......................................................................................
iii .20max 2.00 ,045 ,030 1.00 22.OOl24.00 12.00/15.00 ........................................................ ......................................................................................
309s .08msx 2.00 ,045 ,030 1.00 22.00124.00 12.00/15.00 ........................................................................................... .. .......................................
310 .25max 2.00 ,045 ,030 1.50 24.00128.00 19.00/22.00 ................................................................................................... .. .....................
310s 0;;;; 2.00 ,045 ,030 1.50 24.00/28.00 19.00/22.00 ,.,...........,,,..............................................................................................................................
31,1 2.00 ,045 ,030 1.5013.0023.00/28.00 19.00122.00,......,.............., ........ .. .............................
............................................................................
31,s .OBmax 2.00 ,045 ,030 1.00 18.00/18.00 10.00114.00 2.00/3.00 ......... .......... ........ .. ............. .... ..... ..............................................
318L .03max 2.00 ,030 1.00 ,&l0,,8.00 ,0.00,,4.00 2.0013.00..,,......................................................................................... ...... .. ....... ..... ...
317 .08max 2.00 :E ,030 1.00 16.00/20.00 11.00/15.00 3.00/4.00 .................................................................. ..................... .. ................. .. .. ........
321 .OBmax 2.w ,045 ,030 1.00 ~7.00~19.00 9.00/12.00 ..... ..............................................5 x C min
347 .08 max 2.00 ,045 ,030 1.00 t7.oo/t9.00 9,oomoo ..... .................................................................. 10 x C min
348 .OBmax 2.00 ,045 ,030 1.00 17.00/19.00 9.00/13.00 ..................0.20mu .................................... 10 x C min 0.10 max .................... .. ..........
403 .15max 1.00 ,040 ,030 0.50 11.50/13.00.... ..................................................................................................................................................................
405 .08max 1.00 ,040 ,030 :.oo 11.50/14.50.................................................~~~ ...... 0 IO/O.30..................
..........................................................................
410 .15max 1.00 ,040 ,030 1.00 11.50/13.50..,.,,..,........................,................._..........................................~
..........................................................................
414 .15max 1.00 ,040 ,030 1.00 11.50/13.50 1.2512.50 ..... ........................................................................................................................................
418 .15max 1.25 ,080 .15min 1.00 12.00/14.00..........................0.80 mu2 ...................... ................................................. ..... ........................................
418% .15max 1.25 ,060 ,080 0.15 min ... ............................ .. .........._....................................
1.00 12.00/14.00...... .....................................................
420 wer 0.15 1.00 ,040 ,030 1.00 12.00/14.00.,,..............,...................,
...................................................................................................................................
430 0.12max 1.00 ,040 ,030 1.00 14.00/i8.00............................. ..........................................................................................................................................
43OF .12max 1.25 ,080 .I5 min 1.00 14.00/18.00....... ..................60 maxz ............................................................................................. ..... ........ ...............
430FSe .12 mu 1.25 ,080 ,064 1.00 14.00118.00 ..... ................................................... .15 min ..........................................................................................
a1 20 max 1.00 ,040 ,030 1.00 15.00/17.00 1.25/2.50 ..................................................... . . ..................................................................... .. ........
440A .80/0.75 1.00 ,040 ,030 1.00 18.00118.00 ...........................75 mu ..............................................................................................................................
4408 .75/0.95 1.00 ,040 ,030 1.00 18.00118.00 ,.,,.,,,,,,.,.,,,,,.,,.,,,.75 max ........................................................................................................ ..................
44oc .95/1.20 1.00 ,040 ,030 1.00 18.00/18.00,..........,,.,.......... .75 max ..............................................................................................................................
442 .20m* 1.00 ,040 ,030 1.00 16.00/23.00... ........ .. .... ..............................................................................................................................................
448 .2omax 1.50 ,040 ,030 1.00 23.00/27.W.................................,...........................................,
.........................................................................25 "XIX
501 over 0.10 1.00 ,040 ,030 1.00 4.001 6.00......................,
... .4010.85 .............................................................................................................................
502 0.10 max 1.00 ,040 ,030 i.00 4.001 8.00... .................... .40/0.85 ........ .................................................................................................................
E
ii;
‘Range
*At producer's option; reported only when intentionally added
Metallurgy
CLASSIFICATION BY HARDENABILITY
Alloy steels as well as plain carbon and qualification of any steel for a given
steels may be classified according to their application.
ability to harden or to be made martensi- It has been determined that the hard-
tic. The ability to harden has been defined enability of steels is dependent upon fac-
as the hardenability of the steel. The role tors other than chemical composition or
played by the hardenability of steels is one alloy content of the steel. Such factors as
of great importance, and any test that can methods of manufacture, practice in shap-
be made to check this characteristic of ing, and variables in treating, all influence
s?eel will prove of value in the selection the hardenability of steels. Because these
Fig. 12- 1. Test specimens for end-quench method of determining hardenability. Usual
SiJeCimen at center; L-bar for steels of low hardenability at left; drilled bar at right for
SfeelS available in small sizes only. (Metal Progress, article by Wa:ter E. Jominy, Re-
search Laboratories of General Motors Research Corp.)
266
variables wilt influence the hardenability. The type of test piece used in the Jomi-
the usual methods of testing, without ny end-quench test is illustrated in Fig.
carrying out a test for hardenability, may 12-l. The test specimen is heated to the
not reveal the complete story about the hardening temperature and dropped into
steel. This being true, several methods a fixture that holds the lower end of the
have been designed to measure the ability specimen above a spray nozzle. The
of the steel to harden. The principle be- quenching medium is water, which, by
hind all of the hardenability tests is to means of a suitable spray nozzle, hits only
measure the maximum section or thick- the bottom of the specimen. By this meth-
ness of steel that can be made hard or od, practically all of the heat is extracted
martensitic successfuify. The Jominy end- from the face of the quenched end of the
quench test is recommended as a harden- test piece. After the specimen has been
ability test for alloy structural and tool cooled, it is ground with a small flat sur-
steels. This test can be used for both shal- face 0.015” deep along the entire length
low and deep-hardening steels. of the test bar, and Rockwell hardness
Fig. 12-2. Hardenability curves (end-quench bars) of five steels containing 0.40 percent
carbon. (Metal Progress, article by Walter E. Jominy)
267
Melahrgy
readings are made at ‘/s” intervals from hardenability of steels before they are
the hard end. used, o: it can be used to test the harden-
The results of the Jominy end-quench ability of one steel against another and in
test can be plotted as illustrated in Fig this way determine a suitable steel.
12-L. This test can be used to check the
REVIEW
1. Explain the SAE numbering system 7. Under what conditions is it possible
for steels. to quench a water-hardening steel in oil?
2. What are the non-specified elements 8. If oil and air-hardening steels were
present in aiioy steels? quenched in water or brine, what would be
3. What is the maximum permissable the danger?
percentages for each? 9. What knowledge of what characteris-
4. The term tool steel is restricted in tic of steel is of value in the selection and
practice to what stee!s? qualification of any steel for a given appli-
5. What are the seven major groups of cation?
tool steels? 10. Describe the Jominy end-quench
6. What are the three general classifica- test.
tions of tool steels?
History records the production of cast methods used in its production. Special
iron chi!! molds in China as early as the alloying elements such as copper, molyb-
4th century B.C. Because of its unique denum, nickel and chromium are added,
properties, cast iron continues to fill a very as in stee!, for the purpose of altering the
important role in the modern world. chemical and mechanical properties of the
Cast iron is essentially an alloy of car- iron.
bon, silicon and iron in which more carbon There are many variations in structure
is present than can be retained in solid and properties available in cast iron. How-
solution. The carbon content in cast irons ever, for convenience, they may be classi-
is usually more than 1.7 percent and less fied into five main groups:
than 4.5 percent. The high percentage of 1. Gray cast iron
carbon renders the cast iron brittle and 2. White cast iron
unworkable by rolling or forging. The ba- 3. Malleable iron
sic shape of cast iron products is acquired 4. Ductile (nodular) iron
by casting, hence the name cast iron.’ 5. Alloy cast irons
Silicon, which acts as a graphitizing The terms gray and white, when applied
agent, is usually present in amounts of to cast iron, refer to the appearance of the
one-half to two percent, although it may fracture of a casting. The gray cast iron
be much higher in certain silicon alloy fractures with a dark gray fracture, where-
irons. as the white cast iron shows a light gray
Cast iron, like steel, always contains a fracture, almost rrhite, as illustrated in Fig.
certain amount of manganese, phospho- 13-1. Malleable iron gets its name from
rus and sulfur because of the refining the ability of this type of cast iron to bend
‘Since expressions of psi (pounds per square inch) in units of tens and hundreds of thousands are not absolute
quantities, the conversion units of kNlm2 (kilo-Newtons per meter squared) have been rounded off appropri-
ately.
269
Fig. 13 7. Fraciuie appearance of white cast iron, !sft; gray cast iron, right.
or undergo permanent deformation be- in the foundry practice used in the manu-
fore it fractures. It is much more ductile facture may result in a great many varia-
and tough W&aneither white or gray cast tions in the structure and physical proper-
iron. In each group or classification of cast ties of the cast metal.
irons, many variations in composition and
Although the greatest tonnage of gray the metal has cooled sufficiently, the cast-
iron is produced by cupola melting, other ing is removed from the mold and taken to
furnaces such as the ai:- furnace, electric the cleaning room where adhering sand is
furnace, and rocking-type furnace are also removed by one of several processes, and
used in its manufacture. The cupola is the the castings are chipped and ground.
oldest and cheapest melting method used inspection of the castings takes place at
but is the most difficult to control as to the several points during cleaning, with a final
composition and structure of the final inspection after the finishing operations.
product. In the production of a casting, Heat treating, when required, is per-
the molten metal is taken from the furnace formed after cleaning.
and poured into a mold usually made from ~~~/~r~y of gray iron. Carbon in cast
sand. After the mold has been poured and iron, as in steel, plays the most important
Cast Irons
part in metallurgical control of the proper- effect upon the characteristics of any
ties developed in the cast metal. Some of casting are factors of casting design and
the carbon in gray cast iron is in the com- the workrnanship relative to the entire
bined form similar to the form that carbon process of making a casting. From these
assumes in steel, but by far the larger per- estabiished facts, it should be apparent
centage of the total carbon is present in that to make a gray iron casting to meet
the iron as flakes of graphitic carbon. To certain structural and physical require-
control the properties of gray iron, one ments is rather a difficult task, and it can
must control the amount, size, shape, and be accomplished only with accurate con-
distribution of the graphitic and combined !rcf of all of the variables that are encoun-
forms of carbon. The metallurgist tries to tered in the process. Control of composi-
control the effect of carbon largely by tion alone will not necessarily result in
controlling the composition of the iron, satisfactory castings; however, if all of the
particuiariy ihe percentage of carbon and variables including melting and foundry
silicon, and by controlling other factors technique can be controlled accurately,
that influence the formation of combined then the foundryman can expect to regu-
and graphitic carbon. Some of the varia- late his results by control of composition.
bles that influence ihe carbon control The chemical composition, with all other
include: factors remaining constant, largely deter-
1. Metting method used, such as cupola, mines the type of structure and therefore
air furnace, etc. The cupola melting meth- the properties of the final product.
od is not as easily controlled as the air or Structure of gray iron. Gray cast iron
electric furnaces, and its use may result in can be varied in its structural composition
undesirable amounts of carbon. within wide limits and develop a wide
2. Chemical composition. The chemistry range of properties and applications.
of the charge placed in the furnace and There is no one structure or set of proper-
the composition of the final product ties for this iron. Microscopic examination
largely determine the properties of this of gray iron will reveal the presence of the
product. following structural constituents in varying
3. Temperatures throughout the entire percentages, depending upon the charac-
process are factors that have an impor- ter of the iron: graphite, pearlite, ferrite,
tant bearing on the final structure and cementite, steadite, and manganese sul-
properties of the cast metal. fide. The constituents, graphite, and
4. The cooling rate from the tempera- peartite, are present in varying percent-
ture at the pouring of the casting to room ages in all of the grades of gray iron. The
temperature is a very important factor, as presence of ferrite or cementite, in a free
this has a marked influence upon the final condt:: m, depends upon the amount of
structure developed in the casting. combined carbon present in the casting. If
5. Heat treatments that may be applied the amount of combined carbon is below
to tne final casting. the eutectoid ratio (peariite), free ferrite
Other variables that may have a marked will be found in the structure. On the other
271
hand, if the combined carbon content is
above the amount necessary to form
pearlite. then free cemcnlite will be pres-
ent in the final structure of the casting.
The presence of steadite and manganese
sulfide depends upon the amount of phos-
phorus and sulfur present in the casting.
ray iron. Graphite is by far
the most important constituent of gray
iron. The amount. size, shape, and distri-
bution of the graphite flakes found in this
iron largely control the final properties of
the iron. The carbon present in the form of
graphite has a relatively low density and
therefore occupies more volume than indi-
cated by the weight percentage determi- Fig. 13-2. Gray cast iron with tensile
nation. A gray iron with 3 percent of its to- strength of 15,000 psi (103.325 kN/mz)
tal carbon present as graphite actually has and Brinelf hardness oi 140. Large flakes
of graphitic carbon are responsible for low
5.6 percent or more graphite by volume in hardness and strength (polished, not
its structure. Due to its tlake-like shape, etched). Magnified 700 times.
the graphite breaks up the continuity of
the iron and greatly weakens it. If the
graphite is present in small, round, well-
distributed particles, its weakening effect
is much tess pronounced, and the iron de-
velops much higher mechanical proper-
ties. If the foundry could control the gra-
phitic constituent of gray iron, almost
complete control would be exercised over
the properties of the metai. The condition
of graphitic carbon may be determined by
a microscopic examination of the polished
surface of the iron.
Large flakes of graphitic carbon pro-
duce a soft, weak casting; whereas, fine
and short flakes of graphitic carbon result
in a stronger casting. This difference in
graphitic carbon is illustrated in Figs. 13-2 Fig. 13-3. Gray cast iron with tensile
and 13-3. The nodular shape of graphitic strength of 35,000 psi (241,092 kN/m2)
and Brine/l hardness of 195. Note much
carbon is desired, as illustrated in Fig. smaller flakes of graphitic carbon than in
13-4, but this shape of graphite is ob- Fig. 13-2 (same conditions).
272
4. Fast cooling. Rapid solidification of
the casting will reduce the action of gra-
phitization. The cooling rate is largely con-
trolied by the size of the cast section. This
is one of the large factors affecting the
character of a casting. If the foundry is
asked to cast a section that is wedge
shaped, or that has a very obvious change
in section from thin to thick, this causes
more difficulty in controlling the graphitic
carbon constituent than any other single
factor. The thin sections may not gr&i-
tize at all and therefore will be h=?-i ani’
difficult to machine, whereas !rt:> 1 ,:.r
section of the same casting will graph;tize
Fig. 13-4. Mai!eable cast iron, shows nod- neariy completely into large flakes of
u&r shape of graphitic carbon (polished, graphite and cause a very weak, so? con-
not etched); tensile sfrength, 52,000 psi
(360,197 klV/m *); elongation 16 percent in dition.
2”; Brine/l hardness, 118. Magnified 100 5. Special alloys added to melt. The
ti.mes. principal effect of alloys used in the found-
ry is the control they exert over the forma-
tion of graphitic carbon. Nickel added
tained in annealing of white cast iron, thus helps to graphitize the carbon in a thin
producing malleable cast iron. section, whereas chromium reduces the
The graphitic phase of carbon in gray graphitization in a heavy section.
cast iron may be infiuenced by many fac- arlite ilp gray iron. The constituent
tors. included among them are: pearlite in gray iron is the same as the
1. Ratio of carbon to silicon. Silicon acts pearlite present in steel. Carbon present
as a graphitizer, and the more silicon pre- in the combined form (FesC) will combine
sent the more and larger will be the flakes with the ferrite constituent upon cooling
of graphite. through the critical range of the iron, thus
2. Additions of steei to the melt. Steel developing the pearlitic constituent. Due
additions reduce the total carbon and di- to the presence of phosphorus, silicon,
lute the graphitic carbon present in the and manganese, a combined carbon con-
tent ranging from 0.50 to 0.89 percent
melt. This reduces the opportunity for the
may develop a structural matrix in iron
carbon to graphitize and develop many which is largely pearlitic. It is possible to
and large flakes. have all of the carbon present in the gray
3. Temperature used in melting. Very iron as graphite, in which case a structure
high melting temperatures seem to dis- of ferrite and graphite results, with no
so!ve ?he graphite present in the melt and pearlite, and the iron is soft and weak. As
thus reduce the tendency to graphitize. the amount of combined carbon in-
273
pearlite in going from a ferritic to a
pearlitic condition.
5. fncrease in the fineness and the
amount of the pearlite and decrease in
grain size result in some increase in
toughness, noticeable in machining op-
erations, but produce a correspondingly
smoother finish.
If more combined carbon is present
than can form with the pearlite during
slow cooling through the critical range of
the iron, a free cementite is present which
adds materially to the hardness.
Free cementite in gray iron. The pres-
ence of free cementite in gray iron will in-
crease the difficulty of machining and low-
Fig. 13-5. Pearli’tic gray iron, etched to er the strength of the iron. Cementite is
bring out the fine pearlitic structure which very hard and brittle and its presence in
forms the matrix of this iron. Magnified
250 times. the free form as cementite particles may
be accidental or may be for the purpose of
increasing the hardness and wear resist-
ance of the iron. Ordinarily, free cementite
creases, the iron changes from all ferrite
and graphite to pearlite and graphite. A
casting consisting of pearlite and graphite
is known as a pearlitic gray iron and is
considered the best possible structure for
strength, yet it retains good machinability.
Fig. 13-5 illustrates the type of structure
referred to as a pearlitic gray iron, con-
sisting of graphite flakes with a matrix oi
peartite.
The pearlite constituent influences the
properties of gray iron as follows:
1. The strength of gray iron increases as
the amount of pearlite increases.
2. The finer the constituents in pearlite,
(i.e., ferrite and cementite layers), the
stronger the iron.
3. Finer grain size gives increased
strength. Fig, 13-6 White cast iron, magnified 500
4. The Brine11 hardness increases with times. (Same as Fig. 13-5) Pearlife. dark;
the increase in the fineness and amount of cementite. white.
Cast irons
in large amounts is found only in hard, ganese sulfide (MnS), oxides, and gases.
white iron or chilled irons. Fig. 13-6 illus- Manganese sulfide is present as relatively
trates the large percentage of free cemen- small inclusions scattered throughout the
tite found in a white iron casting. iron and has no appreciable effect on the
Ferrite in grey iron. Ferrite is a naturally strength of the iron. Oxides and gases
soft, ductile constituent possessing good weaken the iron and promote lack of
tensile properties. There is no free ferrite density and soundness. Oxidation of cast
present in gray iron unless the combined iron results in a marked growth in the vol-
carbon content is below that which pro- ume of the iron, which causes trouble
duces a pearl.tic matrix. The presence of when the iron is subjected to elevated
iree ferrite does not impart ductility to the temperatures.
gray iron because the continuity of the fer- Influence of rate of cooling upon
rite matrix is broken by graphite flakes. A structure of gray iron. The rate at which
highly ferritir, gray iron is not ductile as it the cast metal cools from the beginning of
means less pearlite and more graphitic freezing to below the critical range deter-
carbon, resulting in a gray iron of less rnines to a large degree the type of struc-
strength and softer than those containing ture developed in the final casting. Fast
a pearlitic matrix. cooling through the cooling zone and
teadite in gray iron. Steadite is a eu- down to a relatively low temperature will
ic constituent formed from the pres- result in the formation of little or no gra-
ence of phosphorus, which, as an iron phitic carbon. Such an iron will be hard
phosphide, combines with the iron to and brittle. Very slow cooling will allow for
form a low-melting-point constituent marked graphitization with little or no
which melts at about 1750”-1800°F combined carbon and result in a soft and
(955”~98O”C). Steadite is hard and brittle weak iron.
and is considered undesirable in irons There is no easy way to control the rela-
when good mechanical properties are tive rates of cooling of castings cast in
required. Steadite contains about 10 per- sand molds, as the rate of cooling is large-
cent phosphorus, and a 1 percent phos- ly governed by the volume and surface
phorus iron forms about 10 percent stead- area of the individual castings. Light sec-
ite. Phosphorus increases the fluidity of tions with large surface area will cool
the molten iron, which is desirable in some much faster than heavy sections with
types of castings, such as ornamental iron small surface area. The effect of the cool-
castings. However, while phosphorus in- ing rate upon the structure developed in
creases the fluidity, it also decreases the casting can k)e illustrated by a section in
strength, and for this reason it is better to the shape of a wedge. See Fig. 13-7.
obtain fluidity by higher tapping and pour- The thin point of the wedge will cool re-
ing temperatures when strength is latively fast and will consist structurally of
desired. a white iron, cemeniite, and pearlite. If the
inor constituents of gray iron. Minor cooling rate is fast through the critical
constituents of gray iron include man- range of the iron, a martensitic matrix will
275
I 1
TYPE or SnJCT”RE
Fig. 13-7. General influence of section on structure and Brinell hardness.
be formed. The heavy end of the wedge, carbon-silicon r8tiO in gray iron. he
which cools relatively slowly, will contain a of the most important factors affecting the
structure of ferrite and graphite with no structure and properties of a casting is the
combined carbon. This end will be very amount of carbon and silicon used and
soft and weak. the ratio of the carbon to the silicon. This
From this illustration, it should be ap- factor o; foundry control is illustrated in
preciated that any marked change in sec- Fig. 13-8, which points out the ratio of car-
tion in any given casting design may cause bon to silicon required for irons that fall in
trouble for the foundry when a uniform the gray iron, mottled iron, and white iron
structure throughout the entire casting is classes. The ratio of carbon to silicon in
specified. The foundryman can avoid a Fig. 13-8 has to be modified, depending
marked difference in the structure and upon the section size of the casting and
properties of a casting with thin and thick the presence and amount of other ele-
sections by employing various foundry ments or alloys contained in the iron.
techniques, largely those of composition However, silicon is by far the strongest
control. It is possible to obtain a uniform graphitizer of all of the elements that may
structure in castings of varying section be added to cast iron; consequently it is
thick,iess; however, it is much better to the predominant element in determining
design the casting with as uniform a sec- the relative proportions of combined and
tion as possible. graphitic carbon present in the final cast-
276
Cast Irons
SILICON, PERCENT
Fig. 13-8. Composition limits for gray, mottled. and white cast irons (Tanimura).
2?7
Cast Irons
SILICON, PERCENT
Fig. 13-8. Composition limits for gray, mottled. and white cast irons (Tanimura).
2?7
Metallurgy
276
Fig. 13-10. Effect of chromium on Brine/l hardness and combined carbons of arbitration
bars (2.5 percent Silicon; 3.3 percent Carbon) (Trantin). (Cast Metals Handbook, 1935
Edition, American Foundrymen’s Association)
Effect of copper on gray iron. Copper, sistance of the iron, its resistance to acid
like silicon, when alloyed in cast iron, and atmospheric corrosion, and when
functicns primarily as a graphitizing agent. combined with chromium, improves its
Howavei, its ability to act as a graphitizer strength and resistance to oxidation at el-
is only about one-tenth that of si!icon. evated temperatures.
Copper may be added to gray iron in
amounts up to 3 percent. A large percent-
age of the copper is thought to dissolve, Properties of Gray Cast Iron
forming a solid solution with ferrite. The
remaining copper, in excess of its limits of
solid solubility, is dispersed as microscop- Gray cast iron is widely used in the ma-
ic or submicroscopic particles in the iron. chine tool field and in general engineering
The addition of copper refines the pearlite and industrial applications because of its
and increases the tensi!e strength and the ability to be cast in intricate shapes, its
Brine11 hardness. It improves the wear re- low cost, and its wide range of useful
279
Metallurgy
properties. Included among its outstand- strengths developed are from three to five
ing properties are the following: times the tensile strength and will run
1. Excellent machinability. from 70,000 psi (482,700 kN/m’) to over
2. Excellent wear resistance. 200,000 psi (1,379OOO kN/m*) for some of
the higher strength irons.
3. Tensile strength in the as-cast condi-
Hardness. The hardness of gray iron
tion, varying from 20,000 psi (137.900
may be varied within wide limits and may
kN/m*) for the soft, weak irons to 70,000
run from 100 Brine11 to over 700 Brinell for
psi (482,700 kN/m*) for the high-strength
iron that has received heat !reatments,
cast irons.
such as surface hardening. Gray irons with
4. Compressive strength is usually three
a Brine11 hardness value of 180 to 200
to four times the tensile strength, ranging
from 70,000 to 200.000 psi (482,700 to constitute the major group and are more
1,379,OOO kN/m*). commonly used than any other class.
Transverse strength. A method for
5. Gray cast iron has no well-defined
testing cast iron that is readily made in the
elastic limit and may be loaded up to 80
foundry without elaborate equipment and
percent or more of its maximum strength.
with a test bar in ?he unmachined condi-
6. It is the only ferrous alloy that may be tion is known as the transverse bend test.
varied in stiffness. Its modulus of elastici- A test bar of standard dimensions is cast
ty, at a load of 25 percent of ultimate and broken on supports spaced 12, 18, or
strength, ranges from 12,000,OOO to 24 inches apart. The load required to rup-
21 ,OOO,OOO psi (82.740.000 to 144,795,OOO ture the bar is measured, and the value
kN/m*). obtained can be reasonably correlated
7. The hardness of cast iron can be con- with the tensile strength of the iron. Also,
trolled within certain limits and may ex-
the maximum deflection taken at the cen-
tend from 100 to 350 Brine11 hardness.
ter of the bar indicates the ductility and
8. Included in its properties are its valu-
toughness of the iron.
able damping capacity for vibrations and
its good resistance to corrosion. fatigue strength. The fatigue strength,
The tensile strength of gray iron is im- or endurance limit, for gray iron follows
portant from an engineering design view- the values for tensile strength. The ratio of
point. Tensile strengths may be varied fatigue strength to tensile strength runs
from 20,000 psi (137,900 kN/m*) for soft, about 0.40 to 0.57. For the common gray
weak irons, to over 70,000 psi (482,700 irons, this would be about 9000 to 26,000
kN/m*) for the high-strength gray irons (82,100 to 179,300 kN/m*) psi. It has been
and irons in the heat-treated condition. demonstrated during endurance tests that
Modern practice classifies gray cast irons soft gray irons were less sensitive to
according to their minimum tensile notches and grooves or other surface dis-
strengths. continuities than is expected for most ma-
Compessirc- strength. The compres- terials.
sive strength of gray iron is one of its Gray iron is also apparently less sensi-
most valuable properties. Compressive tive to notch brittleness than most materi-
289
Cast Irons
als. This has been explained by pointing accurate criterion of wear resistance for
out that gray irons contain many internal the type of microstructure, and alloys
notches caused by the presence of graph- used in the iron seem to have far more in-
ite f!akes; therefore, the addition of exter- fluence upon this important property. In-
nal notches does not make so much dif- creasing the hardness by heat treatments
ference. Also, gray irons are less rigid with is often practiced for parts such as ways
lower stiffness values, i.e., lower modulus of lathes, cylinder liners, cams, gears,
of elasticity, than other iron alloys: this re-
sprockets. etc., and this practice does in-
duces the effect of stress concentrations
crease the wear resistance of the iron. In
so that the effect of a notch as a stress
raiser in producing fatigue failure is less the hardening process, however, only the
apparent. Usually the modulus of elastici- pearlitic constituent is changed to a har-
ty, at 25 percent of the ultimate strength, der structure. The graphite flakes remain
ranges from 12,000,OOO to 18,000,OOO psi as they were in the as-cast condition.
(82,740,OOO to 124,110,OOO kN/m*)
whereas steel has a modulus of elasticity Heat resistance. Very little change in
of 30,000,OOO psi (2,068,500 kN/m*). the strength of gray iron is observed at el-
The lower modulus of elasticity or stiff- evated temperatures up to 800°F (about
ness developed in gray irons results in an 425°C). Above this temperature, in ?he av-
iron having greater damping effects to vi- erage types of gray iron, there is a sharp
brations set up in service. This character- drop in the strength and hardness, and in
istic of gray iron makes it desirable for most cases a permanent loss in strength
parts of machine tools where vibrations occurs. Alloyed gray irons, with a fine
cause trouble in accurate machining oper- grain size and small graphite flake size,
ations, producing inaccuracies and rough suffer less from loss of strength at elevat-
finishes. The stiffer the iron, the lower the
ed temperatures. Gray irons subjected to
damping capacity. With a material of high
elevated temperatures up to 700°F (about
strength and high modulus of elasticity,
the vibrations may be allowed to build up 370°C) show good resistance to wear and
to a serious intensity, whereas a high galling, which makes them useful for ap-
damping material with a fair strength will plications in automobile, steam, and Die-
damp them out. sel engines. However, gray irons grow or
develop a permanent increase in volume
Wear resistance. Gray cast iron is wide- when subjected to repeated cycles of
ly used for machinery parts to resist wear. heating and cooling in excess of 700°F
The graphitic carbon in gray irons acts as (about 370°C).
a lubricant and prevents galling when Growth of cast iron is largely due to gra-
metal to metal contact occurs. Increasing phitization of the combined carbon in the
the hardness of the iron improves its res- iron and to corrosion and oxidation in the
istance to wear. A minimum hardness of iron, It is thought that oxidizing gases pen-
200 Brine11 is usually specified for parts etrate the iron by way of the graphite
that are manufactured for wear resist- flakes and attack the constituents of the
ance. However, Brine11 hardness is not an iron, especially the silicon. This growth is
281
serious as it reduces the strength and
causes a very weak, brittle condition.
282
Cast Irons
at this temperature for an hour or more, and is governed by the required softness.
depending upon the maximum section of Hardening and tempering. Gray irons
the casting. Follow by a slow cool to of the pearlitic type can be hardened and
around 700°F (37O”C), at which tempera- tempered just as steels can. The pearlite
ture the doors of the furnace may be in the structure of the iron can be changed
opened and the castings removed. The to austenite upon heating to above the
maximum temperature used in this treat- critical temperature of the iron, and upon
ment depends upon the composition of rapid cooling (quenching), transformed to
the casting. Annealing temperatures from martensite. The casting thus treated can
1200” to 1800°F (650” to 980°C) have be tempered to relieve the quenching
beefl used. The time of undergoing heat stresses, increase the toughness of the
influences the degree of graphitization iron, and reduce the maximum hardness.
Fig. 13- 12. Effects of tempering temperatures on the properties of gray cast iron. (Cast
Me?a!s lar?dhnnk
-......, “I2-d Edition, American Foundrymen’s Association)
289
The purpose of hardening and temper-
ing gray iron is to strengthen and to in-
crease the wear and abrasion resistance
of the iron. Ordinary pearlitic gray irons
are heated to 1500°F (815°C) and oil
quenched although water is used as a
quenching medium to a limited extent.
Water quenching will cause more warping
anddanger
from hardening cracks. The
hardening of ordinary gray irons by this
treatment will increase the Brine11 hard-
ness range from around 180-200 to
406 ~500. Following the hardening opera-
tion, thecasting may be tempered from
400” to600°F
(about
205” to 430°C) de- Fig. t3-i3. Fractured section of flame-
pending upon the desired properties. Fig. hardened gray cast iron. Light edge of top
1.3-12 i!!gst:a:es the change in tensile shows the depth of hardness. Surface
hardness, Rockwell 655.
strength and hardness that might be ex-
pected from hardening a pearlitic iron and
tempering within a temperature range of
200” to 1200°F (93” to 650°C).
Gray iron castings can be locally hard-
ened by either the flame-hardening or
induction-hardening method. Local heat-
ing of massive castings can be carried out
safely by either process. If this is followed
by local quench-hardening, the heat treat-
er is able to harden surfaces without heat-
ing the entire casting to the quenching
temperature. This insures a very hard sur-
face without the danger of cracking and
marked distortion that would occur if an
attempt should be made to heat and
quench the entire casting. Fig. 13-13
shows a fractured section of gray iron that
has had one surface hardened by local
heating and quenching, using the flame- Fig. 13- 14. Photomicrograph of gray cast
hardening method. Fig. 13-14 illustrates iron, polished and etched. This iron is the
the type Of peartitic structure in this iron same as that shown in Fig. 13-2. Structure
consists of graphite flakes, matrix of
before hardening, and Fig. 13-15 shows pearlite, with a small percentage .f ferr:‘te
the martensitic stri;cture found in tha (whitej. Magnified 500 times.
Casl Irons
285
Iron castings that are classified as white
or chriied iron have practically all of their
carbon in the combined condition as ce-
mentite. These castings are relatively hard
and brittle due to the high carbon content
which forms a large percentage of hard
ar;d brittle cementite. Casi irons that con-
tain low carbon, 2.0 to 2.5 percent and low
silicon (see Fig. l3-8), when cast in sand
molds and cooled slowly, solidify and cool
to room temperature without graphitizing
any of their carbon. These irons are natu-
ra!ly white irons.
A white cast iron that has been slowly
cocied in the mold has a structure of
pearlite and free cemeniiie smiar to that Fig. :3;-~16. White cast iron, polished and
of a high-carbon steel, except that the etched. ‘White constituent is free ce-
white cast iron contains much more free mentite, and the dark constituent is pearl-
ite. Magnified 100 times.
cementite. The microstructure of this type
of iron is illustrated in Figs. 13-6 and i3-
16. The greatest tonnage of this type of
iron is used for the manufacture of mallea-
ble iron. The addition of alloys such as are required, such as in crusher jaws and
nickel, molybdenum and chromium to hammers, wearing plates. cams, and balls
white iion results in the formation of a and liners for ball mills.
much harder iron. The type of structure ‘vQhite cast iron can also be made by
formed by the alloy additions is usually rapid cooling or chilling of an iron which, if
martensite and free cementite, with the al- cooled slowly, would te graphitic and
loys acting as hardening agents and thus gray. If cast iron is cooled relahvely fast in
preventing the formation of pearlite from Ihe mold, the carbon does not have an op-
austenite during the cooling cycle. The s.~tu.nit? to graphitize and remains com-
structure of an alloyed white iron is illus- bined. Also, rapid cooling prevents ‘he
trated in Figs. 33-17 and 13-18. Irons o! formation of a coarse, soft pearlite and
this type are used for parts or machinerv adds to the hardness of the casting. If the
and industrial equipment where extrerr’,:’ cooling is fast enough, martensite may be
hardness and excellent wear resistance: formed instead of pearlite.
Fig. l3- 17. Photomicrograph of the struc-
ture of white cast iron alloyed with molyb-
denum. Structure is martensitic with ce-
mentite. Rockwell C-58. Magnified 100
times.
i.xal hardening effects may be pro- this effect. Factors that influence the
d ,i”-A ksr
uy na In-.ceI
,““P, rhjll
“II II in
1.1*ks
..I%.m.-slds,
I.,“, which depth of the chill include the ratio of car-
results in a hxd, white iron surface on a bon to silicon (high-silicon content de-
czs?inp that might ordinarily be soft and creases the depth of chill), thickness of
gray if cooled slowly. Fig. 13-19 illustrates the casting, thickness and temperature of
Fig. 73-W. Fracture of a chilled casting, showing the approximate combined carbon
content, graphilic Car%n content, and hardnness of the white, mottled, and gray iron in
the as-cast condition. (Cast Metals Wandbook 3rd Edition, American Foundrymen’s As-
sociation)
the metal placed in the mold to 2ct as a to wear and compressive strength are ma-
chill, the time that the cast metal is in con- jor requirements. Applications for chilled
tact with the metal chiller, and the use of iron include rolls for crushing grain and
alloy additions. ore, rolling mills for shaping metals, farm
Chilled iron castings are extensively implements, and equipment, and cement-
used for railroad car wheels and for many grinding machinery.
diversified applications where resistance
alleable cast iron is made by a gray cast iron. Malleable cast iron is not
process involving the annealing of hard, malleable in the sense that it is as forgea-
brittle white iron which, as the name im- ble as steel or wrought iron, but it does
plies, results in an iron that is much more exhibit greater toughness and ductility as
ductile (malleable) than either white 3r compared to other forms of cast iron. Al-
Cast irons
so, maiieabie iron is Softer ihan gi%f Casi used as a packing mateGal; although
iron and exhibits easier machining charac- squeezer slag, crushed air-furnace or
teristics. Because of these characteristics, blast-furnace slag (used alone or mixed
malleable iron can be used in app!icarions with mill scale), or other forms of iron ox-
ida may SO be used. The purpose of the
where greater toughness and resistance
packing material is to protect and support
to shock are required, such as in farm im-
the castings from warping during the an-
plements, plows, tractors, harrows, rakes, nealing cycle.
etc., and finds many applications in auto- The object of the annealing cycle is to
mobile parts, hardware, small tools, and change the combined carbon or cementite
pipe fittings in spite of its greater cost as (Fe3C) of the %whiteiron to a graphitic car-
compared to gray czast iron. bon (temper carbon) found in malleable
Malleable iron is made from white iron iron. The decomposition of the combined
castings by a high,-temperature, long-time carbon to graphitic carbon is as follows:
annealing treatment. The original white Fe,C+3Fe+C (graphite)
iron castings are made of a low-carbon,
Cementite (FesC) is unstable at a red
low-silicon type of iron-an iron that will hes’t and -.,‘w...r”.,“”
rlnmmnncnc tn
“. -.*- .- graphite and fer-
solidify in a mold and cool without the for- rite upon heating and slow cooling. The
mation of graphitic carbon. The iron is packed castings are placed in a furnace of
usually melted in a reverberatory type of tha box or car type,. and a slow fire is
furnace, commonly known as an air fur- started. The temperature is increased at
nace. Occasional heats of white iron are such a rate as may require two days to
melted in the electric furnace or the open- reach an annealing temperature cf 1550”
hearth furnace. Some heats are melted in to 1600°F (840” to 870°C). After reaching
the cupola, but it is difficult to melt irons this temperature range, the casiings are
of this composition due to the high tem- held there from 48 to 60 hours. The cast-
peratures required for them. ings are then cooled slowly at a rate of not
more than 8” to 10°F per hour (about
5”C/hr) until the temperature has
dropped to around 1300°F (700°C). The
castings may be held at this temperature,
1250” to 1300°F (875” to 703°C). for a
A white iron casting is first made by period up to 24 hours, or the doors of the
casting a controlled composition of metal furnace may be opened after the castings
into a sand mold. Upon cooling, this cast- have been slow-cooled to 125O’F (675°C)
and the pots removed and allowed to air-
~., ing is hard and brittle because of its struc-
cool. The castings are shaken out as soon
ture of combined carbon (Fe&). In the an-
as their temperature permits handling.
nealing process, the castings of white iron
are placed in cast iron pots, or rings, and The annealing cycle should result in all
surrounded by a packing material which of the combined carbon in the original
shc%!d be sufficiently refractory in nature white iron being completely decomposed
SO as not to fuse to the castings ai the an- to a graphitic or temper carbon condition,
nealing temperatures. Sand is commonly and the final structure of the iron should
289
consist of ferrite and graphite. The graphi- cause of more rapid and even heating and
tization of the combined carbon starts as cooling of the metal.
soon as the castings reach a red heat. The
;nitial heating to 1600°F (870°C) for 48
hours causes the tree or excess cementite
of the white iron to graphitize, and the Because of the ductile nature of mallea-
slow cooling cycle to 1250" to 1300°F ble iron, and due to the presence of gra-
(675” to 700°C) allows the graphitization phitic carbon, the structure appearance
of the cementite that is precipitated from upon fracturing wiil show dark or black
solution during this period. When the tem- with a light decarburized surface; thus the
perature of the iron falls below the critical fracture will appear with a white edge and
temperature on cooling or the Ar, point black core. This is known as black-hear-f
(1250"-13OO"F[675" to 700”C]),the bal- malleable iron, the structure appearance
ance of the cementite dissolved by the of which is illustrated in Fig. 13-20. The
iron is precipitated with the formation of
peariite. A soaking period or very slow
cool whiie this change is taking place will
alow the graphitization of the cementite
portion of the pearlite. This will complete
the graphitization of all the possible ce-
mentite contained in the original white
iron.
The time required for the co,nplete an-
nealing cycle varies from five to seven
days. A so-called accelerated annealing
cycle that requires from one-third to one-
half the time required by the large anneal-
ing ovens in general use has been used
successfufly. The shorter annealing cycle
is accomplished by the use of better de-
signed furnaces of the gas or electric-fired
type and, because of the rapid tempera-
ture changes and the accurate control
possible with these newer furnaces, re-
quires much fess total time. Furnaces
used in the shorter annealing cycle are the
smaller batch-type, continuous car-type,
or kiln-type furnaces. Also, if the anneal-
Fig. 13-20. Black-heart malleable cast
ing can be carried out ;vithout the use of a iron showing picture-frame fracture
packing material, considerable reduction formed by decarburized surface. Magni-
in the annealing time is gained. This is be- fied 2% times. (Rays)
such as mill scale or iron ore for p h cing
material, it is possible to complet de-
carburize or burn out all of the ca-.>on in
the original iron. This will result in a malle-
able iron that fractures with a light frac-
ture appearance and is known as White-
heart .na/ieab/e iron. Such a type of iron is
seldom manufactured as it is difficult to
machine, and its mechanical properiies
are inferior to those of the black-heart
malleable iron.
291
Rietalturgy
293
lallurgy
DUCTILE IRONS
Ductile iron is a high strength iron that or spherulitic graphite cast iron (SG iron)
can bt, bent. It is also called nodular iron because of its microstructure. DuCtik iron
294
Cast Irons
295
eta//w
small amount of magnesium to the ladle of fluidity and excellent castability are ad-
cast iron. The addition of the magnesium vantages as a casting material while good
causes a vigorous mixing reaction, result- machinability, wear resistance, high
ing in a homogeneous spheroidal struc- strength, toughness, ductility, hot worka-
ture in the ductile iron casting. Ductile bility, weldability and hardenability resem-
irons combine the processing advantages ble properties of steel. Some typical appli-
of cast iron with the engineering advan- cations of ductile iron in industry are
tages of steel. Low melting point, good shown in Fig. 13-26.
OUGHT IRO
Wrought iron is produced in lots of 300 only. The furnace is lined with iron oxide in
to 1500 pounds (136 to 680 kg) in what is the form of mill scale or ore. Cold pig iron
known as a puddling furnace. This is a fur- is charged into the furnace and as this
nace somewhat similar to the open hearth, melts its carbon is eliminated by the iron
with combustion taking place at one end oxide lining. When practically all of the
296
Fig. 13-28. Wrought iron bars fractured to
show the fibrous, hichory-like structure
Fig. 13-27. Photomjcrograph of wrought which is characterisiic of the material.
iror?, takeii at 100 magnifications, shows (A.M. Byers Co.)
the fibrous slag embedded in a matrix of
neariypure iron.
297
tallurgy
in its ability to resist corrosion and fatigue ties. Because of its softness and ductility,
failure. Its corrosion resistance, directly w:ought iron finds common use in the
attributable to the slag fibers, is also a re- manufacture of bolts, pipe, staybolts, tub-
s& of the ps”“uy
nt*ri*rr “I
e.‘ IL..-. i-.-m base me&a!
lllr 0U.l lng. nai!s, etc.
and its freedom from segregated impuri-
A number of high-alloy cast irons have in the resistance to acids, salt solutions,
been developed for increased resistance caustic soda solutions and for general at-
to corrosion and temperature and for oth- mospheric exposure. They are used in ar .
er special purposes. These irons may be nealing pots, melting pots for lead and
grouped as follows: aluminum, conveyor links and other in-
1. Corrosion resistant alloy cast iron dustrial parts subjected to high tempera-
2. f-feat resistant alloy cast irons ture corrosion. They are also quite shock
3. High strength gray irons resistant and are machinable.
4. Special purpose alloy cast iron High-nickel irons, known commercially
Cormsion resistance. These irons are as Ni-Resist are used in chemical indus-
compounded to provide improved resist- tries as pump housings for pumps han-
ance to the corrosive action of acids and dling acids and in the handling of caustics
caustic alkalis. There are three general in manufacturing plants. This metal has
classifications of these irons, based on the superior corrosion resistance over 18-8
use of silicon, nickel, chromium and cop- stainless steels, although not as good as
per to enhance corrosion resistance. high-silicon irons. While high-nickel irons
High-silicon irons known as Duriron or have a relatively low tensile strength they
Ourichlor find wide use in the handling of are tough, machinable and have good
corrosive acids. By alloying up to 17 per- foundry properties.
cent silicon, a protective film is formed to Heat resistance. White cast irons are
resis? boiling nitric acid and sulfuric acids. naturally resistant to growth at continuous
However these alloys are inferior to plain high temperatures as they do not contain
gray cast irons in resistance to alkalis. free graphite that would be oxidized. Sili-
They also have poor mechanical proper- con and chromium are added to increase
&l;, particularly low shock-resistance. resistance to heavy scaling from high tem-
They are also hard to machine. The use of perature. Their alloys form a light oxide
this high-silicon alloy is mainly as drain surface coating that is impervious to oxi-
Pipes in chemical plants and laboratories. dizing atmospheres. High-temperature
High-chromium irons with 20 to 35 per- strength is increased by the addition of
cent chromium resemble high silicon-irons molybdenum and nickel. Aluminum is ad-
Cast Irons
ded to reduce both scaling and growth at that of steel. They also have excellent im-
high temperatures. pact characteristics at cryogenic tempera-
tures. These irons also have high eled:ical
resistance and non-magnetic roper, ~8s.
Cast irons may require special proper- Aluminum additions of 18 to 25 percent in
ties, such as controlled expansion or pe- cast iron produce ? rr ,. 11 +~~ih high
culiar electrical and magnetic properties. electrical resist&! f:: p’/hiie magnetic I
!iigh-nickel alloys of the austenitic type permeability r:? be contrcileti by addi-
?ave a coefficient of expansion about l/5 t. _1of chrnm:.rn~.
The casting of metals to or-& ii a de- but because the plastic (wax) gets lost
sired shape is perhaps the okfe;: -yletal whe? the hot metal c~?tacts it.
process known to man. Castin; mvolves Pa:!erns are made slightly oversize to
pouring molten metal into & prepared allow for the shrinkage of the cast metal in
mold cavity of the desired ‘.~-~apeand al- cc#4ing. The shrinkage ci ;:ast iron
lowing the metal to solidi%. afnuunts to about l/s”;. of stee! ;!oout ‘L”.
Fig. 13-29 shows a :,cUnatic of a mold Sp~ial shrink rules are use6 by the pat-
cavity for a casting. Tr-;e process begins iern makers. These are oversize to the
with the making of ‘3 .vood, me!al or plas- ;X ,ticular shrink desired.
tic pattern of the e%ct to be cast. Metal The mold cavity, the clear space in the
patterns are used wnen production runs ssction shown in Fig. 1%29, is made by
are high due to the fact that a metal pdt- the pattern. The pattern is positioned in
tern resists the abrasive wear of the the molding flask and pr,epared sand is
moulding sand. Wooden patterns are packed around it. When the pattern is re-
made first as a mastei pattern and the moved from the sand its image is the cavi-
permanent pattern in metal is cast from it. ty in the sand. When the castings them-
Wooden patterns are used to make selves require cavities in the metal, these
molds for casting runs of limited produc- cavities are made by cores which are
tion. Plastic patterns are used for one-of- shaped to size in special sand and baked
a-kind castings as the pattern is left in the hard. The cores are positioned within the
sand, and melts and gassifies when the mold in core prints as shown and left in
hot metal is poured into the mold. This is place while the hot metal is poured.
known as the lost wax process, not be- If the mold is used without drying, it is
cause the process was lost in the dim past called a green sand mold. Or, it may be
299
Fig. 13-29. Diagram of a mold cavity for casting,
baked until it has the roperties of a soft surface of the metal is chilled very rapidly
brick and it is. referre to as a dry sand and becomes very hard. It will also be
olds For casting iron are washed white in color because of the absence of
th a g~a~~ite paint or dusted with graphite. For this reason, such items as
lamp-black in order to form a smooth crusher rolls are cast in chill molds to pro-
minimum of sand sticking to duce hard white iron. In the case of cast-
ofds must be ventilated by ings which are to have certain hard areas,
making small holes through the sand to al- the sand in the mold adjacent to these
tow me gases to escape during pouring. areas is replaced with metal which causes
The molten metal is poured into the the metal to harden in these chill spots.
mold at the pouring basin, Fig. 13-29, and When the casting solidifies, it is pulled
flows down the sprue to fill the cavity. from the sand, the cores knocked out,
When iron is cast into a metal mold, cleaned and annealed. It is then ready for
commonly caked a permanent mold, Ihe machining.
Cast Irons
REVIEW
1. What is the percentage range of car- 8. What two constituents are found in
bon in cast iron? gray iron but not in steel?
2. What is the function of silicon in cast 9. What influence has the pearlitic con-
iron? stituent upon the properties of gray iron?
3. Name four common cast iron alloy- 10. Whay type of a structure in a gray
ing elements. iron is considered strongest and yet is
4. Name the five main groups of cast easily machined?
irons. 11. What influence has the presence of
5. Why is gray iron so named? free cementite in a gray iron?
6. What five variables influence the 12. Why is phosphorus undesirable in a
carbon control in the production of cast casting? Under what conditions may it be
iron? used?
7. What is the most important constitu- 13. What effect has the rate of cooling
ent of gray cast iron? upon the structure of a gray iron casting?
301
A#etallurgy
14. For what reasons are alloying ele- ductility are developed in pearlitic ma/lea-
ments added to gray ken? b/e cast irons?
15. How are gray iron castings classified 30. Describe the common practice used
according to the specifications of the in the annealing cycle for the pearlitic
American Society for Testing and Mate- malleable irons.
rials? 31. Describe the structure developed in
16. Why are gray iron castings less sus- pearlitic malleable iron.
ceptible to notch brittleness than most 32. What special heai treatments may
materials? be employed in order to obtain a pearlitic
17. What treatment is given to gray iron malleable iron?
castings to relieve stresses? 33. Describe the microstructure of duc-
18. What outstanding properties has tile iron.
gray iron? 34. How is ductile iron made?
19. How do the hardening and temper- 35. What are some typical applications
ing of gray iron castings compare to simi- of ductile iron in industry?
lar treatments given steel? 36. Of what importance is slag in
20. What type of gray iron responds wrought iron?
best to such heat treatments as hardening 37. What is the principie commercial
..~~. or
value .I~~~~~. -L> Iron
wrougnr :~- -eI
and tempering?
21. What are the advantages of flame- 38. Name the four groups of alloy cast
hardening of gray iron castings? ironsand the industrial uses for each.
22. What is white cast iron? 39. Describe a pattern as used in cast-
23. What is chilled cast iron? ing metals.
24. List the uses or applications of both 40. What three materials are patterns
white and chilled cast irons. made from?
25. Describe the methc. of making 41. Why are patterns oversize?
malleable cast iron. Name several uses of 42. Define sprueand mold cavity.
malleable cast iron in industry. 43. Casting metals are usually melted in
26. Describe the temper carbon condi- what common device? Describe the melt-
tion found in malleable iron. ing process.
27. Describe the average properties of 44. What is meited to produce cast
malleable iron. iron?
28. What alloys may be added 45. In what form are most alloys added
to malleable irons? Why are they to molten cast iron?
added? 46. What is an inoculant?
29. What approximate strength and
302
The joining of two pieces of steel by A weld is defined as, “a localized coa-
hammer welding is an ancient process lescense (melting together) of metals”; a
dating back thousands of years, the “crystallization into union”. This joining is
squeezing and hammering of the pasty usually accomplished by the application of
iron and slag mixture in the production heat, with or without fusion (melting), with
of primitive wrought iron by hammer or without the addition of filler metal, and
welding. with or without the applied pressure.
The well-known Damascus swords were Fig. 14-1 illustrates the major welding
produced over a thousand years ago by processes in use today. Basically the
hammer-welding strips of high-carbon welding together of two metal parts may
steel to low-carbon steel and then forging be accomplished either by fusion (the
the composite metal into a finely laminat- melting and solidification of metal) or by
ed metal strip. Medieval armor and weap- pressure as in forge welding and spot
ons were also produced by metal smiths welding. Fusion welds are by far the most
skilled in the art of hammer-welding. common, and many such welds ordinarily
Today, welding constitutes one of the do not require the application of pressure.
most important procedures of the metal In fusion some of the metal in each part is
working industry in the fabrication and melted and flows together to form a sin-
assembly of metal parts. Through the gle, solid piece when cooled.
process of weloing, simple metal parts are Welding is a metallurgical process.
joined together to form complicated We/dabi/iiy is defined as the ease with
structures.
303
Metallurgy
Fig. 14- 1. Master chart of we/ding and allied processes, (American Welding Society)
Welding Metallurgy
which the required degree of joinability for the joining of two or more pieces of
and performance can be obtained with a metal together by welding. In the two most
given process and procedure. This in- common welding methods (fusion and
volves three conditions: (1) the metallurgi- pressure), the heat energ;/ used to liquefy
cal compatibility of the process chosen the metal is secured from an electric arc, a
with the job to be done, (2) the production gas flame or electrical resistance. Other
of a mechanically sound joint, and (3) the types of welding obtain the necessary
serviceability of the joint under special heat from fuel-fired forges or furnaces, in
conditions. the case of hammer-welding, or mechani-
Metallurgical compatibility means that cal energy as in friction welding.
the base metal will join with the weld metal In fusion welding the base metals are al-
without forming unacceptable alloys, un- ways melted and, in some cases, extra fill-
desired grain growth, or changes in chem- er metal is added. There are a number of
ical composition. types of fusion welding; these include
Mechanical soundness relates to the groups of processes as: arc welding, gas
presence of cracks in the base metal and welding, electron beam welding and laser
in the weld metal as well as porosity, in- beam welding.
clusions, shrinkage and incomplete pene- !t has been said that fusion welding in-
tration. volves all the principles of metallurgy. In
Serviceability means that in addition to fusion welding, for example, the metal is
meeting the first two conditions the weld melted, refined by fluxes, alloyed, and re-
must meet physical requirements such as solidified. All of the defects common to
strength, ductility, notch toughness, and castings may be found in welds, including
corrosion resistance. blow holes, large columnar dendrites, seg-
Heat is the most essential requirement regation of constituents, and so on.
The process of gas welding involves the A higher heat mixture is obtained by us-
burning of a combustible gas in an oxidiz- ing oxygen and hydrogen gases. These
ing atmosphere. A medium temperature gases are also mixed and burned in a
mixture used in welding low-melting point handheld welding torch and used for me-
metals is air and acetylene gas. The air dium temperature welding operatio,ls
and the gas are under moderate pressure such as welding aluminum and magne-
when mixed in a hand-held welding torch. sium, and in brazing and braze-welding.
The flame is directed to the work surface Extremely high heat is obtained by us-
and obtains fusion of the parts by melting ing a mixture of oxygen and acetylene
the metals in contact. gas. The flame, which reaches a tempera-
Metallurgy
ture of over 6000°F (3300°C) melts all place. Variation of the flame characteris-
commercial metals so completely that tics is accomplished by altering the pro-
metals to be joined actually flow together portions of the gases. In Fig. 14-3 the
to form a complete bond ivithout the ap- three types of flames are shown. The neu-
plication of any mechanical pressure or tral flame results from an approximate
hammering. In most instances, some extra one-to-one mixture of the gases and is
metal in the form of a wire rod is added to chemically neutral in respect to carboniz-
the molten metal in order to build up the ing or oxidizing the metal being welded.
seam for greater strength. On very thin The neutral flame is the one most used in
metals the edges are merely flanged and gas welding operations.
melted together. When an excess of oxygen is forced into
The gas welding method utilizes a torch the gas mixture, the resulting flame is an
or blowpipe which mixes the fuel gas and oxidizing flame. This is sometimes used in
the oxygen in the correct proportions and brazing. With an excess of acetylene gas
permits the mixture to flow to the end of a in the mixture, the flame is reducing (car-
tip where it is burned, Fig. 14-2. The ap- bonizing), its excess carbon will enter into
pearance of the flame coming from the tip the molten metal. The result will be a pit-
indicates the type of combustion taking ted and brittle weld.
Fig. 14-2. The injector (above) and the equal pressure (below) gas welding torches are
the main types in use today. (Linde Co.)
306
/ding tatturgy
NEUTRAL FLAME
INNPR CONE TWO- TENTHS SHORTER
Fig. 14-3. Three @‘pes of flame: neutral,
o.xldizing, and reducing or carbonizing.
OXIDIZING FLAME
metals which are to be welded. Any addi- must be made of permanent material to
tional metal required may be supplied continuously support the arc, but not melt
from a filler rod made of the metal being in the welding operation. When the arc is
welded which is melted by the intense between an electrode and the metal to be
heat of the electric arc. Fig. 14-4 shows a welded, the electrode is either consuma-
typical arc welding set-up in which a single ble or relatively non-consumable. Rods of
electrode is being used. When a metal rod carbon or tungsten are used in non-con-
is used as an electrode, it also acts as a sumable operations, while a wide range of
filler rod. steel alloys with lower melting points than
The electric arc between the carbon carbon and tungsten are used in consum-
electrodes is characterized by an ex- able (filler) operations.
tremely high and constant temperature.
This temperature is approximately
ll,OOO°F (SlOOC) as compared to ap- Gas Shielded Metal-Arc Welding
proximately 6,OOOoF (3300°C) for an oxy-
acetylene gas flame. Since the arc is Early electric arc welding utilized bare
struck between the two electrodes, they metal electrodes. Contamination of the
1
weld was a frequent cccurrence which of the thermal qualities of gas welding by
produced brittle welds with low tensile the use of super-imposed electric arcs.
strength. This contamination is prevented rig e/~~~g. The gas tungsten arc
by the use of shielded electrodes. These welding process is commonly referred to
special eiectrodes have d heavy coating of as TIG welding. TIG stands for Tungsten
various substances which either melt or inert Gas and the process is a type of
release an inert gas. Fig. 14-5 shows a shielded arc where a cloud of inert gas
cross-section of a coated electrode in such as argon, helium or nitrogen is
process of welding. Melted coatings, placed around the arc. This cloud of inert
known as @axes, also shield the molten gas excludes the contaminates in the
metal from the atmosphere but act as room air, especially oxygen, and protects
scavengers to reduce oxides, form a slag the quality of the weld. The TIG welder
to float off the impurities and blanket the has a non-combustible rod of tungsten
hot metai to slow the cooling rate. in a special holder that permits the ‘..ert
The specialized gas metal arc welding gas to be directed directly into the weld
processes listed in Fig. 14-1 are electro- area. A refinement of the special pulsed
gas, pulsed arc and short circuiting arc. arc gives certain production and quality
These are used in specific manufacturing advantages when incorporated into the
processes that require the enhancement TIG method.
etsllurgy
310
14-9. Torch for plasma welding. (Thermal Dynamics Corp.)
311
through the piece, producing the small copper and brass alloys. Although for
hole which is carried along the weld many fusion welds no filler rod is
seam. During this cutting actron, the needed, a continuous filler wire feed
melted metal in front of the arc flows mechanism can be added for various fil-
around the arc column. then is drawn to- let types of weld joints.
gether immediately ibehind the hole by
surface tension forces and reforms in the
is7
weld bead.
The specially designed torch, Fig. 14- Metal inert gas welding is similar to
5. for plasma welding can be hand-held TIG welding. Regular weld metal is used
or machine-mounted for automated ap- fo: the electrode instead of tungsten. It
plications. The process can be used to melts in the arc and adds filler metal to
weld stainless steels, carbon steels, Mo- the weld. The MIG process is widely
nel metal: Inconel: titanium, aluminum, used in automatic welding equipment.
312
dard steels, and ceramics. Fig. l&10
shows a schematic diagram of 217 electron
beam welding machine.
313
Metallurgy
space and the electronic industries where metals not over 0.020 inches (0.50 mm) in
extreme control in weldments is required. thickness. Pig. 14-11 shows applications
Its major limitation is the shallow penetra- of the laS?r beam in microetectronic, mini-
tion. Present day equipment restricts it to ature welding.
Pressure welding is a metallurgical join- 3000 rpm. Fig. 14-13 shows typical exam-
ing process in which the metals are ples of parts welded by inertia welding.
brought into close contact by mechanical The bonding temperatures in pressure
pressure. There are a number of special welding may be above the temperature
types of pressure welding processes, of recrystallization as in the various types
some of which are related to special pro- of electrical resistance welding. Friction
duction methods and metals. Cold weld- welding employs a bonded temperature j/2
inci, diffusion welding and explosive weld- to % of the melting temperatures of the
ing are some of these special pressure metals being joined. However, in the ultra-
methods. Most production pressure weld- sonic welding method, the temperatures
ing operations, however, involve the gen- may be as low as 35 percent of the melt-
eration of heat. Heat can be generated by ing temperature.
heating the metals in a flame as in the an-
cient forge method used by smiths over
the centuries. Ultrasonic Welding
ISince expressions of psi (pounds per square inch) in units of tens and hundreds of thousands are not absolute
quantities, the conversion units of kN/n+kilo-Newtons per meter squared) have been rounded Off appropriate-
(Y.
314
Fig. 14- 12. inertia welding. (top) Schemat-
ic of principle involved. (bo:tom) Photomi-
crograph of aluminum bronze welded to
carbon steel. magnified 75 times. Inter-
face temperatures were below the melting
points of either face, avoiding shrinkage,
gas porosity, and voids.
STAINLESSSTVDS TOMllD STEEL
PLA,T ““8 10 BELL
Fig. 14- 13. Typical example of parts welded by inertia welding. (Caterpillar Tractor co.)
316
Welding Metallurgy
RESISTANCE WELDING
Another type of pressure welding that electrical energy to produce the heat of
should be treated as a separate field is fusion. In resistance welding the parts are
resistance welding. In this type of welding, hand-held or positioned in fixtures that
the opeiation is carried out in specially are part of the machine.
designed welding machines which utilize
The heat of fusion is obtained in the perage transformer whose secondary ter-
weld area from the resistance of the met- minals are connected to the electrodes
al being welded to the passage of a low with heavy, flexible copper alloy strips.
voltage-high amperage electric current. Operation of spot welder consists of
This current is generated by special trans- four cycles: (1) pressure applied by the
formers that are an integral part of the cylinder, (2) momentary passage of elec-
welding machine. Resistance welding de- trical current through the closed elec-
vices include: spot welders, butt or upset trodes, (3) cooling hold, and (4) release.
welders, seam welders, projection weld- The e!ectrical current is con!rol!ed by an
ers, stud welders, and flash welders. Fig. electric timer controlled by a pressure
14-15 is a schematic drawing of the spot switch in the hydraulic circuit. This current
welder equipment. The two pieces to be passing through the high resistance of the
spct-welded together are placed between metal pieces between the electrodes,
the welding points (electrodes). The elec- causes a small quantity of the metal to
trodes are water-coo!ed to protect them melt at the point of pressure at the junc-
from the high heat involved. Pressure on ture of the metals.
the electrodes varies from 4000 to 8000 The timing of the current flow is critical
psi (27,580 to 55,160 kN/m2). The electri- as it must be long enough to melt a small
cal current is from a low-voltage, high am- amount of metal but not too long to melt
318
Fig. 14- 17. Seam welding.
completely through the metal. When the Seam welders, Fig. 14-17 are special-
current flow ceases, the molten metal ized spot welders using rotating wheel
cools and solidifies to form a button. The electrodes which pinch the two pieces of
pressure-hold portion of the weld cycle is metals and weld a continuous seam of ov-
timed to insure complete solidification of erlapping spot welds.
the button before pressure is released and In projection we/ding, one of the pieces
another weld is made. The water-cooling to be welded, such as the tapping plate in
in the electrodes removes heat from the Fig. 14-18, has projections punched up in
copper alloy points to prevent softening, a prior operation in a punch press. The
peening and wear. current flow is directed through these
Butt welders, Fig. 14-16, also called up- projections when the tapping plate is
set welders are used to join bars end-to- forced against the other piece of metal.
end. Extensions to drills are aiso v:elded The electrode plates are flat, hard bronze,
in this type of machine. The basic four cy- water-cooled as were the spot-welder
cles of operation are used, except that in points. When the electric current melts the
the third cycle a cam-driven mechanism projections, the pressure on the electrode
rams the hot plastic ends of the two bars plates force the metal pieces together and
together, thus upsetting or forging the a weld is formed. Fig. 14-19 shows the be-
weld. The excess metal around the upset fore and after conditions in a projection
called the f/ash is later removed. welding operation. The dark areas repre-
318
tallurgy
FlNlSHiDWELD
sent molten metal which, when they solidi- tioned with their edges not quite touching
fy, firmly hold the weld together. These and then clamped in place. One clamp,
areas are referred to as buttons and a made of conducting metal such as bronze,
good weld, when pulled apart, will result in is stationery while the other clamp is on a
a button puking a hole in one of the metal moveabfe slide. As the moveable clamp
sheets. This is a common test of produc- moves toward the stationery clamp the
tion welding in the manufacture of auto- current is turned on and as the irregular
mobile bodies and is referred to as “pull- edges of the two pieces of metal touch,
ing a button”. the resistance is high and the metal melts
rapidly, flashing off in sparks. The move-
Flash Welding ment continues by cam action until a pre-
determined burn has heated both edges
Flash welders, as shown in Fig. 14-20. of the metal pieces uniformly. Then the
are a special type of butt or upset welder cam upsets the pieces, forcing them to
used for welding thin sheets of steel, end- butt together as the current is turned off.
to-end. The thin sheets, such as 18 or 20 The plastic metal is butt-welded and the
gage (1.21 to 0.91 mm) steel; are posi- clamps are released.
321
Fig. 74-29. Stud welding, Graham method. (Republic Steel Corp.)
BRAZING
Ferrous and non-ferrous metals may be takes its name from the original copper al-
joined by lower temperature methods loys used in past ages, brass and bronze.
than those occurring in fusion welding. Heat for brazing may be obtained in many
Brazing is an ancient joining method that ways. The brazing methods listed in Fig.
322
temperature (dull red color) and a bead
deposited over the seam with a bronze fill-
er rod. Bronze welding is particularly
adaptable for repairs to cast iron heating
boilers, malleable iron parts and the join-
ing of various dissimilar metals (cast iron
and steel, etc.). See Fig. 14-22.
An essential factor for bronze welding is
a clean metal surface. Adhesion of the
molten bronze to the base metal will take
place only if the surface is chemically
clear. Even after a surface has been thor-
oughly cleaned certain oxides may still be
present on the metal surfaces. These ox-
Fig. 14-22. Building up a missing gear
tooth wifh a bronze weld. (Linde Co.) ides can only be removed by means of
a good flux. One of the most common
fluxes in use is a white, colorless crystal-
line mineral called borax, a hydrous so-
14-t are basically an enumeration of the dium borate.
particular methods of applying the neces- The flux is applied by dipping the heat-
sary heat. Brazing temperatures are relat- ed rod into the powdered flux. The flux
ed to the melting point of the metal being adheres to the surface of the rod and can
joined and using a non-ferrous filler metal be transferred to the weld. Some rods
having a melting point below that of the come prefluxed. The torch flame must be
base metal. Brazing temperatures from adjusted to be slightly oxidizing and ap-
gas torches are usually over 800°F plied to the base piece until the metal be-
(430°C). The filler metal is distributed be- gins to turn red. Then a little of the rod is
tween the closely fitted surfaces of the melted onto the hot surface and allowed
join? by capi!!ary action. Silver soldering is to spread a!ong the entire crack or seam.
a typical example of such a brazing opera- The flow of this thin film of bronze is
tion. Most silver solders are copper-zinc known as the tinning operation. Once the
brazing alloys with the addition of silver in base metal is tinned sufficiently the filler
percentages from 9 to 80 percent. A typi- rod is melted to fill the crack or complete
cal silver solder used in industry contains the bead.
65 percent silver, 20 percent copper and There are many advantages to bronze
15 percent zinc and has a melting poin! of welding. Since !he base metal does not
1280°F (690°C). have to be heated to a molten condition,
Bronze we/ding fs often referred to as there is less possibility of damage to the
brazing but it varies from brazing in that base metal. Equally important is the elimi-
the base metal is not melted but simply nation of stored-up stresses, SO common
brought up to what is known as a finning to fusion welding. One precaution which
323
Metatlurgy
SOLDERING
Soldering. a joining process using lower lead alloy at 384°F (196°C). Plumbers
melting ailoys, is similar to brazing but is solder consists of 2 parts lead and 1 part
done at temperatures below 800°F tin. Common solder, called half-and-half,
(430°C). Solder is an alloy of two or more consists of equal parts of iead and tin
metals that has a melting point lower than and melts at 36O’F (182°C). Tin added
the metals being joined and with an affini- to lead lowers the melting point of the
ty for. or be capable of uniting with the lead until at 356°F (180°C) or 68 per-
metals to be joined. Soft solders are cent tin, the melting point rises with an in-
used for joining tin plate and other metal crease in tin content until the melting
sheets. A go-tin, lo-fead solder melts at point of pure tin is reached, 450°F
about 41O’F (210°C) and a 70-tin, 30-
324
Welding Metallurgy
(232°C). Hard solders may be any solder ers, also known as Tinman’s solder, con-
with a melting point above that of the tin- tain one part of tin and two of lead.
lead solders; more specifically they are the High production soldering and brazing
brazing solders, silver solders or alumi- are done in furnaces which are generally
num solders applied with a brazing torch. conveyorized. Induction heating and re-
The soldering methods listed in Fig. sistance heating are used in some cases
14-1 list the various means of applying the to provide high speed and localized heat
necessary heat. Each method is related to in automated processes. A molten bath of
a particular requirement of the production the filler metal is used in the dip-soldering
process or to the metals used. Soldering process. The bath provides both the re-
of mechanical assemblies is usually done quired heating medium to heat the parent
using a low-temperature gas torch. Sol- metal and also the filler metal in a molten
dering of electrical components is usually condition. Modern copper plumbing utiliz-
done with an electrical resistance solder- es a unique joining method in that each
ing iron and the solder used should have fitting has a solder hole into which wire
at least 40 percent tin as the electrical solder is melted after the joint is assem-
conductivity of lead is only about half that bled and heated. The solder fills the joint
of tin. Wiping solders are used in the auto- clearance which is held to 0.0001” to
mobile industry for the external finishing 0.005” (0.025 to 0.127mm). Fig. 14-23
of joints or metal blemishes to give a shows a few of the many configurations of
smooth surface for painting. These sold- brazed and soldered joints.
EFFECTS OF WELDING
Fusion welding is a complex metallurgi- The solidification of the weld metal is il-
cal process resulting in an ,end-product, lustrated in Fig. 14-24. The grain growth
the weld, which may not be acceptable begins at the edges of the solid metal as
for a number of reasons. As the metal is the heat of the molten weld metal flows
melted, unwanted oxides and gases may out into the solid metal. Grain growth is
contaminate the molten metal. The high columnar dendritic along the length of the
temperature of the weld affects the metal weld. Cracking may occur during the final
adjacent to the weld as it is heated and stages of solidification if excessive shrink-
cooled thus undergoing a heat treatment. age occurs. Cracking can be minimized by
This may harden or soften the metal. careful pre-heating and controlled cooling
These effects are almost as true of high- of the weld area.
heat friction methods as of fusion The metal on either side of the weld,
methods. being heated close to its melting point, is
325
Fig. 14-24. Solidification in single-pass arc we/d: (left) Nucleation and columnar grain
growth; (right) Solidified weld metal.
Fig. 14-25. Heat affected zone around an arc weld in low-carbon steel,
326
Welding Metallurgy
subject to grain growth. Coarse grain met- too! housing, reaction stresses occur due
al Is less desirable ?han fine-grained struc- to the resistance to thermal expansion
tures as it is usually harder and more brit- and intraction by the structure.
tle. Fig. 14-25 shows the heat affected Types of distortion that are to be resist-
zone around an arc weld made in low- ed by the total structure are illustrated in
carbon steel. Fig. 14-26. These stresses must be re-
A shop truism states that “a good weld moved from the weldment before machin-
is stronger than the metal being welded”. ing to prevent distortion of the finished
The reason for this observation is that the housing. Welding stresses are usually re-
limiting feature in most welds is not the duced by a process called stress anneal-
weld filler metal but rather the parent met- ing. In this process, a steel weidment is
al. The analysis of the parent metal, its placed in an oven or furnace and heated
thickness and its reaction to the heat of to a temperature of 12OO’F (about 65O’C)
welding, determines the efficiency of the held at ?his heat for an hour or more to be-
fina! we!d. come uniformly heated throughout and
When fusion wefdfng is employed to then siowiy cooled to room temperature.
form a rigid structure such as a machine
327
Metatlurgy
REVIEW
1. What is the original method of of laser welding.
welding? 17. Define resistance welding.
2. Define a weld. 18. Name six types of resistance weld-
3. What is the most common welding ers.
process used? 19. Friction welding develops tempera-
4. What three conditions must be met tures much less than the melting tempera-
in welding? ture of the base metals. Why is this advan-
5. What is the most essential require- tageous?
ment in welding? 20. Name the four operational cycles of
6. What are the two main groups of a spot welder.
welaing processes? 21. Why are spot welding electrodes
7. What meta’?rgical processes are in- water-cooled?
volved in welding? 22. What is the difference between
8. What problems can arise in fusion brazing and bronze welding?
welding? 23. What is the most common brazing
9. What two types of electrodes are flux?
: usad in XC Wddkig? 24. Wha! is the composition of a typical
10. What is the temperature of an elec- silver solder?
tric arc? 25. What is the composition of Plumb-
i 1. Why are shielded arcs used? er’s solder?
12. Describe a TIG welder. 26. What dual purpose does a dip sol-
13. What are specific advantages in the der bath provide?
plasma welding of butt joints? 27. Why is “a good weld stronger than
14. Describe the MIG process. the metal being welded”?
15. Why is electron beam welding done 28. How are structural distortions from
in a vacuum? welding corrected?
IS. Name some operational advantages
Powder metallurgy is the process may become as important to the metal-
whereby metallic shapes are manufac- working industry as the die-casting meth-
tured from metallic powders. The process od. The powder metallurgy process has
involves the production of metallic pow- definite limitations and many difficulties to
ders and the subsequent welding of these overcome, which distinctly limit its appli-
powders into a solid of the required cation at the present time.
shape. Although at the present time this The modern metallurgist cannot claim
process is making no large tonnage of credit for the discovery of the powder-
metallic shapes, compared with the ton- metallurgy process. Metal!ic powders and
nage produced by the melting, casting, solids from metallic powders have been
and forging methods, the tonnage of made for many years. Powder metallurgy
shapes being produced from metal pow- was used in Europe at the end of the 18th
ders is increasing every year. century for working platinum into useful
The powder metallurgy process is limit- forms. Platinum was infusible at that time.
ed to the manufacture of shapes of a few However, it is known that the early Incas in
pounds in weight, but some 1600 years Esiiador manufactured shapes from plati-
ago the famous iron pillar in Delhi, India, num powders by a similar process long
weighing 6% tons (5900 kg), was made before Columbus made his famous voy-
from iron particles of sponge iron similar age. Wollaston in 1829 developed a tech-
to the iron used in this modern process. nique that proved very successful in the
Ultimately, the powde: metallurgy process manufacture of a ma!!eab!e platinum from
329
Metallurgy
platinum powder. This allowed forging of the oxide and then sintered into a solid
the resultant solid like any other metal. form. Similar techniques were developed
The first modern application of the pow- using tungsten, vanadium, zirconium, tan-
der metallurgy process was the making of talum, and other metals. The first success-
filaments for incandescent lamps. The first ful metal filament was made from tanta-
metal filament was made from metallic os- lum, but with the discovery by Coolidge
mium powder, produced by mixing os- that tungsten sintered from tungsten pow-
mium or its oxide with a reducing material der could be worked within a certain tem-
that also served as a binding material. The perature range and then retain its ductility
mixture was extruded or pressed to form at room temperature, tungsten became
a filament. which was heated to reduce the most important filament material.
METAL POWDERS
Metal powders are now available from who comes in contact with metals in every
many of the common metals and some al- aspect of his everyday life.
loys. Metals and alloys such as aluminum,
antimony, brass, bronze, cadmium, co- Methods of Making Metal Powders
balt, columbium, copper, gold, iron, lead, Metal powders may be considered as
manganese, molybdenum, nickel, palla- raw materials for the fabrication of metal
dium, platinum, silicon, silver, tantalum, shapes and not as end-products in them-
tin, titanium, tungsten, vanadium, zinc, selves. The powders are usually made with
carbides, and boron, have been success- some idea as to the requirements of the
fully produced in powder form. applications in which they will be used.
The importance of metal powders and Most of the metal powders are tailor-
of shapes produced from the powders is made to suii the requirements of each ap-
great when you consider the role played plication. Due to the many requirements
by this process in the illumination field in demanded of the metal powders, varied
making filaments for lamps, or the tiny means of manufacture are necessary.
contact points made by this process for The metal powders may be distin-
use in relays, etc. Also, applications of this guished from one another and classified
Process in the manufacture of the oilless by a study of the following characteristics:
bearings and in the manufacture of metal- (a) particle size, (b) particle shape, (c) sur-
lic shapes used in machines and tools face profile, (d) solid, porous, or spongy
make this process very interesting to the nature, (e) internal grain size, (f) lattice dis-
average individual connected with the tortion within each particle, and (g) the im-
metal-working industry and to the layman purities present and their !oca!ion, and
Powder Metallurgy
whether or not they are in solid solution or granulated by the oxide films which form
exist as large inclusions or as surface and on the surfaces of the particles, prevent-
grain-boundary films. ing them from coalescing. This method
The shape of metallic particles is such produces a relatively coarse powder with
as to require study to determine whether a high percentage of oxide.
or not the shape is angular, dendritic, or In the atomization process, molten met-
fernlike, ragged and irregular, or smooth al is forced through a small orifice and
and rounded. It is obvious that such a broken up by a stream of compressed air,
study of all these factors relating to metal steam, or an inert gas. Fine powders may
powder is relatively arduous and requires be made by this process, but it requires
skill and special techniques. The manufac- special nozzles and careful control of tem-
turer of metallic powders tries to control perature, pressure, and the temperature
all of these characteristics and improve of the atomizing gas. Although oxidation
techniques so as to manufacture a uni- can be prevented by use of an inert gas,
form product in each batch. The methods little oxidation occurs in this process if air
used in the manufacture of metallic pow- or steam is used. Apparently, the particles
ders include grinding, machining, stamp- oxidize and form a thin protective coating
ing, shotting, granulation, atomizing, va- upon the surfaces, thus preventing exces-
por condensation, dissolving constituent, sive oxidation from occurring. This
calcium hydride, chemical precipitation, process may be used for such metals as
carbonyl process, fused electrolysis, oxide tin, zinc, cadmium, aluminum, and other
reduction, and electrolytic deposition. metals having a relatively low melting
The mechanical methods, such as ma- point. This process allows the production
chining and milling, used in the manufac- of metal powders with controlled fineness
ture of metal powders make a relatively and with a uniform particle size.
coarse powder. The cost is usually high, Metal powders may also be made by the
and the powders made by these methods vapor condensation process. In this
are usually treated to remove the cold process, the metal is heated to the vapor
work-hardening received in ihe process. state, which, upon cooling, is condensed
In the shotting process a rather coarse to a solid powder state. Slight oxide films
particle is made by pouring molten metal prevent coalescence of the vapor into a
through a screen or fine orifices and al- massive liquid state upon cooling. Zinc
lowing the shot to fai! into water. Some- dust is made in large quantities by this
times this process is used as a breakdown process.
step in the production of a finer powder. In the carbonyl process, metal powders
The granulation process depends upon are made by the formation of a carbonyl
the formation of an oxide film on individu- gas. Carbonyls are produced by passing a
al particles when a bath of metal is stirred carbon monoxide gas over a sponge met-
in contact with air. The molten metal is al at suitable temperatures and pressures.
stirred vigorously while cooling, and, as it The carbonyl formed may be a gas or a
passes through a mushy state, ihe metai is liquid at room iemperature. Upon heating,
331
Metallurgy
332
consequently are harder to press or com-
pact into a briquette.
Characteristics of
333
Metatturgy
and ruptures will occur in the cold- known volume of unpacked powder is
pressed shape. In iron powders, the pres- called its apparent density. It is usually ex-
ence of carbon (as cementite, FesC), sili- pressed as grams per cubic centimeter
ca, sulfur, and manganese may greatly (g/cc). The apparent density is a very im-
influence the plasticity of the iron pow- portant factor affecting the compression
ders, making them difficult to cold press. ratio that is required in order to press the
Carbon in the form of graphite may be de- powder to a given density. If the apparent
sirable from the viewpoint of lubrication density of a given powder is one-third that
during cold pressing, and its presence of the required density, then three times
during sintering may result in changing the volume of powder is required to pro-
the iron to a product similar to steel. Gra- duce a given volume; i.e., the loose pow-
phitic carbon is often added to iron pow- der in a die cavity should be compressed
ders for the purpose of making a harder from 3 inches (7.6 cm) in height to 1 inch
iron similar to steel. (2.54 cm), or the stroke of the punches
Physica/ structure of the powders. The used in the dies should close up 2 inches
structure of the powder greatly influences (5 cm). It is obvious that low apparent
such characteristics as plasticity and abili- density or bulkiness of the powder will re-
ty to be cold-pressed or made into bri- quire a longer compression stroke and
quettes. It influences pressures required relatively deep dies to produce a cold-
in pressing, flow characteristics, and the pressed piece of a given size and density.
strength of the final product. The study of Particle size. Particle size is one of the
the powder will reveal whether or not the most important characteristics of any
powder is angular in shape, solid, porous powder. The most commonly used meth-
and spongy, crystalline, dendritic or fern- od of measuring the size of any metal
iike, or ragged and irregular in shape. The powder particle is to pass the powder
type of structure that is desired in any giv- through screens having a definite number
en powder is usua!ly determined from ex- of meshes to the linear inch. In the screen-
perience by the metallurgist. ing method, the size of the particle is mea-
Flow characteristics. Powders will fill sured by a square-mesh screen of stan-
the die cavities by gravitational flow. A dard weave which will just retain the
powder is required to flow uniformly, free- particle. However, most powders are
ly, and rapidly into the die cavity. If the composed of nonspherical particles, and
flow is poor, it becomes necessary to slow therefore particle size is not a concise
down the process of cold pressing in or- method of measurement. Most frequently
der to get sufficien? povder into the die. the powders as used are made up of var-
The flow rate of any powder is largely in- ious sizes of particles. Their size is com-
fluenced by the size of the powder parti- monly reported by screening out the
cles, distribution of size, particle shape, coarse, then the medium, and then the
and freedom from even minute amounts fine particles and reporting thus: 66 per-
of absorbed moisture. cent-too to 200 mesh; 17 percent- 200
Apparent density. The weight of a to 325 mesh; and 17 percent-325 mesh.
334
Powder Metallurgy
This means that 66 percent of the powder lariy true when metal powders such as
by weight will pass the loo-mesh screen iron, copper, etc. are used; however, gold
but not the 200-mesh screen, etc. Other powder can be cold-welded by pressure,
methods used for sizing powders include producing a reasonably strong bond or
microscopic measurement and sedimen- weld. Under pressure at room tempera-
tation, both being used to determine the ture, metal powders that are plastic and
size of particles when they are smaller relatively free from oxide films may be
than the finest mesh size of screens. compacted to form a solid of the desired
shape, having a strength (green strength)
that allows the part to be handled. This re-
sult has been called cold welding or bri-
ing of Powders
quetting.
The welding under pressure of the metal
In the process of fabricating parts from particles in order to form a solid briquette
powdered metals, the most important of the shape desired requires the use of
step is the one involving the welding to- pressures varying from 5 to 100 tons/in’
gether of the metallic powder to form a (68,950 to 1,379,OOO kN/cm2). Relatively
solid which will yield the proper shape and light toads are used for the molding or bri-
the properties required of the finished quetting of the softer and more plastic
part. We may think of this step as one metals and for producing porous metal
comparable to that used in the process of parts such as those employed in porous
welding two pieces of wrought iron or low- bearings. Pressure up to 100 tons/in2
carbon steel, this being accomplished by (1.379.000 kN/cm”) is necessary when
pressure and heat properly applied; this is maximum density is needed and when
called pressure welding. pressing relatively hard and fine metal
We are all familiar with the forge or powders.
hammer-welding process practiced for Commercial pressing is done in a varie-
thousands of years. We are also fomifiar ty of presses which may be of the single
with the seizure that occurs when two sur- mechanical punch-press type or the mod-
faces rub together without proper lubrica- ern double-action type of machine that
tion or through failure of an oil film. All this allows pressing from two directions by
is a clue as to the action that takes place moving the upper and lower punches, syn-
chronized by means of cams. These ma-
when we weld metal powders together to
chines also incorporate movable core
form a solid or so-called briquette. Al- rods, which make it possible to mold parts
though a good weld cannot be made be- having long cores and assist in obtaining
tween metals at room temperature by proper die fills and help in the ejecting op-
pressure alone, when the metal particles erations of the pressed part. Fig. 15-2 il-
are relatively fine and plastic, a welding lustrates a mechanical press used for bri-
may occur that is satisfactory from the quetting metal powders.
viewpoint of handling, although little or no The molding of small parts at great
strength will be developed. This is particu- speeds and at relatively low pressures can
335
parts at the rate of 300 to 30,000 per hour.
To obtain a production of 30,000 parts per
hour requires rotary presses in which
more than one set of dies is incorporated
into the design of the machine. The single
punch press with a double action can be
used for production of parts up to 2000
pieces per hour.
A press to prove satisfactory shouid
meet certain definite requirements, a-
mong which are the following: (1) sufficient
pressure should be available without ex-
cessive deflection of press members; (2)
the press must have sufficient depth of fill
to make a piece of required height de-
pendent upon the ratio of loose powder to
the compressed volume, this being re-
ferred to as the compression ratio; (3) a
press should be designed with an upper or
lower punch for each pressing level re-
quired in the finished part, although this
may be taken care of by a die designed
with a shoulder, or a spring-mounted die
which eliminates an extra punch in the
press; (4) a press should be designed to
produce the number of parts required.
Large presses operate on a production of
Fig. 15-2. Hydraulic compacting press, 6 to 8 pieces per minute, while small
300 ton capacity, for large metal com- single-action presses can produce 60 or
pacts. {Stokes Powdered hieta/ Press more parts per minute. Small rotary
Dept., Pennsali Equipment Div.) presses may have a production capacity
of 660 per minute. Pigs. 15-3 and 15-4 it-
lustrate the changing from powder to bri-
quetted shape in mechanical presses.
Punch and die equipment are of prime
importance in any powder metallurgy ap-
be best accomplished in the mechanical plication. Unit pressures are high, and the
press. Howeve:, large parts and parts to best of steels and workmanship must be
be molded at relatively high pressures are used to obtain satisfactory operation and
best molded in hydraulic presses. The rate reasonabie die life. Materials used for dies
of production of parts by the powdered and punches vary from hard carbide al-
metal process wilt vary depending upon loys to ordinary carbon steels. The punch-
the size of the part and the type of press es are usually made from an alloy punch
used. Mechanical presses can produce steel that can be hardened by oil quench-
Fig. 15-3. The change from powder to briquetted part in two to six seconds is a fitting
example of manufacturing speed attainable by powder metallurgy. (Chrysler Cor-
poration)
337
Metalturgy
production, abrasive nature of metal pow- the atoms in the crystals; it gives them an
ders, need of any lubricant, method of opportunity to recrystallize and remedy
ejection of part from die, volume change the cold deformation or distortion within
during sintering such as growth or the cold-pressed part. The heating of any
shrinkage, and the necessity of repressing cold-worked or deformed meial will result
after sintering in order to produce parts in recrystallization and grain growth of the
within the size tolerance allowed. By a
crystals, or grains, within the metal. This
careful study of these factors, the design-
er is able to make proper drawings for a action is the same one that allows us to
production die. anneal any cold work-hardened metal and
Lubricants are used in the molding or also allows us to pressure-weld metals.
briquetting of powders for the purpose of Therefore, a cold-welded or briquetted
protecting the die from excessive wear powder will recrystallize upon heating, and
and to aid in the flow and ease of pressing upon further heating, the new crystals will
the powders into a briquette. Lubricants grow, thus the crystal grains become larg-
used include graphite, stearic acid and er and fewer. If this action takes piace
zinc, aluminum, and lithium stearate. The ihroughout a cold-pressed powder, it is
lubricants are usually added to the metal possible to completely wipe out any ev-
powder and thoroughly mixed before idence of old grains or particle boundaries
pressing. Aluminum stearate is used for
and have a 100 percent sound weld.
the aluminum alloy powders, and lithium
Sintering temperature and time. The
stearate or zinc stearate for the iron
powders. sintering temperatures employed for the
Graphite also may be used as a lubri- welding together of cold-pressed powders
cant with iron powders. If enough graphi?o vary with the compressive loads used, the
is added to the iron powder, a carburiza- type of powders, and the strength re-
tion of the powder occurs during the sin- quired of the finished part. Aluminum and
tering operation, restilting in the formation alloys of aluminum can be sintered at
of a higher carbon alloy. The total carbon temperatures from 700” to 950°F
content of the sintered alloy can be con- (371 to 510°C) for periods up to 24 hours.
trolled by the amount of graphite added to Copper and copper alloys, such as brass
the original powder. and bronze, can be sintered at tempera-
tures ranging from 1300°F (704°C) to
temperatures that may melt one of the
Sintering constituent metals. Bronze powders of 90
percent copper and 10 percent tin can be
sintered at approximate!y 1600°F (87O’C)
Heating of the cold-welded metal pow- or lower for periods up to 30 minutes.
der is called the sintering operation. The Compacts of iron powders are usually sin-
function of heat applied to the cotd- tered at temperatures ranging from about
welded powder is similar to the function of 1900°F to 2200°F (about 1040 to 1200°C)
heat during a pressure-welding operation for approximately 30 minutes.
of steel, in that ii allows more freedom for When a mixture of different powders is
338
Metallurgy
production. abrasive nature of metal pow- the atoms in the crystals; it gives them an
ders, need of any lubricant, method of opportunity to recrystallize and remedy
ejection of part from die, volume change the cold deformation or distortion within
during sintering such as growth or the cold-pressed part. The heating of any
shrinkage, and the necessity of repressing cold-worked or deformed metai will result
after sintering in order to produce parts
in recrystallization and grain growth of the
within the size tolerance allowed. By a
crystals, or grains, within the metal. This
careful study of these factors, the design-
er is able to make proper drawings for a action is the same one that allows us to
production die. anneal any cold work-hardened metal and
Lubricants are used in the molding or also allows us to pressure-weld metals.
briquetting of powders for the purpose of Therefore, a cold-welded or briquetted
protecting the die from excessive wear powder will recrystallize upon heating, and
and to aid in the flow and ease of pressing upon further heating, the new crystals will
the powders into a briquette. Lubricants grow, thus the crystal grains become larg-
used include graphite, stearic acid and er and fewer. If this action takes piace
zinc, aluminum, and lithium stearate. The throughout a cold-pressed powder, it is
lubricants are usually added to the metal possible to completely wipe out any ev-
powder and thoroughly mixed before idence of old grains or particle boundaries
pressing. Aluminum stearate is used for
and have a 100 percent sound weld.
the aluminum alloy powders, and lithium
stearate or zinc stearate for the iron Sintering temperature and time. The
powders. sintering temperatures employed for the
Graphite also may be used as a lubri- welding together of cold-pressed powders
cant with iron powders. If enough graphi?o vary with the compressive loads used, the
is added to the iron powder, a carburiza- type of powders, and the strength re-
tion of the powder occurs during the sin- quired of the finished part. Aluminum and
tering operation, restilting in the formation alloys of aluminum can be sintered at
of a higher carbon alloy. The total carbon temperatures from 700” to 950°F
content of the sintered alloy can be con- (371 to 510°C) for periods up to 24 hours.
trolled by the amount of graphite added to Copper and copper alloys, such as brass
the original powder.
and bronze, can be sintered at tempera-
tures ranging from 1300°F (704°C) to
temperatures that may melt one of the
Sintering constituent metals. Bronze powders of 90
percent copper and 10 percent tin can be
sintered at approximate!y t8OO”F (870°C)
Heating of the cold-welded metal pow- or lower for periods up to 30 minutes.
der is called the sintering operation. The Compacts of iron powders are usually sin-
function of heat applied to the cold- tered at temperatures ranging from about
welded powder is similar to the function of 19OO“F to 2200°F (about 1040 to 1200°C)
heat during a pressure-welding operation for approximately 30 minutes.
of steel, in that it allows more freedom for When a mixture of different powders is
Powder tailurgy
to be sintered afte; pressing and the indi- may be carried into the furnace by the
vidual metal powders in the compact have work or trays. This zone may be cooled by
marked!y different melting points, the sin- a water jacket surrounding the work. The
tering temperature used may be above second zone heats the work to the proper
the melting point of one of the component sintering temperature. The third zone has
powders. The metal with a low melting a water jacket that allows for rapid cooling
point will become liquid; however, so long of the work, and the same protective at-
as the essential part or major metal pow- mosphere surrounds the work during the
&% iS ii& iiiOkR, this practice may be cooling cyc!e.
employed. When the solid phase or pow- Fig. 15-5 illustrates a furnace of this
der is soluble in the liquid metal, a marked type. The work may be placed on trays or
diffusion of the solid metal through the liq- suitable fixtures and pushed through the
uid phase may occur, which will develop a furnace zones at the correct rate either by
good union between the particles and re- hand methods or by mechanical pushers.
sult in a high density. A mesh-belt type of conveyor furnace can
Most cold-pressed metal powders be used whenever the temperatures of
shrink during the sintering operation. In sintering allow it. Such furnaces are used
general, factors influencing shrinkage in- for sintering, operating successfully up to
clude particle size, pressure used in cold 2000°F (1 lgO”C), although temperatures
welding, sintering temperature, and time in excess of 1600°F (87O’C) may cause
employed during the sintering operation. damage to the conveyor belt.
Powders that are hard to compress will Protective atmospheres are essential to
cold-shiink less during sintering. It is pos- the successful sinte:ing of pressed metal
sible to control the amount of shrinkage powders. The object of such an atmo-
that occurs. By carefill selection of the sphere is to protect the pressed powders
metal powder and determination of the from oxidation which would prevent the
correct pressure for cold-forming, it is successful welding together of the parti-
possible to sinter so as to get practically cles of metal powder. Also, if a reducing
no volume change. The amount of protective atmosphere is employed, any
shrinkage or volume change should be oxidation that may be present on the met-
determined so as to allow for this change al powder particles will be removed and
in the design of the dies used in the thus aid in the process of welding. A com-
process of fabricating a given shape. mon atmosphere used for the protection
Furnaces and atmospheres. The most and reduction of oxides is hydrogen. Wa-
common type of furnace employed for the ter vapor should be removed from the hy-
sintering of pressed powders is the con- drogen gas by activated alumina dryers or
tinuous type. This type of furnace usually refrigerators before it enters the furnace.
contains three zones. The first zone A cheap high-hydrogen gas may be
warms the prssse;i rarts, and the protec- generated by the dissociation of ammo-
tive atmosphere used In the furnaces nia, forming a mixture of gases for a pro-
purges the work of any air or oxygen that tective atmosphere containing 75 percent
339
Fig. 15-5. A sintering furnace with three zones; purging, sintering, and cooling. (West-
inghouse Electric and Manufacturing Corp.)
hydrogen and 25 percent nitrogen. The present. For sintering iron at 1950” to
most common type of protective gas used 2100°F (1065 to 1150°C) a gas contain-
is manufactured from partially burned hy- ing approximately 18 percent CO, 1 per-
drocarbon gases such as coke oven gas, cent CO,, 2 percent CH,, and 32 percent
natural gas, or propane. The gas is mixed H,. dried to a dewpoint of 40°F (4°C) has
with air in a suitable gas converter or gen- proved satisfactory. A ratio of 5%:1 be-
erator and then cooled and let into the tween air and propane gas will pr-educe an
furnace. By control of the gas-air ratio, a atmosphere of this composition.
variation in the composition of the manu-
factured gas is obtained so that a gas can
be generated that will prove suitable for a
given composition of metal powder. The Hot Pressing
importance of the atrrosphere cannot be
?oo hioh!v
J A stressed. Pure iron will oxidize If metal powders could be pressed at
in an atmosphere suitable for copper sin- temperatures high enough to sinter them
tering; therefore. the selection of the at- to a solid at the same time they are bri-
mosphere depends upon the composition quetted, much lower pressures and tem-
of the pressed metal part. peratures might be used. The problems
For sintering copper and many of its al- involved in hot pressing include the follow-
loys, a gas on the reducing side is usually ing: oxidation of the powders, excessive
satisfactory, provided no free oxygen is wear on dies. selection of alloys for
Fig. 15-6. Bearings, too/s, and machine parts made by the powder metallurgy process.
Some are porous, some dense, some se/f-lubricating, some dry, but near/y a// units were
made directly from dies without the necessity of machining. Some of these parts are
made 200 times faster and have features impossible to obtain by other methods. (Chrys-
Ier Corporation)
341
.”
. ‘L
344
Powder Metallurgy
I ATMOSPW
rERRo”s
- MACHINE
PARTS
MlXlNG SINIERING
SIZINGAND/OR
of contact points of tungsten, silver, or with softer metals, welding rods in which
copper, clutch faces and brake linings the necessary fluxes are incorporated with
where a mixture of a high coefficient of the special metallic material of the rod or
friction material is added to a metallic bound to the surface of the metallic rod,
base, grinding wheels and drills made by Babbitt bearings made by bonding a
combining diamond dust or carbide dust bearing alloy to a metallic backing strip,
345
Metallurgy
and many other successful applications. tions, success for this process will be defi-
There are many limitations to the applica- nite and continued. See Fig. 15-15 for the
tion of the powder metallurgy process, various powder metallurgy processes.
but, with an understanding of these limita-
REVIEW
1. Define powder metallurgy. 11. Describe the process of molding
2. What does the powder metallurgy metal powders.
process involve? 12. What are the four requirements for
3. What was the first modern applica- satisfactorily molding in a mechanical
tion of powder metallurgy? press?
4. What are recent applications of the 13. What lubricants are used in
process? molding?
5. Is it possible to produce metallic 14. Describe the process of sintering.
alloys by the process? 15. What four factors influence shrink-
6. How are metal powders produced? ing?
7. What is the most troublesome im- 16. Describe the atmosphere required
purity in powders? in sintering furnaces.
8. How is this impurity caused and 17. Describe a seif-oiling bearing.
how can it affect the final product? 18. How is tungsten wire made?
9. What five factors are important to 19. How are hard tool materials such
the behavior of any powder? as tungsten carbides made?
10. What is the process of compacting 20. What industrial parts are made by
the powders called? powder metallurgy?
346
.Some metals are mined in the native metal oxide is called ore. Not all ores are
state. Among these are silver, tin, mercu- found in oxide form; some of the most im-
ry, platinum, gold arrd copper. Native met- portant occur as sulfide (metal combined
als need little refining to make them with sulfur), or as carbonates (oxide of
useful, either in pure form or alloyed with metal combined with CO,). Carbonate
other metals. However, even in native ores of iron, copper, and zinc are impor-
metals there are impurities, such as rock, tant; some principal ores of copper and
gravel, and sand, which require removal, zinc occur as silicates. Ores of different
Most metals, however, are found as ox- metals are put through various refining
ides (metal combined with oxygen). This processes to obtain the pure metal.
ORE DRESSING
One way in which the nonferrous metals quartz. Since it would be difficult and
differ from iron is in the manner of their costly to smelt large amounts of rock a
occurrence. Iron oxide occurs in large and method of concentration (ore dressing) by
comparatively pure deposits; the other which the metals or metallic compounds
metals and compounds from which metals are partially separated from the gangue
are derived are scattered through large (worthless material) is applied at the mine,
volumes of rock, such as limestone or before smelting. As the methods of ore
347
Metallurgy
dressing are rather general, we consider shaken C<er the end whiie ihe gangue
them here, rather than under the specific washes off the front of the shaker.
metals.
Oil Flotation
Reverberatory Furnace
The simplest kind of furnace is the re- Slags are molten glassy materials which
verberatory furnace. In this type the melt- are purposely formed in certain metallur-
ing pot or hearth is long and narrow, and gical furnace operations for several rea-
the charge is heated by a flame directed sons: first, impurities in the ore and the
over the top of the material to be melted, ash of the fuel must be removed and pre-
so that much of the heating is indirect. The vented from contaminating the metal. The
hearth has a slight tip toward the end of slag layer over the metal also prevents ex-
the furnace away from the firing end; mol- cessive oxidation. Thus for lead ores, with
ten metal and slag are drawn off here. silica as an impurity, iron oxide is added
348
Producing Nan-Ferrous Metals
as a slag-former or flux. The silica and the Reverberatory furnaces vary greatly in
iron oxide combine to form a glassy mol- size and are used for a variety of purpos-
ten slag at the temperature of working. If es, such as copper matte smelting, lead
the iron oxide were not added, the silica fire refining, etc. They may be fired with
would combine with lead oxide, and lead gas, coal, oil or powdered coal, and may
would be left in the slag. vary greatly in size.
Fig. 16- 1. Multihearth mechanical roasting furnace. (Wedge Mechanical Furnace Co.)
Metallurgy
350
TABLE 16-I. COPPER PRODUCTION.’ duction is used by the wire mills for the
production of copper wire, some 667,000
SHORT TONS tons (605,000 tonnes) of copper are used
World production 73857,682 to produce brass, to account for the U.S.
U.S. production (23 percent) 1.698.000 total of 1.530,OOO tons (1,388,OOO tonnes)
imported ores 170,000
scrap 420,000 in recent years. See Table 16-1.
consumotion 2,196,950 The copper ore is first ground in mas-
USES: wire mills 1530,000 sive ball mills to provide feed for later
brass 667.000 stages of production, Fig. 16-2. The ore is
‘Metals Yearbook, Vol. I~, U.S. Department of the then concentrated by the flotation or grav-
Interior. Bureau of Mines. 1973, GPO. ity process, to yield 25 to 30 percent cop-
per before it is refined.
Fig. 16-2. Copper ball mill processes 90,000 STPD. (Allis Chalmers)
The most important copper ores are verberatory or a blast furnace. This smelt-
found in the form of a sulfide mixed with ing does not result in pure copper’, but in
iron sulfide, although large amounts are an alloy called matte, containing about 32
found as oxides, carbonates, silicates, ar- to 42 percent copper The next operation.
senides, and in other forms. Gold and sil- that of oxidizing the sulfur and iron, is car-
ver are present in nearly al! copper ores, ried out in a converter, Fig. 16-3, where
and their extraction is one important step air is blown through the molten matte.
in the reduction of copper ores. Sulfide The product of the converter, known as
ores must be roasted to remove sulfur blister copper, contains many impurities,
before smelting. including gold and silver, but is about 96
Smelting is accomplished either in a re- or 99 percent pure.
353
Fig. 76-5. Casting copper wire bars. (Anaconda Co. and Chase Brass and Copper Co.)
percent oxygen is cast into wire bars and For castings and other uses where high
hot-rolled to ‘A” (01635 mm) rod. electrical conductivity is not important,
Fig. 16-7 shows the precess cf drawing copper is usually deoxidized with phos-
small diameter copper bar. The l/4” rod phor copper to give a sound casting. For
is oickled in sulfuric acid to remove the casting purposes as well as for fabrication
oxide, ihen reduced to wire of any size by processes other than wire drawing, cop-
drawing. Drawn copper wire is hard, and per alloys are to be preferred to pure
has a tensile strength of 46,500 to 70,000 copper.
psi (320.618 to 483,000 kN/m’). The
electrical conductivity is lowered some 2
to 3 percent; nevertheless, this kind of Lead
wire is preferred for line wire where
strength is important. For other uses, the Both iead and the alloys of which it is
wire is annealed. This brings back its con- the major constituent are characterized by
ductivity but decreases its strength to softness, pliability, and a low melting tem-
about 35,000 psi (241,000 kN/m*). The perature. Pure lead melts at 621°F
annealing treatment is given in steam in (327°C). Lead exhibits a high degree of re-
order to leave the wire bright. sistance to atmospheric corrosion and at-
Fig. i&6. Flobvsheet of common copper extraction and refining. (Engineering Metallurgy
by Stoughton and Butts, McGraw-Hill Book Co.)
tack by chemicals, particularly sulfuric ac- melting point is the major requirement.
id. These properties determine some uses Lead occurs in nature principally in the
of metallic lead, namely: chemical piping form of lead sulfide, calied galena, a
and cable sheathing, where pliability com- substance found in abundance in the Unit-
bined with corrosion resistance is impor- ed States, where over 600,000 short tons
tant; storage battery grids and chemical (545,000 tonnes) are produced annually.
tanks, where resistance to sulfuric acid is However, total U.S. consumption is nearly
important; and solder metals where low 1.5 million short tons (1,360,OOO tonnes)
355
Fig. 16-7. Small diameter soft copper bar being drawn on a special machine. (Chase
Brass and Copper Co.)
per year, half of it for lead batteries. Metal ‘TABLE 16-2. LEAD PRODUCTION.’
production accounts for nearly 25 percent
SHORT TONS
more: See Table 16-2.
World production 3848,582
Since scrap metal is a major source of U.S. production 618,915
lead, the reclaiming of lead batteries, imports 347,000
which consumed nearly half of all lead consumption 1,485,254
produced in the past, has become impor- USES: PERCENT
tant. See Fig. 16-8. metal products:
Three meihods are used to refine the cables, tube, sheet,
ammunition
lead ores-the blast furnace, the rever- batteries ii
beratory furnace, and the ore-hearth antiknock 19
method. The blast furnace is the most im- paint 6
portant method at the present time. ’ 1973 Metals Yearbook
lead is obtained are produced ordinarily in
lead smelting. The crude lead is then cast
into small bars to be further refined, Fig.
16-10.
The reverberatory process of refining
lead by oxidation is no longer used to any
exient in the United States. However, the
ore hearth is used as the simplest method
of smelting ores rich in lead. The or’e
hearth consists of a basin to hold the
melted lead and to support the charge
being smelted. The lead ore mixed with
coke is fed on the hearth, and air is blown
through the ore and passes above the sur-
face of the molten lead. In this way the
lead sulfide is reduced to metallic lead.
Lead obtained by any of these smelting
methods contains the silver, copper, bis-
muth, arsenic. and antimony which were in
the ore, and usually it must be purified.
Lead from southeastern Missouri is an ex-
ception, being sufficiently pure to use
Fig. 16-8. Recycling of lead batteries is a
major source of reclaimed lead. (Lead In- without further treatment. Other leads are
dustries, inc.) purified by iiii3 or eiectroiyiic refining.
Fire refining consists in oxidizing out the
arsenic, antimony, and most of the copper
by blowing air through the molten lead in
Lead ores are subjected to a roasting- a reverberatory furnace at a red hea.i. The
sintering process as a preliminary step in lead so purified is then subjected to the
their reduction, an important procedure in Parkes process, to remove the gold and
the metallurgy of lead. The object of the silver and the remaining copper. This
roasting-sintering process is to reduce process consists in adding a small amount
the percentage of sulfur by oxidation of of zinc to a kettle of molten lead. The zinc
the sulfur to sulfur dioxide (SO,). Fig. 16-9 does not dissolve in the lead, but melts
is a drawing of a Dwight-Lloyd sintering and stays on top of the molten lead. Most
machine used in this process. of the gold and silver enter this layer of
The lead blast furnace is similar to the zinc, and are skimmed off with it. The zinc-
blast furnace used in the production of silver-gold alloy then is treated to recover
copper matte. its operation results in a the gold and silver, by the process de-
crude lead containing both gold and sil- scribed in the section on precious metals.
ver. Both a metal and a matte from which In electrolytic refining, the impure lead
357
Fig. 76-9. Continuous roast-sintering machine. (Amerkan Institute of Mining Engineers)
or bullion is cast into anodes as described ing bismuth and precious metals, are COI-
for copper, from which it is dissolved in a lected as a slime and treated to recover
lead fluorosilicate solution and redeposit- the metals. The deposited lead is then re-
ed as pure lead through the action of an melted and cast into pigs.
electric current. All the impurities, includ-
Producing Non-Ferrous Mets/s
Several grades of pig lead are available melting point of 787°F (420°C) and vapor-
to the consumer: common lead; corroding izes at 1661 o F (905°C). The low vaporiza-
lead which is used when a lead of excep- tion temperature makes distillation a very
tional purity is required; chemical lead, economical refining process. Fig. 16-11
which is used in the chemical industries; shows one such refining process.
and antimonial lead. containing between 6 In the distillation process, the powdered
and 7 percent antimony and used in the zinc oxide from the roasters is mixed with
manufacture of storage batteries. finely ground hard coal and placed in air-
free, vertical retorts. The retort is heated
Zinc externally, raising the temperature of the
coal to the kindling point. The coal obtains
Zinc rarely occurs in the native or pure most of its oxygen for combustion from
metallic state. It is usually found in the the zinc oxide and metallic zinc is liberat-
form of zinc sulfide (ZnS), an ore called ed. At the high temperature that results,
zinc blende. Other ores of zinc are: zinc the zinc is a vapor and is drawn off and
carbonate (ZnCO ) called zinc spar, and passed through a condenser where it be-
zinc silicate (Zn,S%J known as WiNemite. comes a liquid. Liquid zinc runs from the
Zinc blende is the principal ore worked in condenser into molds and forms the solid
the United States. See Table 16-3. pig used in commerce.
The processes in the production of zinc In electrolytic refining, the zinc oxide
are: concentration of the ore, roasting of from the roasters is leached in tanks of
the sulfide ores, reduction of the carbon- sulfuric acid where it becomes zinc sulfate
ates and silicates, and refining by distilla- in a water solution. This solution is
tion or electrolytic action. Zinc has a low pumped into electrolytic tanks equipped
with lead anodes and aluminum cathodes.
When direct current electricity is passed
through the solution, zinc is deposited on
the cathode, as in Fig. 16-12. After about
TABLE 16-3. ZINC PRODUCTION (MINE).’
fifty pounds of zinc has been deposited on
SHORT TONS the aluminum cathode, the zinc is stripped
World production 6,377,392 off, melted and pigged.
smelter 5,795,352 Zinc is brittle in cast form but may be
U.S. production 478,850
consumption 1,503,938 rolled into sheets or drawn into tubes. The
imports (ore) 199,053 principal uses of metallic zinc, however,
zinc slab 588.712 are in galvanizing and as an alloying met-
1974 World production 5,920,673
al. Zinc is used as a metallic coating to
PERCENT
USES: Galvanizing 36 protect iron and steel from corrosion. This
Brass production process is called galvanizing. The zinc
Die casting alloy li may be applied to a steel surface by elec-
Zinc oxide (paint) 4 troplating but it is more commonly applied
’ 1973 Metals Yearbook by hot dipping. The steel articles: pails,
359
etahrgy
c TO VACUUM PVMPS
buckets, tubs, etc., are fabricated and al surfaces and penetrates into the inner
then dipped into a tank of molten zinc. As seams for 100 percent coverage and rust
zinc has a good wetting property, (ability protection. Zinc coated mild steel is com-
to cover or plate readily) it covers the met- monly referred to as galvanized iron.
Fig. l6- 12. Purifying zinc through electro-
lytic production.
361
h4etallurgy
alloy has moderate hardness and tensile TABLE 16-4. CADMIUM PRODUCTION.’
strength and a very high impact strength.
It can be readily cast into die shapes for SHORT TONS
World oroductioa 1a.747
~.,.
either blanking or drawing a wide variety
U.S. production 3,714
of aluminum and mild steel parts in consumotion 6.22a
industry. PERCENT
One of the large users of Kirksite is the USES: batteries, plating 50
aircraft industry which uses a great variety - copper alloys 50
of light metal stampings in small quanti- ‘1973 Metals Yearbook
ties. Production runs as high as 25,000
small pieces have been recorded, but
Kirksite dies most generally are used for resistant plated covering on steel fasten-
short production runs because of a tend- ers Cadmium melts at 608°F (320°C) and
ency of the die surface to wash out, lose is a constituent of low melting point alloys
the sharpness of detail in surface emboss- used as temperature fuses in sprmkler
ments. As the dies are easily melted and heads. Wood’s metal is a cadmium alloy
recast with nearly 100 percent recovery of which melts at 154°F (68°C). An alloy of
the metal, Kirksite is an economical die copper with 1 percent cadmium is used in
material to use. The automobile industry the trolley wires of bridge cranes as it has
uses Kirksite dies for experimental and high strength combined with good wear-
pre-production runs of body stampings. ing properties and good electrical conduc-
Up to 200 fenders, hoods or door panels tivity.
have been made from one set of Kirksite
dies.
Nickel
362
Producing Non-ferrous Metals
383
Fig. 16- 14. Large power shovel scoops up bauxite and loads heavy-duty WCK. uauxlte IS
carried to rail head and goes by t:ain to coast. Bauxite in Jamaica lies close to surface; in
mining operations the topsoil is first scraped to one side and preserved, then replaced
for land rehabilitation. (Kaiser Bauxite Company)
Fig. 16-16. Rotary kilns bake the hydrated alumina crystals, forming pure alumina (alu-
minum oxide). (Kaiser Aluminum & Chemical Corp.)
365
Fig. 16- 17. Special vacuum crucible draws molten aluminum from the bottom of an elec-
trolytic pot. (Aluminum Company of America)
aluminum called pigs. The pigs are remelt- ing. It is easily cast into molds of all
ed to remove any remaining impurities, shapes and kinds. It can be rolled hot or
and then poured to form aluminum ingots, cold into thick plates, flexible sheets, or
Fig. 16-16. the thinnest of foil. In addition, it can be
Aluminum is the lightest of the common rolled into bars, rodsor drawn into the fin-
metals, having a specific gravity of 2.70. est of wire.
Aluminum does not rust and strongly re- Aluminum alloys are in common use. It
sists corrosion. Due to its high electrical alloys easily with copper, silicon, man-
and heat conductivity, as well as its chem- ganese, and chromium. Such alloying,
ical resistance, it finds many everyday with subsequent heat treatment, results in
uses. greatly increased strength and hardness.
Because of its lightness, the greatest
single use of aluminum is in the field of
transportation. Aluminum is also used to a
very great extent for electric cables, for
cooking utensils, and for protective foil for Magnesium is the lightest metal now
wrapping foods and other products. Its used commercially, having a specific grav-
use in the building industry is of no small ity of 1.74. It is produced from minerals
importance. The total volume of aluminum used as ores, the most common being
production is indicated in Table 16-6. magnesite and carnallite. and from con-
Aluminum lends itself readily to shap- centrated brines and sea water. See Table
16-7.
In one of the many processes, the metal
is obtained by first producing fused mag-
TABLE 16-6. ALUMINUM PRODUCTION.’ nesium chloride, and then electrolyzing
SHORT TONS
World production 13,359,ooo
U.S. production 4,529,ooo
consumption 5,685,OOO TABLE 16-7. MAGNESIUM PRODUCTION.’
primary production 4,177,190
(1972) SHORT TONS
imports 466,765 World production 261,110
old scrap l!!??! US production 140,000
new scrap r35,rw Imports 3,283
TOTAL -5588,311
PERCENT
PERCENT USES: batteries 49
USES (1972): metal products 23
plate, sheet, foil 57 ammunition, cables,
rolled 16 tubes, sheet,
extruded 23 antiknock agents 19
forgings 1.3 pigments 6
’ 1973 Iwetals Yearbook ‘1973 Metals Yearbook
367
the salt. It is also produced by heating the atures ranging between 500” to 650°F
carbonate, dissolving the oxide thus (260” to 345°C). Magnesium can be heat
formed in a fused salt bath, and then elec- treated thus, resulting in a substantial in-
trolyzing. crease in mechanical properties.
In producing magnesium from brine, Magnesium stands high in the electro-
brine containing magnesium chloride, so- chemical series, its corrosion resistance
dium chloride, and caicium chloride is first being only fair for ordinary purposes. Ma-
treated to bring about a separation of chining qualities of this metal are excel-
these chlorides. The magnesium chloride lent; however, care should be taken in
from this treatment is then subjected to a handling small chips or filings as they will
drying treatment to remove most of the oxidize and burn very readily. The danger
water. This materiaf is then electrolyzed, of such burning decreases as the size of
and magnesium, which collects on the the piece increases.
cathode side, is dipped from the cells and The greatest single use of magnesium is
cast into ingots. the field of aircraft and general transpor-
Magnesium is now produced in great tation where its extreme lightness is the
abundance from ordinary sea water. dominating factor. Its metallurgical values
There are three essential steps in this as desulfurizer, deoxider, and alloying ele-
processing. First, lime water is mixed with ment are well known. Like aluminum, it
sea water to convert its soluble magne- finds many other important everyday
sium salts into milk of magnesia. This milk uses.
of magnesia is then treated with acid, con-
verting it into a magnesium chloride so-
Tin
lution. The last step invoives electrolyz-
ing ihis molten product, yielding solid
magnesium at one electrode, and chlo- Tin is a relatively soft, silvery-white met-
rine gas at the other. al with a brilliant luster. It has been used
Like most metals, magnesium is seldom from earliest times. It is soft and very
used in the pure form for metal parts. It malleable and can be rolled into sheets as
is most commonly alloyed with alumin- thin as 0.0002” (0.0051 mm). The principal
um, although several other alloys are ores are Cassiterife, Sno,, calied tin
produced. stone, and Siannite or tin pyrites, SnSz.
Magnesium can be forged, rolled, and The principal tin producing countries are
extruded. It displays its best mechanical the East Indies, the Malay peninsula and
properties in the extruded form, where it Bolivia.
attains a tensile strength of more than The preliminary concentrating and
25,000 psi (i72,OOO kN/m,). As a cast ma- smelting of tin ore is similar to that of cop-
terial, its tensile strength is about half this per. After smelting, usually in a reverbera-
amount. Cold working results in a rapid in- tory furnace, the tin must be separated
crease in hardness; therefore, it is advisa- out from its impurities such as iron, lead,
ble to carry on such operations at temper- antimony, bismuth, arsenic and sulfur.
366
Fig. 16- 19. Transfer of 10 tons of tin from
reverberatory furnace to refining kertles.
(Tin Research Institute)
369
making manganese steel by the Bessemer
process.
370
known as powder metallurgy is used to
change tungsten powder to the solid met-
al, a procedure which is discussed in
Tungsten has a number of uses, princi-
Chapter 15.
pal among them its use in lighting as an
incandescent lamp filament. Its value here
is due to its very high melting point, about
6100°F (3370°C). and its ability to be
drawn into fine wire. It is used also for
Cobalt is similar to nickel in nearly all its
phonograph needles and as heating ele-
properties. It occurs with both iron and
ments in very high-temperature furnaces.
nickel, and is used as a constituent of cer-
t-lowever its chief use, from a tonnage
tain special steels.
standpoint. is as a constituent of high-
speed steel. It is available on the market
as tungsten powder, wire, and as ferro-
tungsten, Table 16-9.
Tungsten is a heavy metal, its density
being approximately 2% times that of iron. Antimony is a brittle metal with a silvery
luster. The pure metal has almost no in-
It is never found free in nature, but in an
dustrial uses. However, it is an important
ore from which an oxide is obtained. A
constituent of several alloys, principally
metallic tungsten powder is rnade by the
those containing lead. It is available on the
reduction of this tungsten oxide, either
with carbon or hydrogen. It is not practical market as metallic antimony, much of
which is imported from China, and also as
to melt down the powder to convert it to
solid metal form, because of the extremely antimonia! lead-an alloy of lead with 15
percent antimony, obtained as a by-
high melting point. Instead, a procedure
product in lead smelting. Table 16-10 indi-
cates current uses.
372
1. Name some common metals found used in purifying lead?
free in nature. 10. What are the two principal uses of
2. What are the common impurities in metallic zinc?
native metals that must first be removed? 11. List some of the important uses of
3. Describe gangue. nickel.
4. Name two methods of ore dressing. 12. Describe briefly the Bayer process
5. Describe the method of ore treat- for refining aluminum.
ment called oil flotation. 13. Name some of the important uses of
6. Name three types of furnaces used magnesium.
in refining metals. 14. What are the principal tin-produc-
7. What is the most important use of ing countries?
metallic copper? 15. List the most important uses of
8. What properties determine the prin- tungsten.
cipal uses for metallic lead and its alloys? 16. What are ferroalloys? And how are
9. What is the Parkes process which is they used?
373
As the world moved into the Air Age, it tion without a redtJc!ior? in tens&2
soon became apparent that light and strength.
stronger metals were needed. As progress High-strength, light-weight alloys are
was made in the development of process- becoming increasingly important in reduc-
es to produce and shape the light metals, ing weight in vehicle structures, engines,
their use followed in the aircraft industry transmissions and running gear. Light
and the transportation equipment field. weight is proving to be the means to ob-
The use of light aluminum alloys in aircraft tain economies in the operation of trans-
gave increased capacity with less weight. portation on land, on water, in the air and
Highway trucks with aluminum vans and in space travel.
high-strength magnesium alloys in the The metals commonly classified as light
running gear increased the revenue pay metals are: aluminum, magnesium, beryl-
load. Titanium is used as the sheet metal lium and titanium. All have densities less
covering in super-sonic aircraft where it than steel. Each of these metals will be
can withstand the high heat of wind fric- discussed in the following pages.’
Pure aluminum resists corrosion be- exposure of the hot metal to air. This pre-
cause a hard, tough surface coat of alu- vents further oxidation and corrosion.
minum oxide forms immediately on the However, when puns aluminum is alloyed
1. Since expressions of psi (pounds per square inch) in units of tens and hundreds of thousands are not abso-
lute quantities, the conversion units of kNlm2 (kilo-Newtons per meter squared) have been rounded off appro-
priately.
374
Light tals and Alloys
with other elements, it no longer will form work-hardened condition. Its excellent
the protective coat of pure aluminum ox- ductility and malleability allow the rolling
ide, but instead will form complex oxides of aluminum into thin sheets and foil, and
of aluminum and the alloying elements the drawing of aluminum into wire. Hard-
which are not hard and tough and which ness of aluminum varies from 25 Brine11 in
do not protect the surface against further the annealed condition, to 40 Brine11 in the
corrosion. fully work-hardened state. Good electrical
Five elements are commonly alloyed conductivity is one of its most valuable
wi?h aluminum to change its properties. properties, being 60 percent that of cop-
These are: chromium, silicon, copper, per and 3.5 times that of iron.
manganese and magnesium. Although Aluminum has nearly five times the ther-
these alloys look alike, the physical prop- mal conductivity of cast iron. Due to its
erties and characteristics of each differ. high reflectivity and low radiating power,
Their workability, strength, heat-treat aluminum is useful in the field of insula-
temperatures, ability to age and to harden tion. Aluminum has very good resistance
and many other properties are vastly dif- to corrosion by weathering. The aluminum
ferent. They cannot be worked or handled ornamental spire on the Washington Mon-
in the same way. ument, Washington, D.C., has successfully
Aluminum is one of our foremost in- withstood many years of weathering.
dustrial metals and can be manufactured Aluminum can be successfully welded
nearly pure, ranging from 99.5 to 99.9 per- by the blowtorch, electric resistance, and
cent aluminum. Nearly pure aluminum electric arc methods. The soldering of alu-
may be used in the following applications: minum is difficult and not recommended.
to deoxidize steel, cooking and chemical
apparatus, in the form of wire as an elec-
Clnd Aluminum Products
trical conductor, as a pigment in paint,
aluminum foil, welded to high-strength
aluminum alloys as a covering, as fuel In order that the corrosion of aluminum
tanks for aircraft, etc. However, over 50 alloys, par?icularly in the aircraft field, be
percent of the aluminum produced is used reduced to a minimum, a patented prod-
in the alloy form, making a series of alloys uct called A/c/ad has been developed. Al-
with much higher physical properties than clad is made by coating an aluminum alloy
those found in pure aluminum. ingot with high purity aluminum and re-
ducing the duplex ingot by rolling and
shaoing to the desired dimensions. The
bond of high purity aluminum has proved
very efficient, and the protection offered
Aluminum is a very soft and ductile met- by the coating is very good even at the
al with a tensile strength from 9,000 psi edges where the coating, being electro-
(62,100 kN/m*) in a single crystal form, to negative, protects the exposed edges by
24,000 psi (165,000 kN/m*) in the fully galvanic action. Aircraft sheets, for exam-
375
hfetatlurgy
pie, made from strong wrought alloys ty, as compared with the aluminum alloys,
such as 2017 and 2024 are coated on both are more easily machined. In general, sat-
sides with a thin layer of pure aluminum. isfactory machinability of the light alloys
ieouires special cutting tools, such tools
having greater rake and clearance angles
Anodic treatment than steel-cutting tools and made sharper
by grinding and polishing to a smoother
Anodic oxidation methods are now finish. Lubricants of kerosene and mix-
available by which an oxide coating is arti- tures of kerosene and lard oil are used
ficially built up on the surfaces of alumi- with the machining of aluminum alloys,
num alloys for increasing their resistance whereas magnesium alloys may be satis-
to corrosion. In a process called anodiz- factorily machined without lubricants, us-
ing, the part to be treated is made the an- ing sharp too!s and high machining
ode of a cell whose electrolyte may con- speeds.
tain chromic acid, sulfuric acid, a nitride, A free-cutting aluminum alloy has been
or some other oxidizing agent. The anodic developed containing 5.5 percent copper,
coating is only somewhat resistant to 0.5 percent lead, and 0.5 percent bismuth,
abrasion but does improve the corrosion desirable because it develops a hetero-
resistance. In most cases, the coating is geneous structure containing lead and
somewhat porous, thus producing a suit- bismuth inclusions. The free lead and bis-
able surface for paints or dyes and further muth aid in machining, similar to the ac-
protection against corrosion. tion of lead in free-cutting brass, by acting
Electroplating methods are also avail- as chip-breakers and thus producing fine
able, and in most cases are used where chips.
an improvement in wear resistance is Aluminum alloys may be classified into
desired. Electra-deposits of zinc, chro- two groups: (1) casting alloys and (2) forg-
mium, and nickel have been successfully ing alloys.
produced.
Casting Alloys
Machining of Light Metals
Aluminum is aiioyed for casting for two
In general, the light alloys of aluminum main reasons: (1) to improve strength and
and magnesium are easy to machine and (2) to improve casting properties. Because
offer no real difficulties. Factors that re- most of the elements alloyed with alumi-
duce the machinability of these alloys are num increase the strength and hardness
greater plasticity and high thermal expan- of the resultant alloy, the added element is
sion. The softer grades of these alloys, called a hardener. These hardeners may
with their greater plasticity, are more diffi- be added to the aluminum in the melting
Cult to machine than the harder alloys. furnace, or added to the ladle of molten
Magnesium alloys with their lower plastici- a!uminum. The final casting may be made
Light Metals and Altoys
377
Metallurgy
TABLE 17-1. CONTINUED,
The following values are shown as a basis for gener- Refer to Standards Section, Table 6.2 same issue
al comparison of alloys and are not guaranteed. for composition limits.
PERCENT OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS-Aluminum and Normal Impurities Constitute Remainder
Alloy Silicon Copper Manganese Magnesium Chromium Nickel Zinc Lead Bismuth
,- .?.. “^ - . ^ .^
5450 5.1 “.lZ
5457 1.0
5652 2.5 0.25
5657 0.6
6003 0.7 1.2
6005 0.6 0.50
6053 0~7 1.3 0.25
6061 0.6 0.27 1.0 0.20
6063 0.40 0.7
6066 1.3 0.9 0.6 1.1
6070 1.4 0.30 0.7 0.6
6101 0.50 0.6
6151 0.9 0.6 0.25
6162 0.6 0.9
6201 0.7
6253 2.0
6262 0.6 0.27 1.0 0.55 0.55
6463 0.40 0.7
6951 0.30 0.25 0.6
7001 ,... 21. 7.4
7005 4.5
7072 1.0
7075 1.6 5.6
7079 0.6 4.3
7178 2.0 6.8
‘Titanium 0.13 percent 2Titanium 0.06; Vanadium 0.10; Zirconium 0.16 %n 1.1; Titanium 0.07
(Aluminum Standards and Data, 1974-75 Aluminum Association of America)
Many different alloys with widely differ- Of mixtures of solid solution (a), and the
ent compositions are made, and Table eutectic, which is made up of the solid so:-
17-1 may be referred to for study of some ution (0 ) plus the compound CuAI,. The
of the more common aluminum alloys that eutectic is a fine mechanical mixture of
are made by sand-casting techniques. The the alpha and the hard CuAI, compound.
two principal casting light meiai alloys are It is questionabie whether or not the hard
the aluminum-copper and the aluminum- intermetallic compound CuAI, is a solid
silicon a!!oys. Perhaps the aluminum- solution instead of a compound. However,
copper may be considered the most although the presence of the pure com-
common of all the casting alloys. These pound CuAI, is questioned, the term,
usually contain less than 15 percent cop- CuAI, is widely used in referring to these
per ailojj. A study of the atuminum-cop- alloys and will be used in the following dis-
per alloy diagram, Fig 17-1, indicates that cussion.
the microstructures of these alloys consist It will be seen in Fig. 17-1 that the eu-
373
Light tats and Alloys
Fig. 17- 1. Aluminum end of aluminum-copper diagram. (After Stockdale, Dix and
Richardson)
tectic in these alloys increases in amount percent copper is shown in Fig. 17-2. The
with the increase in copper content until a eutectic is plainly visible in the light back-
100 percent eutectic is formed which is ground of the alpha solid solution. The
composed of 33 percent copper and 67 eutectic constituent, being the last to
percent aluminum. The microstructure of freeze, is found between the dendritic
a cast-aluminum alloy which contains 6 branches of the primary crystak.
379
Fig. 17-2. Cast aluminum-copper a!/oy.
Etched % percent t/F, magnified 1OG
times.
These .Moys develop exceptionally high made by the usual practice and contains
physical properties and are readily ma- about 12 percent silicon, the casting de-
chinable. Tensile strengths ranging from velops a coarse grain and is relatively brit-
19,000 psi (131,000 kN/m*) up to as high tle. By the use of a modified foundry prac-
as 23,000 psi (159,000 kN/m’) in the as- tice, consisting of the addition of a small
cast condition are common with elonga- amount of metallic sodium to the ladle
tions from 1% to 2 percent in 2 inches. of molten metal, the casting freezes with a
These alloys may be welded and heat- much finer and tougher grain structure.
treated, although heat treatments are Through the modified practice, the found-
more commonly applied to the forging ryman can produce superior castings hav-
types of aluminum alloys. Aluminum cast- ing distinctly higher strengths and higher
ing alloys are used extensively in the field eiongaiioris. The difference in grain struc-
of transportation and wherever a light ture of the cast metal made by the usual
structural alloy casting exhibiting the practice as compared with the modified
properties of these alloys is called for. practice is seen in Figs. 17-3 and 17-4.
The aluminum-silicon casting alloys The aluminum-silicon alloys exhibit ex-
constitute an important series of casting cellent casting properties. This character-
alloys: the silicon in them may vary from 5 istic together with greater ductility and re-
to 12.5 percent. These alloys are easier to sistance to shock than exhibited by the
cast than the aluminum-copper alloys due aluminum-copper alloys, added to an
to greater fluidity at the casting tempera- even better resistance to atmospheric
ture. The properties of certain composi- corrosion, make this type of casting alloy
tions of these alloys may be improved by one of the most widely used in this coun-
heat treatments, or by a modified practice try. Aluminum-silicon alloys are used in ar-
in the foundry just prior to casting the chitectural and ornamental castings, cast-
molten metal in the mold. If the casting is ings for outboard motors, marine fittings,
380
tals and Alloys
and wherever water-tightness and resist- than copper, with approximately the same
ance to corrosion are corsidered impor- properties, but the aluminum-zinc alloys
tant factors in the selection of a casting. are heavier and have been reported to be
In addition to the aluminum-copper and less resistant to corrosion.
aluminum-silicon casting alloys, some al-
loys are cast containing suitable propor-
tions of magnesium and zinc. Alloys con- Wrought-Aluminum Alloys
taining magnesium are said to be even
more resistant to corrosion than the alu-
minum-silicon alloys and develop higher Aluminum alloys of the forged or
mechanical properties than the low-silicon wrought type make up by far the greatest
casting alloys. Zinc may be used as an al- tonnages. The higher physical properties
loy in aluminum to increase its strength developed in these alloys are due to the
and hardness. It makes a cheaper alloy beneficial effects obtained from the me-
381
Fig. 17-5. 768~inch rolling mill. (Kaiser Aluminum & Chemical Corp.)
chanical treatment o$ rolling, Fig. 17-5, ex- loys include: (1) casting of a blank or in-
truding, and forging, Fig. 17-6. This treat- got; (2) hot and often cold-working or
ment refines the grain structure and shaping; (3) heat treatments.
makes the alloys more homogeneous. Due ot and ~o~~-wo~kj~~. Hot-working of
to the action of breakdown of the cast aluminum alloys is carried out between
structure in any forging operation, a forg- 600” and 900” F (around 315” to 480” C),
ing may always develop properties superi- and many desirable shapes of nearly pure
or to those of a casting. In general, lower aluminum and aluminum alloys may be
percentages of alloying elements are used produced by hot-working methods, in-
in the wrought alloys. The operations in cluding sheets, plates, tubes, bars, and
the production of wrought aluminum al- structural shapes. However, it is more dif-
Fig. 17-6. Large BOOO-ton hydraulic press
produces high-sfrength a/um!num alloy
forgings for aircraft, defense and com-
mercial applications. (Kaiser Aluminum &
Chemical Corp.)
365
Metallurgy
386
Li
alloys, heating to slightly above room tem- hardening at room temperature but exerts
perature allows the precipitation to take pronounced precipitation hardening ef-
place, producing an increase in strength. fects at high temperatures. The recom-
The precipitation hardening that takes mended heat treatment for the AI-Mg-Si
place at room temperature in these alloys type alloys consists in quenching from
may be prevented by cooling so- 960” to 980” F (about 515” to 525” C) in
lution-heat-treated ailoys to below 0” F water and aging at 310” to 340” F (156”
(-18’ C), and holding this low tempera- to 171” C) for as many as 18 hours in or-
ture. This may be accomplished through der to get the maximum precipitation
the use of dry ice (CO*). It is assumed that hardening effects.
the low temperature increases the rigidity There are a considerable number of dif-
of the structure enough to prevent the ferent types of precipitation-hardening
precipitation of the CuAI, phase; or that aluminum alloys that are commercially
the atomic structure is so lacking in atom- used, some of which are indicated by the
ic mobility that any change, such as the alloy combinations Al-Cu-Mn, AI-Cu-Mg-
precipitation of the CuAI, constituent, Si, AI-Cu-Mg-Ni. AI-Mg,Si, and AI-Mg2Zn.
cannot take place. Heat treatment of casting a//oys. Cast
The capacity for precipitation harden- alloys of the aluminum series, as well as
ing, also called age hardening, to take the forging alloys, may be subjected to
place at room temperature depends on heat treatments which markedly improve
the presence of a small quantity of mag- their physical properties. As a general
nesium such as is found in the composi- rule, the casting alloys require much long-
tion of the duraluminum type (2017) ai- er soaking periods at the temperatures
toys. used for the solution heat treatment, and
The aluminum alloys, without magnesium, the temperatures used for precipitation
age-harden much less at room tempera- heat treatments, in order to bring about
ture. The addition of silicon to aluminum- the desired changes in structure and in
magnesium alloys produces little age properties.
DIE-CASTING
smooth cavity formed exactly like the final molten state by a gas burner. The life of
pait desired. After a casting is made, the the pot depends somewhat on the thick-
two halves are parted to enable removing ness of its walls and also upon the extent
the finished product. The die is perma- that it is overheated. A pot has a life of
nent; it is not destroyed with each casting from 2 to 6 months. Some improvement in
cycle as is the case with sand moids. pot life can be obtained by app!ying a
moderately heavy oil to its warm surface
followed by application of heat to carbon-
ize the oil.
A cylinder with a ram-plunger and an at-
Such machines are made in two types, tached gooseneck is submerged in the
which are known as (a) hot-chamber ma- molten metal as indicated in Fig. 17-13.
chines and (b) cold-chamber machines. When the plunger is retracted, metal en-
Both types are generally made completely ters through the indicated port that is be-
automatic. They have all their major com- low the metal level. As the plunger is
ponents automatically operated. forced downward, the molten metal is
Of-6 er in@. For die-casting forced through the gooseneck into the die.
zinc, use is made of a machine that is con- The movable platen, which is actuated by
structed as shown in Fig. 17-13. It con- a plunger, presses the die-seat against the
tains a hemispherical cast-iron pot fitted nozzle to prevent leakage of the metal.
into a furnace. The zinc is maintained in a After the casting is formed and has solidi-
tallurgy
i -__~ 1
Fig. 17- 13. Hot chamber type of die-casting machine.
fied, the die is opened. The sprue breaks materials by using a hot-chamber ma-
away between the die and the nozzle to chine. In such a machine, these metals
free the casting, which can now be kept in a molten form in an iron pot would
removed. pick up iron. This iron pick-up would even-
In such die-casting machines, the con- tually cause the plunger to seize in the cyl-
trol for metal injection is interlocked with inder and would also cause a short pot
the die operating mechanism so that met- life. The properties of the core produced
al cannot be injected unless the die is se- would also be affected.
curely locked. Because of these detrimental effects,
Cold-chamber machine. Some metals higher melting alloys (aluminum, copper,
have a considerably higher melting point and magnesium) are cast in cold-chamber
than zinc. Common metals falling in this machines. The typical construction of
class aie aluminum, copper, and magne- such a machine is shown in Fig. 17-14.
sium. It is undesirable to die-cast these The cylinder. which forms the cold cham-
le/s and ANoy4i
Fig. 17- 14. Cold chamber type of die- Common Die-Casting Materiels
casting machine.
The metals most commonly used for
die-casting are zinc, aluminum, copper,
and magnesium. The extent each is used
ber, is horizontal and is filled through the depends upon (a) cost of the alloy, (b)
pouring slot, The two halves of the die are ease of casting, (c) adaptability for a par-
locked toge!her and the plunger is ad- ticular use, (d) ease of machining, and (e)
vanced, forcing the metal into the die. A cost of dies.
slug is left in the end of the cylinder, ,which For die-casting, zinc has many favora-
is attached to the casting. Next, the die- ble properties and it is therefore exten-
holder is unlocked and the die is opened. sively used for the following reasons: (1)
Because the plunger is still under pres- cost per pound is low; (2) it is cast at a low
sure, it continues its stroke and retains temperature (having a melting point of
the slug and the attached die-casting in 718°F or 381°C) which minimizes the cost
contact with the movable die. of fuels, low initial die cost and die up-
keep; (3) it lends itself to casting within
close dimensional limits; (4) it is easily ma-
Die-Cast Machine Materials chined, where machining is necessary; (5)
it is readily finished by electroplating or
The kind of steel from which dies are organic coating; (6) it has greater strength
made depends upon the kind of material than any other non-copper alloy; and (7) it
that is to be cast. For casting lead, tin, and has resistance to corrosion.
Babbitt materials, mild steel is adequate. Since zinc has a low melting point, it is
For casting zinc, an intermediate grade of casted with a hot-chamber machine
steel is recommended that is heat-treated shown in Fig. 17-13. It is essential that on-
for long usage. For casting metals having ly a very high grade of zinc, 99.99 percent
a higher melting point, such as aluminum, pure, be used. In the cast state, zinc has
special steel is required for making the the properties indicated in Table 17-2. If
dies, which must be heat-treated. The impurities such as lead, cadmium, or tin
same steel serves the purpose for magne- are used in excess, the desirable physical
sium castings. For copper-base die cast- and mechanical properties are affected.
391
Metallurgy
392
Light Melds and Alloys
forging, ?he strength may be increased to treatment that forms a protective surface
approximately 48,000 psi (33 1,000 film on exposed surfaces. Much of the
kN/m*). Although these alloys respond to protection offered by chemical tre.ltments
heat treatments similar to those used on lies in their ability to clean and remove im-
the a!urninum-copper alloys, the fo:ged purities from !he meta! sorfaces. Two
and extruded shapes of Dow Metal do not commonly used chemical treatments yre
require further heat treatments for the de- the chrome-pickle treatment and the di-
velopment of satisfactory properties. This chromate treatment.
is an important advantage for these alloys. The chrome-pickle treatment consists in
However, casting alloys are heat-treated immersing the parts for one minute at
where severe service conditions demand room temperature in a bath of the follow-
maximum physical properties. ing composition:
CAUTION: Sodium dichromate
Due to its high affinity for oxygen, mag- (Na2Cr2070 H,O ____........_......_........1.5 lb
nesium is high/y f!ammabte. The stability Concentrated nitric acid
of magnesium and itr aiioys has been (specific gravity 1.42) L .5 pt
proven by its resistance to normal atmos- Water to make up to . ... .. .. .. .. .. .._.... 1.0 gal
pheric corrosion either in the natural state After immersion, the part is rinsed in cold
or after proper proiective coatings have water, then dipped in hot water, and al-
been applied to exposed surfaces. Light- lowed to dry. The resultant coating on
:ness and easy machinability are two of the clean surfaces is of a matte to brassy, iri-
outstanding properties of the magnesium descent color. This treatment is largely
atloy.9. used for protection of magnesium alloys
during processing, storage, and shipment.
Protective Coatings In the dichromate treatment, the parts
are first cleaned and carefully degreased
When magnesium alloys are subjected and immersed for 5 minutes in an
to normal atmospheric exposure, very lit- aqueous solution containing 15 to 20 per-
tle surface change occurs other than the cent hydrofluoric acid (HF) by weight, the
formation of a gray discoloration, and only solution being at room temperature. The
slight loss of strength occurs after several parts are then rinsed in cold running wa-
years of exposure. However, if these alloys ter. This treatment is followed by boiling
are exposed to salt water and are contam- the parts for 45 minutes in an aqueous
inated with iron and other impurities, very solution containing 10 to 15 percent so-
rapid corrosion occurs. In order to in- dium dichromate. After boiling, the parts
crease the corrosion resistance of magne- are rinsed in cold running water, followed
sium alloys, care should be exercised by a dip in hot water to facilitate drying.
during their manufacture to avoid metallic The addition of calcium fluoride or magne-
impurities and flux inclusions. To further sium fluoride to the dichromate bath will
increase their corrosion resistance, mag- Improve corrosion resistance and pro-
nesium alloys can be given a chemical mote film formation and uniform coating.
393
Meirr!!urgy
boo
IO00
500
400
800
600
JW
aoc
-li+t-t++
I
4oo
-
JO
M
a0 ala
50
10 a0
PEACCN7AlUMlNUM
Fig. 17- 15. Magnesium end of ?he magnesium-aluminum diagram. (After Hanson, Gay-
ler, Schmidt, and Spitaler)
395
etalturgy
may be used. An alloy with about the best recommended for use where maximum
cold-forming characteristics is the ASTM cold-forming properties are needed, along
No. 11, containing 1.5 percent Mn. This is with resistance to salt water corrosion.
BERYLLIUM
396
Light Mefals and Nioys
TlTANIUM
Titanium-bearing ores are plentiful, but nesium to form spongy titanium and mag-
the technical difficulties in recovering, nesium chloride. The process produces
melting, and processing titanium make many tons of titanium.
the metal costly. However, since titanium Some progress has beerr made in ob-
has a very high strength-to-weight ratio at taining commercial titanium by reacting
temperatures between 300°F and 700°F purified sodium with tetrachloride, by con-
(150” to 370°C) it is widely used in air- tinuous thermal decomposition of the io-
frames and aircraft engines at prices 30 to dide and by arc dissociation of halides
40 times that of stainless steel. (such as titanium tetrachloride). However,
Aeronautic engineers claim that a one- major efforts are being expended on elec-
pound weight reduction in a jet engine re- trolytic methods. The electrolysis of mol-
sults in an eight to ten-pound reduction in ten-salt electrolyte seems to promise re-
air-frame weight. Titanium thus saves 500 covery of nonmassive deposits in pure
,Junds (227 kg) in each of the eight jet enough form to melt into ductile metal.
engines of a heavy bomber and makes The first step in winning titanium metal
possible a reduction of 40,000 pounds from its ore is to chlorinate an oxide-
(18,143 kg). carbon mixture to secure titanium tetra-
No other structural metal presents the chloride. Titanium tetrachloride is reduced
problems encountered in producing titan- to titanium sponge by reduction of the
ium. The liquid metal seems to be a uni- chloride by magnesium. The reaction pro-
versal solvent, which either dissolves or is duces titanium sponge and magnesium
contaminated by every known refractory. chloride. The magnesium chloride is pas-
The contaminants acquired during the sed through an electrolytic cell and mag-
manufacturing process are generally fatal nesium and chlorine are recovered and
to titanium’s physical properties. The met- may be used again.
al, when molten, unites with the oxygen
and nitrogen in the air with such speed
that all reduction and ingot-melting proc-
esses must be carried out in a vacuum or Production
in an inert atmosphere. No method has
been found to remove contaminants ac- In the molten state, titanium reacts vig-
quired during processing. orously with the oxygen and nitrogen of
The simple and efficient continuous the air. If the amount of these elements is
Kroll-type reactor has lowered the cost of kept below 0.5 percent, they act as hard-
titanium and is still in use. In the reactor, ening agents, but in amounts over 0.5 per-
titanium tetrachloride is reacted with mag- cent oxygen or 0.25 percent nitrogen they
397
Metallurgy
drastically reduce the ductility of titanium. lum are stronger than all aluminum al!oys
Hydrogen embrittles titanium, reducing its and most steel alloys. Titanium also has
ductility. Adequate protection from mois- excellent ductility. The titanium alloys are
ture and the atmosphere are therefore im- superior in strength-to-weight ratios over
portant. Vacuum technology or inert at- the usual engineering metals and alloys.
mospheres of pure argon or helium can Titanium has ap endurance ratio well
accomplish this. above heat-treated alloy steels and non-
The ordinary techniques of melting and ferrous materials. Its endurance limit is al-
casting are ruled out. The method usually ways mare that 50 percent of its tensile
used is the von Bolten process of arc- strength.
melting in an inert atmosphere at near at- The coefficient of thermal expansion of
mospheric or greatly reduced pressures. titanium alloys is about 40 percent less
Electrodes may be of tungsten, carbon. c)r than for austenitic stainless steel. Titan-
consumable electrodes of titanium. A diffi- iums’s low expansion sometimes intro-
culty of tungsten and carbon electrodes is duces thermal stresses when alloyed with
that they are subject to spalliilg and melt- other metals. Thermal conductivity of ti-
ing. particularly if they are spattered with tanium alloys is about the same as austen-
titanium. Melting is usually done in a wa- itic stainless steel. It may vary up to 25
ter-cooled copper crucibie. building up percent depending upon alloying constitu-
each ingot individually. or by extracting ents. The electrical resistivity of titanium is
the ingot through the bottom of the cruci- approximately the same as austenitic
ble. By usirlg a reduced pressure and dou- stainless steel and increases with more al-
ble melting with consumable electrodes, loying elements, making it easy to heat by
contamination is avoided and hydrogen electrical means for working.
content of the metal is kept at a low level. fatigue resistance. Titanium and its al-
Forging, rolling. and drawing present no loys have good fatigue resistance in the
special problems. Mills capable of han- unnotched condition. With very sharp
dling the stainless steels and the alloy notches, titanium appears to be greatly in-
steels can handle titanium. ferior to steel. The deficiency seems to
disappear as the notch is made rounder
and, under some notch conditions, titan-
Properties
ium may be superior to other metals.
Where notch fatigue is important, the user
Silver-gray titanium lies between alumi- should conduct specific tests to determine
num and staei in strength, density, elastic- titanium’s desirability. The fatigue limit of
ity, and serviceability at elevated tempera- titanium improves as the temperature is
tures. It has a density of 0.16 lb/in3 (0.26 lowered to sub-zero. Not much research
kg/cm3). It is 60 percent heavier than alu- has been done on titanium and its alloys
minum and only 56 percent as heavy as an at low temperatures. However, what little
alloy steel, which has a density of 0.286 research has been done indicates that
lb/in3 (0.458 kglcm3). The alloys of titan- hardness and tensile strength are in-
creased as temperature is lowered. Elon- commercially pure titanium, which is 99.5
gation decreases at tow temperatures, percent pure. The importance and need
and notch sensitivity appear& :o increase. for a standard was recognized by
.??I res. Titanium has consumers, so commercially pure titan-
strength ratios between ium was established as a composnion of
300” and 700°F (150” to 37O”C), b~,~rtit is 0.2 percent maximum iron, 0.10 percent
inadequate at high temperatures. Tht ,ulti- maximum nitrogen, a trace of oxygen,
mate strength and yield strength of titan- less than 0.70 percent carbon, rrnd 0.02
ium drop fast above 800°F (425°C) Titan- percent tungsten, the remainder being ti-
ium readily absorbs oxygen and nitrogen tanium.
from the air above 1200°F (SSO’C), em- Type Ti-75A (Time! Corp.) has the fol-
brittling the metal. There is hope for de- towing characteristics: hardness, 85-95
velopment of attoys which wilt withstand Rockwell B; ultimate strength, 80,000 psi
te ratures up to 14OO”F(76O”C). (552,000 kN/m’) min; yield strength, 70,-
erties. Titan- 000 psi (483,000 kN/m’) min, and elonga-
ium is almost immune to most corrosives, tion in !wo inches, 20 percent min.
but when it is subject to attack, the rate of Commercially pure titanium does not
corrosion is usually severe. One chemical respond to heat-treatment but can be
ccncern tested titanium with sulfuric acid cold-worked to above 120,000 psi (827,-
concentrations up to 22 percent at high 000 kN/m*) tensile and 100,000 psi (690,-
heat and pressure. and titanium remained 000 kN/m”) yield strength with a conse-
unaffected. quent drop in ductility. Commercially pure
Titanium is exceptionally immune to sea titanium and titanium base alloys are
water and marine atmosphere. It is the on- available in the form of sheet, strip, plate,
ly structural metal that has a corrosion be- wire bar, rod, forging billets, and forgings.
havior in salt water identica! to that in air.
This places a great demand on titanium
Titanic lloys
for ship building. Unalloyed titanium re-
tains its origina! !uster and appears to be
absolutely unaffected when exposed to Laboratories have explored thousands
rural and marine atmospheres for a period of titanium alloys of various combinations.
of five years. Titanium should be insulated Some having very impressive physical
when used with other metals by organic properties are commercially available.
coating or electrical insulation, because it One difficulty experienced was reproduc-
causes severe corrosion to metals with ing the alloys from heat to heat. This prob-
which it is in contact. lem was solved by improving melting
practices. The variations in raw sponge
and the tremendous effect of contami-
nants which are readily picked up by titan-
Titanium of the highest purity possible ium made it very difficult, if not impossi-
at a reasonable production cost is called ble, to duplicate previous heats.
Metallurgy
The size of the titanium atom is such psi (690,000 kN/m*) min; yield strength,
that it fits well with other metallic atoms, 90,000 psi (620,000 kN/m*) min; and elon-
indicating that it may make many good gation, 15 percent min.
solid solution type alloys. Titanium also Type Ti-140A is a two-phase, high-
makes a physical transformation at strength alloy sold primarily as bar and
1625°F (885°C). thus indicating a possi- forgings, but also in experimental produc-
bility of producing various age-hardenable tion as sheet and strip. This alloy has high-
alloys with alloying elements whose solid temperature stability and excellent impact
solubilities decrease with temperature. values. It may be spot-welded, but fusion
Titanium shows strong tendencies to- welds show only indifferent ductility val-
ward forming interstitial solid solutions ues. In bar and forgings the annealed
with metalloids (elements having both properties are as follows: hardness, 300 to
metallic and nonmetallic properties). Oxy- 304 Brine11 hardness number; tensile
gen, nitrogen, and carbon dissolve in mol- strength, 130,000 psi (896,000 kN/m’)
ten titanium to form solid solutions or min; yield strength, 120,000 psi (827,000
non-metallic inclusions (foreign matter). kN/m*) min; and elongation, 12 percent
Binary (two-constituent) alloys of these el- min.
ements do not respond to heat-treatment Type Ti-150A is an alloy sold primarily
but are readily work-hardened. Iron, chro- as bars and forgings-heat-treatable and
mium, and molybdenum stabilize the high work-hardenable. It is moderately respon-
temperature beta phase of titanium, pro- sive to heat treatment is supplied as an-
ducing alloys which harden when nealed at about 1250°F (675°C). Physical
quenched. The quaternary (four-constitu- properties are: hardness, 31 I-364 Brine11
entj ai:!oys formed from titanium, iron, hardness number; tensile strength, 135.-
chromium, and molybdenum have better 000 psi (930,000 kN/m’) min; yield
coimbinations of high strength and ductili- strength, 120,000 psi (827,000 kN/m’)
ty than have been obtained from binary or min; and elongation, 12 percent min.
ternary (three-constituent) alloys at the Type Ti-155A is a very high-strength
same level. forging alloy, beta stabilized by iron, chro-
In addition to the commercially pure mium, and mo!ybdenum additions and
grade (Ti-75A) and the extra soft variation with sufficient aluminum to maintain high
special grade, the Timet Corp. markets strength at temperatures up to 1OOO’F
several different titanium-base alloys, hav- (538°C). This alloy is only in experimental
ing nominal compositions and annealed production, but has already been wel-
physical properties of sheet as follows: comed in the jet-engine industry as an
Type Ti-lOOA, an oxygen-nitrogen alloy, is ideal composition for compressor wheels,
used primarily for sheet, plate, strip, and particularly for later stages where high
wire nonheat-treatable but work-hardena- temperatures build up as the air is com-
ble. Mill products of this alloy have physi- pressed. This alloy also exhibits excellent
cal properties as follows: hardness 30-C creep and impact performance. Annealed
Rockwell max; tensile strength, 100,000 Ti-155A bars and forgings have the follow-
400
Light Metals and Alloys
ing physical values: hardness, 300 to 370 used in both military and commercial air-
Brine11 hardness number; tensile strength, craft where even its high cost is justified
155,000 psi (1,070,OOO kN/m*); yield by the savings in weight and the accompa-
strength, 140,000 psi (965,000 kN/m*); nying extra pay load.
and elongation, 12 percent. Fasteners. Titanium and titanium alloy
rivets, nuts, bolts, and screws have been
manufactured in a variety of sizes, princi-
Uses pally for evaluation. The high-shear type
of rivet, on which stainless steel or Monel
Virtually all titanium metal is being used clips or collars are swaged (pressed,
today so as to take advantage of its favor- pulled, or hammered), has great possibili-
able ratio of strength-to-weight between ties. Shear-type fasteners may be impor-
300” and 700°F (150 to 370°C). Titanium tant in design because of the relatively
would be used more if it cost less. high-shear-tensile ratio of titanium. Ti-
ircraft gas turbines. Titanium bar tanium alloy screws, and particularly
stock and forgings are used in making bolts, also offer possibilities for saving
compressor disks, spacer rings, rotating weight.
and stationary compressor blades, and Other Applications. Because of superi-
vanes, through bolts, turbine housings, or corrosion resistance, titanium and ti-
and liners, and miscellaneous hardware tanium alloys are being used experimen-
for turbo-prop engines. Titanium sheet is tally as seats and disks in globe valves,
used for fire shields, brackets, and shroud and metering disks in displacement-type
stock. fuel systems on ships; also, for military
Airframes. Titanium and titanium alloy equipment which must be light for mobility
sheet are used in airframes for both struc- or air transportability, and in the chemical
tural and nonstructural applications, pri- industry for pipe and fittings to carry high-
marily surrounding engines, where service ly corrosive chemicals. Titanium oxide is
temperatures are in the range from 300” an important pigment in long-lasting titan-
to 700°F (150” to 370°C). Titanium is ium white paint.
REVIEW
1. Name the uses to which nearly pure 4. Describe briefly how the patented
aluminum can be put. product Alcladis made.
2. Name the properties that make alu- 5. What is the anodic treatment used
minum so useful. to increase the corrosion resistance of
3. How do you account for the resist- aluminum alloys?
ante of aluminum to corrosion? 6. What factors reduce the machinabil-
401
Metallurgy
ity of light alloys of aluminum and magne- 22. Describe the phenomenon known as
sium, and how are these overcome? precipitation hardening.
7. Into what two groups are aluminum 23. What effect does precipitation hard-
alloys classified? ening have upon elongation?
8. Cast aluminum is alloyed to im- 24. How may precipitation hardening be
prove what two properties? prevented?
9. Why are aluminum-silicon alloys 25. Upon what does the capacity for
more easily cast than aluminum-copper precipitation hardening at room tempera-
alloys? ture depend?
10. What effect does the addition of a 26. What is Dow Metal? What is its out-
small amount of metallic sodium have on standing characteristic?
an a!um-inum-silicon casting? 27. Name and describe briefly the two
11. What four outstanding characteris- chemical treatments given magnesium al-
tics are exhibited by aluminum-silicon loys to increase their corrosion resistance.
castings? 28. Name the principal alloying element
12. Name several uses of aluminum-sil- used to improve the mechanical proper-
icon castings. ties of magnesium.
13. What is the outstanding characteris- 29. Why are zinc and manganese added
tic of aluminum alloys containing magne- to magnesium?
sium? 30. What results are obtained from the
14. Why is zinc alloyed with aluminum? precipitation heat treatment of magne-
15. Why do wrought alumintim alloys sium alloys?
have physical properties superior to those 31. Name the special foundry tech-
of castings? niques for magnesium alloy casting.
16. What three operations are needed 32. List the uses for magnesium alloy
to produce wrought aluminum alloys? castings.
17. Are the hot-working temperatures 33. Why is it that wrought magnesium
used on wrought aluminum lower or high- alloys do not lend themselves readily to
er than those used on steel? Does this cold-forming or forging methods?
make such work on aluminum easier or 34. In what ways is winning titanium
harder than work on steel? from its ore different from winning other
18. Describe the process of annealing metals from their ores?
commercially pure aluminum. 35. What effects do contaminants have
19. What precaution is observed when upon the physical properties of titanium?
cooling wrought-aluminum alloys during Contrast these effects with the effects of
annealing? contaminants upon other metals.
20. At what temperature does recrystal- 36. What are the effects of oxygen, ni-
lization occur during annealing? trogen, and water and what means must
21. What improvement is obtained for be taken to eliminate them while produc-
certain aluminum alloys by a solution heat ing titanium?
treatment? 37. Discuss the properties of titanium.
from a mixture cf copper. or some of its
Where copper was first produced is not ores, and calamine which is zinc car-
known. It was known to the Romans as bonate.
the metat from Cyprus, from which the It was only-in 1781 that Emerson invent-
name copper was derived. Many of the ed the process of direct fusion of metals
ancient peoples used it. The Chaldeans to produce a copper-zinc alloy we call
had developed the art of working copper brass. In America, the first rolling of brass
as early as 4500 B.C. Later. the mines of sheet was done in Waterbury, Conn.. and
Cyprus yielded copper to the Egyptians, Connecticut has continued to be a center
and from Egypt the use of copper spread of American brass manufacture.
into Europe. In America copper was used Copper ranks next to iron and steel in
by the pre-Columbian peoples and the fn- commercial importance as a metal. Due to
dians long before any contact with Euro- its electrical properties it is of particular
peans. hIalive co er is found on the use to electrical engineers. Copper is easi-
earth’s surface in many places. ly rolled and drawn into wire. It exhibits
Copper seems to have been used first great resistance to weathering, has good
for ornaments; later it was used for tools mechanical properties, and is of moderate
and arms. Discovery of the hardening ef- cost. In ductility copper is definitely sur-
fects of tin. combined with copper to pro- passed only by gold and silver. its high
duce bronze. gave various peoples impor- ductility aflows the shaping of copper
tant advantages in war. Where, when, and without trouble from cracking, and with
how bronze and brass were discovered is relatively small expenditure for power and
not known, but the early, long-used for wear and tear of machinery. Cast COP-
method for brass ulas by direct reduction per has a tensile strength of 24,000 psi
Metallurgy
1
Sfnce expressions of psi (pounds per square inch) in units of tens and hundreds of thousands are not absolute
quantities. the conversion units of kNlm2 (kilo-Newtons per meter squared) have been rounded off appropri-
ately.
404
copper with the exception of raising the
recrystallizalion and annealing tempera-
tures. Lead in amounts over 0.005 percent
reduces the hot-working properties but
has little effect on the plasticity at room
temperature.
copper 99.9 5i.otlo 4 46,000 sh@eI;bar; cowxion resistance; ductility; high conductlvily. rooting: slamp: draw;
(e!+clrolyiicl 32,600 47 12,000 lube; rod b”8 bar: high conduc,M,y tubing weld; solder:
plate large; lorm
copper 99.9 7 02 sllvw per ICI" 51,060 4 46,WO sheet; high annealing point; auto radiator fins; lxk seam tubing slamp: draw;
OW 32,OW 47 12,wo strip; rod solder: lorm
copper 99.9 0.04 phosphorus 55,OilO 5 44,000 8heol; draws and coils betfer than electralybc. Waler. relrig s,amp:draw:
(pbosphorlred) max 35,cQO 45 16,OW strip; tube eralor and oil-burner tubing mge
tipper 99.9 0.04phosphoru1l wm 4 66,OW sheal; hlgh strength: resiS,S heat and flaking; condenser tubes SWUllp;
(aWllcal) 0.34 Brwnlc 36.0+0 40 7,ow tube; plate draw; forge
Copper 99 ,.00cadmlum 60,WO 4 high strength; high-strength parts; trolley wire draw; forge
(cadmium) 35,cw 46 66,000 rod
COpW 99 2.00 beryllium 175,Ow 134.000 sheet very high strength; hardness; high conductivity: springs; stamp; draw;
(befyllium) 75.OcQ 4: 31.000 ("be; rod cutting ,OOlS forge; form
BRASSES
95 5 55,000 5 39,000 sheet: ductiliiy: reddish gold color: primers; detonator luse caps: stamp: draw:
35,000 38 11.000 strip: tube jewelry; forgings forge: form
Commercial so 10 67,000 3 53.000 sheet: ductility: used for color match; stamped hardware; bullet stamp: draw;
bronze 37.000 40 11.000 strip; tube jackets; jewelry: caskets; screen cloth forge: form:
p&X.91e
Rich B6 15 75.000 4 52,000 sheet; corrosion iesislan~e: brass pipe; iewelry: badges; name stamp: form:
low brass 42,000 43 15,000 strip; tube plates; etchings: tags: dials draw: blank;
etch: weld
Low brass 50 20 65.000 4 65,000 sheet: corrosion resistance; yellow color: jewelry ilor gold stamp: form;
43,000 50 15.000 strip:tube plating); fulton bellows, draw. spin
Seve"ty-thirty 0, 70 30 66.000 4 65.000 sheet; high ductility: deep drawing; pins: rivels; eyelels. ra- stelnp: sp,n:
cartridge brass 45,000 50 15.000 ship: lube diators: cartridge shells; spun articles deep drawing
High bras 66 34 w.000 4 70.000 sheet high ductility: deep drawing: brass pipe; auto reflectors; stamp: spm
48slOO 50 15,000 strip stampings; radiator fins deep drawing
Leaded 66 33.5 1.5 60,000 5 60.000 sheet forming by bending: free machining; engravers’ brass; stamp; form:
high brass 45.000 60 15,000 strip lighting fixtures; clock and watch backs: gears; keys bend; punch
Freecutting rod 62 35 3 62,000 20 25,000 rod typical brass rod: free machining: extruded shapes; screw machine;
47,000 60 15,000 machine parts fhread: extrude
Forging rod 60 36 2 70,000 10 31.000 rod ho, forgings; faucet handles; shower heads forge; extrude;
50,000 45 15,000 machine;
Muntz metal 64 40 60.000 9.5 60,000 sheet; condenser tubes and heads; Ship sheathing; perforated draw; punch:
57.000 46 15,000 plate: tubes mew orarmg roe forge
Architectural 56 41.25 2.75 70,000 10 55,000 svengl,,, hai~ness:,iee cutting: extruded shapes; lorg- extrude; large;
bronze 50.000 20 15.000 ings. l"tel!Or "iniane",al bmm machine
SPECIAL BRASSES
Silicon BG3SS 76 20 2,O silicon 110,000 4 63,000 h,gh stieqli,, weldab,lW refrigrraloi e"apo:~tors; ,lre leSiSta”Ce
55,000 .6, 12,500 exli"g"IshI'< ShOllS weld: stamp:
draw
Aluminum 76 22 2.0 al"ml""m 63,000 17 75,000 tuba iesistance to corvxion and emion; se,,-healing skin. draw:
bnlSS 62,000 52 16,000 Cw*rnsQr !"bES extrude
Admlralfy 71 26 1 95,000 5 92,000 sheet: mistaim 10 corrusion,esp~cially 0, sea water: condenser Lamp: draw:
45.000 60 16,000 s,rip:,ube tubes extwde
Naval btass 60 39.25 0.75 75,000 15 39.000 shee,; rod resisianca 10 cormsm in sea waler; lube heads; mame draw; large
54,000 45 15,000 fube siia,t,ng; bolls: forged parts;wi"dow anchors
BRONZES
Phosphor 96.75 0.05pIlo*- 1.2 65,000 4 50,000 Sheet; resilience: slrength; hardness; corrosion resistance Sl*‘Tp;
bronze pilorus 40,000 48 15.000 stnp springs: bearings; small parts lorm. weld
phosphor 92 0.05 phos- 6 110,000 3 65,000 sheal; wdlar lo above; welding rod Sl?lW
b,OIlZZ PhW"S 55,000 55 25,000 strip; rod foim: weld
Silicon bronze 96.25 3.25 silicon 0.50 110,000 5 100.000 Shei?,: strength; weldability: corrosion resistance: tanks; bolts; sLmp; draw;
60,000 55 25,000 tube: rod screwy: lags: chain: ioc~‘m,ive hub liners; welding rod. forge: weid:
extrude: cast
Al”h”lll 95 5.0 al"mi""m io5.000 5 *o.ooo sheet; corrosion res~slance: sfenglh; golden coior,condenser stamp,
bronze 57.000 55 24.000 tube: rod tubes gift articles extrude, draw
59 39 1.25 0.75 0.05 75.000 50,000 Sheet: ,eSis,anCa 10 wear and corrosio"; wemlg Iod; perforaled WWde:
Fe M” 60,000 3: 15,000 strip: rod coal screens; extruded wearing parts pertorate; weld
NICKEL SILVERS
Nickel silver 65 20 15 93,000 5.5 75.000 sheer; resistance to corrosion; strength; extruded shapes: table
Itypical) 45 15.000 strip; rod silver: instrumenls; key stock; springs
CUPRO-NICKELS
rzupro-nickel 80 20 60.000 3 79,000 lube wsistance lo ~oimion, em5ion. heat and chemical attack:
(eighty-twenty) 49.000 42 17.000 condenser tubes
Cupro-nickel 70 30 64,000 4 63,000 tube fame asabove b",mOreresi~,an,,~carrOSion~ condenser
(seventy-thirty) 49,000 50 18,300 tubes
Cupro-nickel 75 5 20 65,000 5 77,000 sheet: same as 80-20 above bu,,essresis,an,,ocorrosi"";con-
(zinc alloy) 50,000 35 23,000 tube; rod denser tubes
- ,-
Reprinted by permission of American Society for Metals
Metallurgy
BRASS
The alloys of copper and zinc are com- solid solution. The alpha phase is a strong
monly classified as brasses; however, the and very ductile structure. If the combina-
term commercial bronze may be used in tion contains above 36 percent zinc, a sol-
reference to some compositions of id solution known as beta (8) is formed,
copper-zinc. These terms as used in the which is relatively hard and much less
brass industry may be very misleading to ductile than the alpha brass. When zinc
the student. The copper-zinc alloys are exceeds 50 percent in the alloy, a gamma
the most important of the copper alloys (y) solid solution is formed which is hard
due to thei:- desirable properties and rela- and brittle and of no value industrially ex-
tively low cost. Zinc readily dissolves in cept for decoration.
copper in both the liquid and solid states, A study of the copper-zinc alloy dia-
forming a series of solid solutions; with gram, Fig. 18-3, illustrates the areas
less than 36 percent zinc, a solid solution where the alpha (a), beta (B), gamma (r).
is formed that is referred to as alpha (a) etc., solid solutions exist. The copper-zinc
408
Fig. 18-3. Diagram of copper-zinc ailoys. (Metals Handbook, American §ociety for
etals)
diagram may be readily understood and alpha brasses depend largely upon the
interpreted if the student will refer back to zinc content and the degree of cold work-
the chapter dealing with types of alloy sys- ing they receive. Fig. 18-4 illustrates the
tems, and divide the copper-zinc alloy dia- effect of composition upon the tensile
gram into sections resembling the more strength and ductiiity of alloys containing
simple diagrams described there. up to 50 percent zinc. It will be seen from
Brasses containing over 62 percent Fig. 18-4 that the tensile strength and
copper consist of only one phase, the al- ductility are both improved with additions
pha solid solution, which is very ductile of zinc up to approximately 30 percent
and has a face-centered cubic type of zinc, above which composition the tensile
crystal structure. The alpha solid solution strength continues to increase up to about
brasses are used mostly where the parts 45 percent zinc, with a marked drop in the
are wrought to shape. Many of the com- ductility when the zinc content exceeds 30
mercially important brasses are of this percent of the total weight.
type. The mechanical properties of these When the percentage of zinc exceeds
409
10 10 JO 50
WIlGHT PERCIN, ZONE
which is a copper containing from 27 to 35 The effect of cold working upon the me-
percent zinc. This alloy is used for the chanical properties of this alloy is illustrat-
manufacture of sheet metal, rods, wire, ed in Fig. 18-7. The only heat treatment
tubes. cartridge cases (from which it gets given to this alloy is annealing to remove
its name), and many other industrial any cold work hardening and to remove
shapes. residual stresses as the result of cold-
Unless the brass is exceptionally free working operations.
from lead, it may not respond well to hot
working, and all fabricatiofi -should be
n~eafi~~ ot Brass
done cold. Lead may be used to improve
the cold-working characteristics.
A rolled and annealed brass has a ten- The only heat treatment applicable to
sile strength of about 28,000 psi (190,000 alpha brass is ikl of annealing after cold
kN/m’). By cold rolling, however, its ten- working. Cold working, as we have seen,
sile strength may be increased to 100,000 produces a distortion of the crystal state,
psi (890.000 k&/m*). Brass is obtainable which is accompanied by an increase of
in varying degrees of hardness by cold hardness and strength and a loss of plas-
rolling, usually designated as quarterhard. ticity. The cold-worked condition, with its
half-hard. and hard. The hard brass is greater strength and lower ductility. ren-
brass with the maximum degree of cold ders the metal less workable and may re-
rolling that may be considered practical sult in failure due to rupture of the less
for a given thickness of section and from a plastic condition of the crystal state. Res-
workability viewpoint. toration of !he original properties may be
Copper and Its Alloys
160,000
140,mo
120,000
100,0*0
2
r’
5
zg 80,000
5
; 60,000
40,000
20,000
Fig. 18-7. Effect of co/d drawing on the physical properties of the high brass. (Metals
Handbook, American Society for Metals)
accomplished by an annealing operation; crystal structure into new and very fine
i.e., heating of the cold-worked brass to grains and (3) the growth of the fine new-
above its recrystallization temperature. formed grains into larger and fewer grains
During the heating of the cold-worked or crystals. The annealing operation com-
brass, any internal stresses which may be pletely removes any trace of the original
present in the brass from the cold-forming cold-worked state of the brass, and re-
operations may be removed. Three stores the original ductility, with a lower-
changes take place during the heating of ing of the tensile strength and hardness to
the cold-worked brass in an annealing op- the normal values.
eration: (1) the :elief of internal stiesses The effect of annealing temperatures
(2) the recrystallization of the cold-worked ranging from room temperature up to
413
I I I I I I
1D 100 1w 300 Qoo 500 600 700
ANNEALING ,mPmAT”rlc CEN,lGRADE
Fig. !8-8. Effect cf annealing if3TpWtitiiic3 on ihe properiies of high brass. (Metals
Handbook, American Society for Metals)
i478” F (800° C) on the properties of cold Annealing may be carried out by heat-
work-hardened brass of the yellow (high ing the coid-worked brass to within a tem-
brass) composition is illustrated by Fig. perature range of l!OC” F tG 1200” F
18-8. (about 595 to 650” C), followed by cooling
414
at any convenient rate. The rate of heating Sensitivity to season cracking may be
and cooling is atmost without effect on the determined by exposure of a cold-worked
Size of the new-formed crystals. The size brass, for approximately 10 minutes, to a
of the annealed crystals is influenced mercurous nitrate solution containing ni-
largely by the amount of cold work the tric acid. Satisfactory brass will show no
brass received before the annealing oper- evidence of a crack after a period of one
ation, and the maximum temperature hour following the treatment in this bath.
used in the annealing operation. (See the
discussion of recrystallization.) The at-
mosphere in the annealing furnace may
often be controlled to prevent excessive
oxidation or even discoloration of the sur- When the content of zinc in brass is in-
face of the brass to be annealed. creased from 40 percent to 45 percent
zinc, the alloy is called Muntz metal. This
alloy contains both the alpha and beta
constituents in its structure. Muntz metal
may be hot-worked even when it contains
Highly stressed brass and bronze may a high percentage of lead. Such brass is
be sensitive to failure by cracking in serv- accordingly useful for screws and machine
ice under conditions of a corrosive nature.
This failure is spontaneous and may occur
without any added strain from service. It
constitutes one of the most serious de-
fects or failures in cold-worked brass. The
conditions ieading to season cracking
may be eliminated by careful control of
the cold-working operations, or by remov-
al of the internal stresses before subject-
ing the brass to service. Annealing should
remove any danger of season cracking.
Also, a low-temperature baking or anneat-
ing treatment, which may not lower the
tensile strength beiow satisfactory vaiues,
may be used that will prove safe as a
treatment to prevent season cracking.
Low temperature annealing within temper-
atures of 500” to 800” F (about 260” to
425” C) may prove satisfactory as a
means of removing the internal stresses Fig. 78-9. Muntz metal, annealed. Copper
60 percent; zinc balance. Alpha plus beta
and maintaining the tensile strength within structure. Magnified 75 times. (Revere
acceptable limits. Copper and Brass, Inc.)
415
parts, where ease of working and particu-
larly ease of machining are more impor-
tant than strength.
A photomicrcgraph of this alloy, Fig.
18-9, illustrates the type of structure
found in untz metal. As stated previous-
ly, both the alpha and beta phases are
present in this ailoy. The tighter constitu-
eni is the harder and iess ductile beta
phase, and the darker constituent is the
softer and more plastic aipha phase.
Some of the applications for Muntz metal
include sheet form for ship sheathing, Fig. l8- 10. Annealed arsenical admiralty
condenser heads, perforated metal, con- metal, magnified 75 times. Copper 70 per-
cent; tin 1 percent; arsenic 0.03 percent;
denser tubes. waive stems and brazing zinc balance. (Revere Copper and Brass,
i-UC& Inc.)
Fig. 18- Il. Copper-rich portion of the copper-tin constitution diagram. (Meta:s Hand-
book, American Society for Metals)
id solution plus a compound, Cu,Sn, that of this diagram, it will be seen that the sol-
acts as a hardener in the alloy. ubility of the compound Cu3Sn decreases
The alloy diagram of the copper-tin sys- with a lowering of the temperature from
tern is shown in Fig. 18-11. From a study the alpha solid solution area to room tem-
497
tatlurgy
418
Copper
and Its Alloys
419
Metallurgy
not unli!te those found in brass and
bronze. The mechanica! properties of alu-
minum bronze are superior to those devel-
oped by ordinary bronze. The tensile
strength in the as-cast condition of an al-
loy containing IO percent aluminum is
about 65,000 psi (448,000 kN/m’). It is
nearly as ductile as brass and has double
the ductility of tin-copper bronze. Many
special aluminum bronzes are on the mar-
ket, which develop very high hardness and
Fig. 78- 1.5. Aluminum-silicon bronze, strength; some of these are subjected to
heated to 1700°F (about 925°C) and
quenched in water. Aluminum 7 percent; heat treatments similar to aluminum-
silicon 2 percent; copper ba/ance. Alpha copper alloys in order to develop their
plus beta structures. (Revere Copper and maximum properties. It is more difficult to
Brass. Inc.)
obtain uniformity in aluminum bronzes
than in the more common copper alloys.
ments, 1 to 4 percent silicon, which is ad- to corrosion caused by many organic ac-
ded to improve cold work-hardening char- ids, sugar solutions, sulphite solutions,
acteristics, developing greater strength etc. Their uses include electrical fittings,
upon cold rolling or drawing. In addition to marine hardware, water wheels, boilers,
high capacity for work hardening, the sili- pumps, shafting, and many parts that op-
con bronzes exhibit excellent resistance erate under corrosive conditions.
421
MetaNyrgy
Y+b
I‘
fig. 78- 16. Diagram of copper-beryllium alloys. (Metals Handbook, American Society for
Metals)
higher Brine11 hardness range, as high as welding electrodes. The main objection to
200,000 psi (1,380,OOO kN/m2). these alloys is cost.
These alloys exhibit good electrical
properties and excellent corrosion resist-
Copper-Manganese-Nickel Alloys
ance. Because they possess a combina-
tion of high Brine11 hardness and tensile
strength, these alloys find many applica- A substitute for the beryllium alloys has
tions as springs, tools, surgical and dental been developed that contains approxi-
instruments, watch parts, firing pins, and mately 22 to 24 percent manganese, 22 to
24 percent nickel, and the balance cop-
per. This alloy exhibits age-hardening ef-
fects resulting from heat treatments and Monel metal is a so-called natural alloy
may be cast and wrought to shape. Alloys in that it is made by smelting a mixed
of this type may be greatly improved in nickel-copper ore mined in Sudbury, On-
strength and hardness by quenching from tario. It contains approximately 65 percent
1200” F (650” C) followed by tempering or nickel, 28 percent copper, the balance
aging at 660” to 840” F (about 350” to consisting chiefly of iron, manganese, and
450” C) for approximately 24 hours. With cobalt as impurities. Monel metal is har-
proper heat treatments, hardness values der and stronger than either copper or
of Rockwell C54 and higher are obtainable nickel in the pure form; it is also cheaper
with tensile strength values in excess of than pure nickel and will serve for certain
200,000 psi (1,379,OOO kN/m’). These par- high-grade purposes to better advantage
ticular alloys may be used in applications than the pure metal. Monel is a substitute
similar to the beryllium-copper and the for steel where resistance to corrosion is a
aluminum bronzes and are used where prime requisite.
hardness and nonsparking characteristics Monel metal can be cast, hot and cold
are needed, such as in some applications worked, and welded successfully. In the
for hand tools. forged and annealed condition it has a
tensile strength of 80,000 psi (552,000
kN/m*) with an elongation of 45 percent in
2 inches, and is classified as a tough alloy.
In the cold-worked condition it develops a
tensile strength of 100,000 psi (690,000
kN/m’), with an elongation of 25 percent
Copper and nickel form a very simple in 2 inches. With excellent resistance to
alloy in that both metals dissolve in each corrosion, pleasing appearance, good
other in all percentages to form a solid strength at elevated temperatures, Monel
solution. Nickel added to brasses and metal finds many uses in sheet, rod, wire,
bronzes has been found to improve their and cast forms. Included in the applica-
electrical properties and toughness. A fa- tions for monel metal are sinks and other
miliar copper-nickel alloy is found in the household equipment, containers, valves,
United States five-cent piece, which is pumps, and many parts of equipment
coined from alloy sheets containing 75 used in the food, textile, and chemical in-
percent copper and 25 percent nickel. All dustries.
alloys of copper and nickel with more than A Monel metal containing 3 to 5 percent
20 percent nickel are white in color. Alloys aluminum, known as K-Monel, is available.
containing 30 perceni nickel are much This alloy is of interest because it can be
used in marine service where strength and made to develop very high properties by
resistance to corrosion are important fac- means of heat treatment as a substitute
tors in the selection of an alloy. for cold-work hardening in the other
423
Metallurgy
REVIEW
1. Name the properties of copper that of the alpha, beta, and gamma brasses.
make it so important commercially. How are they formed?
2. Name the approximate strengths of 5. With what metal is copper alloyed to
cast copper before and after cold form brass?
working. 6. Name the uses of red brasses.
3. Can copper be hardened by heat 7. What percentage of zinc is used in
treatment? cartridge brass?
4. Describe the difference in qualities 8. Name the approximate strength of
424
cartridge brass before and after cold in beryllium-copper alloy? Name some of
rolling. its uses.
9. Brass is made in various degrees of 18. What does the addition of nickel do
hardness. tiow are these expressed? for copper alloys? What special uses are
10. What is fvtuntz metal and what par- made of these alloys?
ticular uses are made of it? 19. What is Monel metal and how is it
Il. What changes take place during obtained?
heating of cold-worked brass in an- 20. Name t;rc percentages of nickel and
nealing? iron in Permalloy. What are some of its
42. What is meant by season cracking uses?
of brass and bronze, and how is danger of 21. List some of the important impuri-
such failure removed? ties found in copper. How do they affect
13. Why is tin used in bronze? the properties of copper?
14. What percentage of tin is used in 22. Why are copper alloys superior to
bronze for electric sockets? commercial copper?
15. Why is lead added to some brass 23. What is the purpose of annealing
and bronze? copper?
It;. What can be said of the mechanical 24. Describe the process of annealing
propeities of aluminum bronze? cold, work-hardened copper.
17. ‘What tensile strength is developed 25. Name the important red brasses.
425
R
Bearing metals are a major part of automotive engine life. (Ford Motor Co.)
We are now living in the Alloy Age and than some other is no economic reason to
we may wonder at the many kinds and va- bar its use. Because of the large number
rieties of metals and alloys employed by of alloys that have been made and placed
industry. We soon discover that the rea- on the market, the engineer may make a
sons for the great variety of metals and al- selection from a great variety of alloys ex-
loys used are not difficult to find. Each has hibiting combinations of properties that a
gained its commercial status because it few years ago were only wishful thinking.
meets certain requirements better than It may seem to the student of metallurgy
some other metal, or because its use that too many combinations are already
provides some special satisfaction to hu- available, but engineers are always de-
man needs. In many cases, availability and manding new alloys, as yet undiscovered,
economy dictate the selection of the metal that will exhibit properties now unavaila-
or alloy for some specific use. Steel is ble. A large number of the engineers’
used in rails, tungsten in tamp filaments; present inventions cannot economically
with economy the main factor in their be used until such time as alloys with
selection, each has no competition. combinations of properties needed for
Just because a metal is higher priced these new practices are made available.
ETAL CHARACTERlSTlCS
427
Metallurgy
piece of equipment that requires motion metals have received much attention from
of rotation or reciprocation. Many differ- engineers, chemists, and metallurgists
ent materials may be chosen for use as during the past few years, and as a result
the bearing surfaces of any moving part. of diversity of viewpoints and interests,
The selection of any one type of metal or much literature covering bearing metals is
alloy will depend upon several factors, and available. The properties of a good bear-
the final selection may be determined by ing metal should include:
the trial and error method. High compressive strength. This is es-
In many designs, roller and ball bear- sential if the bearing is not to squeeze out
ings are chosen where a minimum of fric- under high-compressive loads. The com-
tional resistance is needed and where high pressive strength should be high enough
bearing pressures are encountered. In the to support the load.
solution of bearing problems, the engineer Plasticity. It must be sufficiently plastic
has frequently depended upon the selec- to allow the bearing to deform in order to
tion of a suitable metal or alloy to be used take care of misalignment; it also enables
as the bearing, with the hope that the met- bearings to withstand shocks without
al selected would exhibit low frictional cracking. If a bearing is finished to a high
characteristics without any tendency to degree of dimensional accuracy and
weld or seize when the bearing surfaces properly installed, a harder, stronger, and
came into contact with each oiher. less plastic metal bearing alloy may be
In most applications of metal bearing used.
surfaces, the engineer depends upon a Low coefficient of friction. The bearing
film of oil acting as a lubricating film to metal of lowest coefficient of friction is not
prevent welding, or seizure, and excessive necessarily the best, as other factors af-
wear. Theoretically, the type of metal or fect behavior and may have more obvious
alloy that is chosen for the bearing sur- effects. The frictional properties of a per-
faces should be of no consequence if a fectly lubricated bearing would be of no
proper film of lubrication is maintained at account; however this condition is not at-
all times between the bearing surfaces, tainable in practice. Some contact or rub-
thus preventing any me?al-to-metal con- bing of metal to metal takes place, and
tact. However, there are times when there due to this a low frictional characteristic is
is an insufficient lubricating film present desirable. In general, the harder the bear-
between the metal surfaces in any bear- ing metal, the lower the frictional charac-
ing, and a metal-to-metal contact occurs. teristics.
It is then that the bearing metal should be- Long life. Life of a bearing metal is
have satisfactorily without seizure or burn- largely a matter of resistance to wear, and
mg out or excessive wear. this will depend upon the composition and
A number of metals and alloys, mostly hardness of the metal. In general, the
of the white metal group, such as cad- bearing should be selected so that it will
mium, lead, zinc, etc., are used as bear- wear, rather than the shaft material. If a
ings of the flood-lubricated type. Bearing hard bearing metal is selected to increase
428
Bearing Metals
the resistance to wear, it has the disad- bearing metals have a strong and plastic
vantage that if there is any tendency to background or matrix in which is dis-
heat, it will heat more rapidly and conse- persed one or more hard constituents. It
quently wear more rapidly. may be assumed that the strong matrix al-
High heat conductivity. Good thermal lows plastic flow for the adjustments of fit-
conductivity allows the rapid dissipation of ting and prevents failure under shock
heat generated and prevents the bearing loading. The hard crystals dispersed
metal from becoming overheated. Good throughout this background add some
contact between the bearing metal and strength, but largely increase the resist-
the backing used to support the bearing is ance to wear. It has been stated that there
essential to insure good heat transfer. A is an advantage in having the hardest
good contact or adherence is often ob- component in the bearing metal the same
tained by casting the bearing metal into or at least not any harder than the shaft or
contact with the backing. Testing the journal, so that mutual polishing rather
bond strength between the bearing metal than abrasion will take place.
and the backing is a good way to deter-
mine the efficiency of the bond.
Heat resistance. A bearing metal
Lead-Base Bearing Metals
should maintain its compressive strength
and hardness in the temperature range
within which it may be expected to be Lead has some of the properties de-
used. sired in a bearing metal, but due to its low
Besides these properties, a good bear- strength, alloying of the lead with some
ing metal should have good casting prop- hardener metal, such as copper, tin, anti-
erties and be easily workable. From this it mony, calcium, etc., is often practiced.
should be clearly seen that bearing metals Members of one group of lead-base bear-
must meet varied requirements. They ing alloys contain approximately 60 per-
must be hard to resist wear, yet soft so cent lead, the other 40 percent being
that the bearing will wear rather than the made up of tin and antimony, with a little
shaft or spindle; tough and strong, so as copper in certdn of the mixtures. The
to avoid failure by deformation or fracture, structure of these alloys contains a matrix
yet plastic and compressible so as to al- of a eutectic nature with hard crystals of
low the bearing metal to conform to any an intermetallic compound embedded in
slight misalignment or inaccuracy in di- the eutectic matrix. Lead-base bearing
mensions or fit. metal is the cheapest of all the white bear-
It is apparent that no commercially pure ing alloys.
metal, or even homogeneous alloy, can Other uses for these alloys of lead, tin,
siccess:tilty meet all of these iequire- and antimony include so!der, type meta!,
ments. As a result, practically all bearing sheathing for telephone cables, and stor-
metals are made up of several structural age! battery grids. In fact, due to the large
crystal constituents. The more common to:lnage of lead used in batteries and
429
paint, lead may be referred to as a chemi- 000 to 15,000 psi (90,000 to 103,000
cal metal rather than a structurai metal. kN/m2), with a Brinell hardness of 15 to
20 Brinell; while the tin-base alloys, as a
class, have equal or greater strength,
with an elastic limit two to three times as
high and a greater Brine11 hardness. The
The tin-base bearing metais a:e called term Babbitt metal can also refer to lead
Babbitl metal. A common alloy of this base bearings or other cast-in-place
class contains 85 percent tin, 10 percent metal bearings.
antimony, and 5 percent copper. Copper
and antimony are essential alloys in these bead-Calcium
tin-base bearing metals. A typical struc-
ture found in these alloys is seen in Fig. This alloy was a discovery by Francis C.
19-t. which consists mostiy of a dark eu- Frary. When hard lead was wanted and it
tectlc mairix containing embedded was found that there was a shortage of
needle-like crystais of CuSn and cube-like antimony as a hardener for shrapnel,
crystals of SbSn. The hard crystals of Frary secured patents covering lead-base
CuSn and SbSn increase the hardness alloys, with barium and calcium as hard-
and wear resistance of the alloy. The eners, that proved very successful. Out of
physical properties of the tin-base alloys this discovery a new alloy was created for
are superior to the lead-base alloys, hav- bearings, containing a total of 2.5 percent
ing higher values for strength and hard- calcium, tin, and other hardeners, and
ness, and they are lighter. The lead-base having an unusually high strength at tem-
alloys have a compressive strength of 13,- peratures near its melting point; conse-
quen?!y i? Is fa%vo:ed for high-speed gas
engines. The structure of these alloys con-
tains crystals of Pb,Ca dispersed
throughout a matrix or ground mass of tin
and calcium in solid solution in the lead.
This structure conforms to the usual
structure of bearing metals.
The cadmium-nickel alloy has been found found in the tin-antimony-babbitt bearing
to have a higher meiting point than the alloys, but the eutectic matrix is slightly
abbitt metals, with its properties less softer than that of the Babbitt alloys.
affected by temperature: in fact, these al- Other cadmium bearing alioys contain
loys are operative at temperatures that silver, copper, and indium. Silver is said to
would melt the Babbits. improve casting characteristics and to in-
Although the alloy diagram of the cad- crease strength, while indium is used to
mium-nickel system, Fig. 19-3, may not combat the corrosive action of some lubri-
show accurately the complete behavior of cating oils.
ihe two metals, it .wili sei’tie i0 ikistiaie ihC+ Bearings of the fo!lowing composition
influence of nickel in forming a eutectic have been successfully used in several
mixture when 0.25 percent nickel has makes of American automobiles: 97 per-
been added to cadmium. It also shows the cent cadmium, together with 2.25 percent
formation of an intermetallic compound silver, and 0.75 percent copper. The struc-
with the chemical formula NiCd,. The solid ture of cadmium-silver-copper alloy is
solubility of nickel in cadmium is practical- composed of a solid solution matrix with
ly zero. The eutectic mixture solidifies at small quantities of embedded crystals of a
605°F (318’C) and consists of nearly pure harder intermetallic compound formed by
cadmium and crystals of the compound the copper.
NiCd,. The common bearing alloy of 1.25
to 1.50 percent nickel and the balance
cadmium, consists structurally of a matrix
of the eutectic structure with an excess of
free cube-like crystals of the compound Bearing alloys of copper-tin-lead or
NiCd,, shown in Fig. 49-2. The NiCd, copper-lead have been successfully used
compound is harder than the compound when heavy compressive loads and high
I-
,-
0.
cd+NiCd,
D
Cd 2 3 4 5 6
Fig. 19-3. Constitutional diagram of the cadmium-rich end of the cadmium-nickel SyS-
tern.
temperatures are encountered, such as in bearings, and railroad service. The lead
connecting-rod bearings in aircraft and and copper form a mechanical mixture
automotive truck engines, rolling-mill during the solidification process, inas-
432
Fig. 19-4. Copper-lead ailoy, polished
section, magnified 100 times. Dark areas
represenr lead.
much as copper has very little or no solid lead weakens the metal but acts as a self-
solubility for the lead. The cast copper- lubricant.
lead alloy consists of lead freezing in par- A representative structure is illustrated
ticles ?hroughout the matrix of copper. in Fig. 19-4, which shows a copper-lead
The addition of the lead to the copper in- alloy polished, the lead appearing dark
creases the plasticity of the bearing metal and the copper, light. Fig. 19-5 shows the
and lowers the coefficient of friction, thus same alloy etched. The lead in these pho-
improving copper as a bearing metal. The tomicrographs has largely eroded during
Metalhrgy
the polishing operation, which accounts ing metal may vary from 0.060” to less
for the da:k areas in these specimens. In than 0.0025” (from 1.52 to 0.06mm).
the casting of bearings of copper-lead al- The hard steel or bronze backing serves
loys, the lead is apt to segregate into large to improve greatly the mechanical proper-
particles in certain areas of the bearing, ties of the bearing. Several methods may
and the alloy may form two layers, one be used to cast or attach the bearing met-
copper, one lead. Such segregation may al to the backing, such as die-casting, per-
seriously impair the physical properties of manent mold casting, centrifugal casting,
the bearing alloy. Stirring of the molten al- or electro-plating. A steel or bronze cy-
loy and rapid cooling during the casting lindrical or semicylindrical shell or strip
operation serve to minimize this tendency may be used for the backing. If a cylindri-
to segregate. Also, the addition of nickel cal or semicylindrical shell is used, the
to the alloy seems to act as an aid in fur- bearing metal may be cast to the shell by
ther reducing this tendency to segregate. the centrifugal casting method, whereas
A common binary (two element) alloy con- steel strips may have Babbitt or copper-
taining 25 percent to 36 percent lead and lead alloys welded to them by moving a
the balance copper gives satisfactory strip of the steel horizontally through the
service results. Aircraft engine bearings continuous casting machine. If the bearing
have been made from a ternary (three ele- metal is to be added to both sides of the
ment) alloy containing 72 percent copper, steel strip, a vertical casting machine
25 percent lead, and 3 percent tin, with or method may be employed. The final bear-
without the addition of silver. ing may be made from the lined strip by
Bearings made from copper-lead alloys cutting off short sections and then bend-
have less plasticity and greater frictional ing or forming them to the desired shape.
properties than the tin or cadmium base One of the problems encountered in the
alloys and therefore require more accu- manufacturing of a composite bearing by
rate sizing and assemblies. A clearance these methods is the problem of obtaining
between bearing surfaces of about twice a good bond between the steel or bronze
that of the Babbitt metals is required, as backing and the bearing metal. Control-
well as special high-grade lubricants. ling the structure of the cast bearing metal
is an important factor influencing the
characteristics of the bearing metal.
Composite Bearings
434
per, and 5 percent aluminum. Alloy of this loys are capable of absorbing substantial
composition has a hardness of approxi- amounts of oil, which is held in the pores
mately 130 Brinell and compares favor- of the bearing metal until pressure causes
ably with some of the copper-base bear- it to flow out to the surfaces of the
ing metals. Some zinc-alloy die-castings bearing, thus making it a self-lubricating
can be made from a similar composition bearing. Oil may be added to the porous
and require no additional bearing alloy in bearing alloy from any outside surface,
their finished assembly. Some applica- the oil working through the spongy metal
tions for these bearing alioys include lathe as needed. These porous bearings have
and machine tool spindle bearings and many applications and fill a real need in
electric motor bearings. those applications where lubrication is dif-
ficult to accomplish or where very little Iu-
brication can be used.
Silver-Lead-lndium Bearings
Another type of bearing material con-
sists of a porous bronze alloy made by the
pressed powdered metals method known A bearing alloy widely used in aircraft
as powder metallurgy. Powdered copper engines and in other applications where a
and tin, or powdered tin and bronze are heavy-duty bearing metal is needed is the
mixed with graphite, and the cold mixture silver-lead-indium bearing alloy. This
is partially welded together by means of bearing alloy consists of a steel shell to
pressure. The pressure wn!drnn
..- -... J ic acmrn-
.- ---- which a coating of copper is electroplated.
plished in a steel die or mold which forms This copper layer is not-a part of the bear-
the powdered metal into the shape re- ing but merely assists in binding the steel
quired. The cold-welded shape is then re- to the silver layer which follows. This steel
moved from the steel die or mold and shell, with the thin copper surface, is then
placed in a furnace and heated to a tem- plated with about 0.02” to 0.03” (0.51 to
perature which further welds the pressed 0.76mm) of silver. The bearing rnay then
metal powder to form a solid. Accurate be machined to size, allowing for the addi-
control of the density or porosity of the tional thickness of the succeeding depos-
finished bearing is effected by controlling its of layers of lead and indium.
the pressure used in the cold welding op- The machined silver surfaces are then
eration and the temperature to which the slightly roughened by light sandblasting,
pressed bearing is heated. and a thin layer of lead is deposited over
The heating of the pressed metal pow- the silver to a thickness of about 0.001”
der is a sort of annealing operation which (0.025mm) by plating. This plated layer
is called sistering. If coarse metal pow- can be controlled as to thickness so as to
ders are used and little pressure and low avoid any further machining operations.
temperatures are employed, a porous The indium is then plated, to the lead sur-
bearing metal results. Porous bearing al- face with a flash plating of only a few
435
Metallurgy
hundred-thousandths of an inch. The in- indium is more corrosion resistant than ei-
dium, which alloys readily with the lead ther lead or silver.
and has a melting point of 311°F (155”C), Other bearing a//oys. Included under
is diffused into the lead by heating the the heading of bearing metals are alumi-
bearing to 350°F (177°C) in an oil bath. num alloys and cast iron. Some discussion
The primary role of the indium is to reduce of these alloys will be found in sections of
the corrosive action that lubricants would this text deal’ng with these metals.
have on the unprotected lead surface, for
REVIEW
1. Name some of the factors that may 11, What peculiar property of lead-
dictate the selection of a certain metal for calcium alloys makes them suitable for
a job. use on high-speed gas engines?
2. Why is high compressive strength 12. In what respect are cadmium alloys
necessary to a bearing metal? superior to Babbitt metal for bearings?
3. Why is plasticityimportant in a bear- 13. How does silver improve the cad-
ing metal? mium bearing alloys?
4. Why is a low coefficient of friction 14. What type of bearing alloys is used
desirable in a bearing metal? when heavy compressive loads and high
5. Discuss the length of life of a bear- temperatures are encountered?
ing. 15. Describe what steps are taken to
6. Why is high heaf-conductivityimpor- prevent segregation of lead in the copper-
tant in bearings? lead bearing alloys.
7. Sum up the characteristics of a good 16. Describe composite bearings.
bearing metal. 17. Name some of the applications for
8. Why is it important to have good zinc-base bearings.
contact between bearing metal and its 18. How are porous self-lubricating
backing? bearings made?
9. What is the advantage in having the 19. In what applications do poroc;s
hardest component in the bearing metal bearings fill a real need?
of the same hardness as the metal in the 20. Describe the widely used silver-
shaft or journal? lead-indium bearing.
10. Name several uses of the lead-base 21. What is the primary role of indium in
alloys. the silver-lead-indium bearings?
436
Pure zirconium metal was described as widely distributed and no less available
early as 1920, but not until the develop- than those of better-known metals. The
ment of the Van Arkel process of iodide earth’s crust is estimated to contain 0.04
decomposition in 3925, in Leyden, Hol- percent zirconium, more than the com-
land, was pure, coheren? metal readily bined percentages for copper, lead, zinc,
available. tin, nickel, and mercury.
The later Kroll process proved better Almost all the zirconium used in Ameri-
than Van Arkel’s for a large-scale opera- can industry comes from the extensive ore
tion. !n that process, zirconium tetrachlor- deposits in Florida, Australia, and Brazil.
ide is broken down with magnesium to The ores from Florida and Australia con-
form magnesium chloride and zirconium sist of seacoast sands from which zircon
metal. Hafnium, usually in quantities of 1.5 (zirconium silicate), rutile, ilmenite, and
to 2.0 percent, is the chief impurity. The other minerals readily separated. Though
hafnium contamination of zirconium is in the ore is lean, it is still cheaper to pro-
the same proportion as in the ore from duce than if drilling, blasting, and crushing
which the metal was made. were also required. In Brazil, the chief zir-
conium ore is baddeleyite, an impure ox-
ide with less siiica ihan is contained in
zircon.
Deposits of zircon have been operated
Zirconium was once considered one of profitably in Madag,?scar, India, and AUS-
the rare metals. Its ores, however, are tralia. There are deposits in Oregon and
437
Metallurgy
438
Zirconium, lndium and Vanadium
By a method developed by the Titanium and decades ago zirconium was produced
Alloy Manufacturing Company, the ore is chiefly as a powder. The metal produces a
first treated in an arc furnace to convert very bright light when ignited. The reactiv-
the silicate to a carbonitride (more com- ity of finely divid-d zirconium renders it
monly called cyanonitride), which in turn is effective for combining with the last traces
chlorinated to obtain the tetrachloride. of oxygen and nitrogen in evacuated ves-
The tetrachloride is then reduced to metal sels or tubes, and thus the complete re-
by magnesium in a closed retort. Extreme moval of these gases irom the interior at-
care is required in the later stages of this mospheres. These uses are still current.
process to avoid contamination of the Among the other uses that have been
metal by the oxygen and nitrogen in the suggested are for grid wires in vacuum
air. The metal is produced in the form of a tubes and parts of discharge tubes
gray crystalline sponge (porous) which is exposed to high temperatures, as an
melted in graphite by induction, or in electrolytic condenser for rectifiers and
water-cooled copper by an arc, to obtain high-intensity electric lamp filaments, and
ingots. An atmosphere free from oxygen electrodes in fluorescent tubes. It is used
and nitrogen is essential for melting oper- io clad fuel rods in nuclear reactors.
ations. Carbon pick-up from the graphite Not only is zirconium not attacked by
in induction me!ting is slight and not detri- the atmosphere or sea water at normal
rnental if superheating (heating above temperatures, but it is almost as resistant
boiling point without converting into gas) to acids as tantalum (a hard, ductile me-
a.nd long holding in the molten state are tallic element). It resists alkalies better
avoided. than tantalum. Zirconium is far superior to
The ingots are forged or hot-rolled at tantalum in wear-resistance and low dens-
about 1350” to 1400°F (730” to 760°C) ity, as well as in abundance and economy.
and if higher temperatures are avoided,
scaling and oxygen absorption are not
Physical Properties
sufficiently serious to impair the quality of
the finished product. Annealing, prior to
cold-working, may be done at 1300°F Like titanium, zirconium undergoes a
(705°C) in air. Scale-removal for cold- physical transformation at approximately
rolling or wire-drawing is difficult, and 1590°F (about 855°C). The room temper-
usually requires shot-blasting, followed ature phase, called alpha, has a close-
by pickling. packed, hexagonal, crystal structure.
Above 1590°F (about 855°C) the crystal
Uses structure is body-centered cubic, called
beta zirconium. The hexagonal close-
Zirconium metal was first used for prim- packed structure in metals is generaily
ing explosives and flashlight powders. The considered to cause poor ductility be-
extreme combustibility of this powder cause of the Presence of only one plane of
makes it very suitable for this purpose, easy slip, but zirconium, like titanium, is
Metallurgy
an exception to this general rule and can Work hardening. Cold-working of zir-
be worked with ease at room temperature. conium increases its strength and hard-
Mechanical Properties ness, and cold-rolling produces a pro-
Metallic zirconium, hot-rolled to bar nounced loss in ductility of the metal, as
form, has the following tensile properties, indicated by the reduction in the percen-
as determined by specimens haviing a tage of elongation that occurs in cold-
gage-length of 1” and 0.16” (25.4 to rolled specimens. Fig. 20-l shows the ef-
4.0mm) dia: stress for 1 percent extension fects of cold-rolling on mechanical prop-
under load, 68,000 to 80,000 psi (469,000 erties of commercially pure zirconium.
to 552,000 kN/m’); tensile strength, 97,-
000 to 113,000 psi (669,000 to 779,000 Effect of annealing on cold-worked
kN/m’); elongation in one inch, 9 to 14 zirconium strip. Cold-rolled zirconium
percent, and reduction of area, 10 to 30 sheet and strip thicker than about 0.045”
percent. (1.14mm) may be satisfactorily annealed
The tensile and bend properties of zir- at 1400°F (760°C) in air, without damage
conium sheet, cold-rolled to 0.035” to by oxidation. In annealing gage material,
0.11” (0.89 to 2.80mm) thick, and an- however, a vacuum or inert atmosphere is
nealed at 1400°F (760°C) as determined necessary to prevent embrittlement of the
on standard specimens, are as follows: zirconium by gaseous contamination. The
yield strength at 0.2 percent offset, 56,000 reduction in hardness which takes place
to 72,000 psi (386,000 to 496,00 kN/m*); when cold-rolled 50 percent strip is heat-
tensile strength, 76,000 to 83,000 psi ed under a protective atmosphere of ar-
(524,000 to 572,000 kN/m*); elongation in gon for one hour at various temperatures
two inches, 13 to 19 percent, and mini- is indicated on Fig. 20-2. The effect of air
mum bend radius, 1.8 to 3.9 times thick- is discussed in the section on corrosion
ness. resistance and illustrated by Fig. 20-3.
Zirconium sheet has no directional The graph in Fig. 20-2 indicates that
properties. Its transverse ductility is at complete stress-relief and at least some
least as good as in the lengthwise direc- recrystallization occur at 1172’F (633°C).
tion; its transverse yield strength is slightly with little further change in hardness up to
better. The tensile strength of zirconium 1652°F (9OO’C). However, at a tempera-
decreases with rising temperature to 50 ture between 1652 and 1832°F (900” to
percent at temperatures from about 600” 1OOO’C) zirconium hardness drops very
to 700°F (315” to 370°C). suddenly, so that full softening may be ob-
Hardness. The hardness of zirconium tained by annealing at 1832°F (1OOO’Cj
varies from about 175 to 275 Brinell, more for one hour. Annealing at this tempera-
than that of aluminum alloys but less than ture is not practical in air and must be
steel. Hardness is greatly dependent on conducted in a protective atmosphere to
the oxygen and nitrogen in the metal. The avoid excessive oxidation of the metal.
hardness-strength relation of zirconium Hydrogen should not be used because it
differs somewhat from that of steel. has been found to cause embrittlement.
PERCEN, RED”CTlON BY COLD ROLUNG
Fig. 20- 1. Effects of cold rolkng on the mechanical properties of commercially pure Zif-
conium.
!
t‘C --L
-I
[
-
The sudden drop in hardness at about temperature range and causes complete
1652°F (9OOC) is believed to be related recrystallization. The protectivce atmos-
to the physical iransfo:mation from alpha phere used for annealing thin zirconium
to beta zirconium that takes place in this strip or wire must be carefully purified to
I-
Metallurgy
remove all traces of oxygen, nitrogen, wa- the form of wire, raising their strength to
ter vapor, etc. Either argon or helium is more than 100,000 psi (6,895,OOO kN/m’).
sometimes passed over zirconium sponge Notched-bar impact resistance of
at about 1600°F (871°C) for such purifi- zirconium. The notch sensitivity or impact
cation. resistance of zirconium for both 45” Vand
Bending or forming. Zirconium sheet, standard keyhole notches has been deter-
strip, or wire may be deformed to a con- mined by Charpy test at room tempera-
siderably greater angle in free bending if ture on hot-rolled and annealed [1300” F
the initial deformation is performed at a (704°C) in air] bar stock.
temperature of about 400” to 600” F (205” Impact tests on zirconium metal have
to 315’C) instead of at room temperature. been made at elevated temperatures, us-
Precision casting. Zirconium metal ing V-notch Charpy specimens, The fol-
cannot be melted and cast by ordinary lowing results indicate that a transition
methods because of its reactivity with the from brittle to ducti!e fracture takes place
atmoshphere and with refractories when on heating commercial zirconium metal in
molten. The purity of zirconium may be the vicinity of 900°F (aboirt 480°C). where
maintained in the molten state through the impact value sharply increases from
melting in a closed, water-cooled copper less than 15 ft-lb at 800°F (about 425°C)
vessel, either evacuated or filled with he- to more than 40 ft-lb at 1000°F (about
lium or argon. It does not wet the water- 540°C).
cooled copper. A method of melting in It is possible that by special heat treat-
such a furnace, and pouring into an at- ment, combined with vacuum annealing,
tached mold without contact with air, was the transition temperature may be low-
developed by W.E. Kuhn. ered, or the transition on cooling eliminat-
This deve!opment work has shown that ed, so that notched-bar impact values will
castings up to at least several pounds in be higher at room temperature.
weight can be made so that either molds
or refractory investment molds (a process
wherein molds are made by surrounding a
Fire Precautions
wax pattern with a refactory ceramic ma-
terial, producing molds which will sustain
high temperatures) can be used. The fluid-
ity of zirconium metal melted by an arc in Solid massive zirconium is not danger-
this way is sufficient for :ods 3” (7.62mm) ous to handle. It will not burn when forged
long and only 5132” (4.0mm) dia to be cast or rolled at red heat, and can be machined
without defects. Intricate castings which 2s safely as stainless steel. Turnings or
produce the patterns precisely in size and chips of ordinary size can be handled in
detail can be obtained through the use of air with complete safety, but very fine
investment molds of zirconia cements. turnings will sometimes ignite and burn
Zirconium wire. Annealed, hot-rolled slowly with an intense white light and con-
zirconium rods are readily cold-drawn to siderable heat.
444
Zirconium, lndium and Vanadium
CAUTlON CAUTKIN
When either powder, sponge, or turn- Zirconium powder in air is both pyro-
ings start to burn, the fire should be extin- phoric (ignitable in air) and explosive,
guished only by smothering with dry sand, even when damp. Extreme caution should
salt, or inert oxides such as titanium oxide be exercised, when handling the dry pow-
or zirconium oxide. Carbon tetrachloride der, for friction, static electricity, or any
or carbon dioxide should not be used be- form of heat concentration will cause the
cause they may cause explosions and dry powder to ignite.
more violent burning.
INDIUM
446
Zirconium, lndium and Vanadium
whereas the untreated bearings run in one twice that of the micro-Babbitt bearings,
of the connecting rods were replaced copper-lead-indium bearings ran for 500
three times because of their badly corrod- hours as compared with 30 hours for the
ed condition. The acid number of the oil micro-Babbitt bearings.
used reached a value of 3.3. Indium-treated bearings in one instance
“In another engine the fatigue life of gave 50 hours use under pressures from
Babbitt-lined bearings ranged up to a 10,000 to 15,000 psi (69,000 to 103,000
maximum of about 60 hours, under the kN/m*) where previous bearings were de-
severe conditions used for testing [4250 stroyed after 10 hours.
rpm, full throttle, with oil temperatures Other examples are many and from var-
250” to 260°F (121” to 127°C) at the ied sources, but the results all remain the
bearings]. Cd-Ag-Cu bearings treated same, i.e., indium treatment materially im-
with 0.4 to 0.5 percent indium run under proves all bearing surfaces,
these test conditions, and in the presence Brazing a//oys. There are two distinct
of oil containing 0.5 percent of oleic acid, classes of brazing alloys or solders. Sev-
were in excellent condition after 120 eral solders are available which have rela-
hours, showing no evidence of corrosion tively low melting points, below 600” to
and only a very slight indication of fatigue 700°F (315” to 37O”C), but there is a very
cracks. great need for a brazing alloy with good
“Such tests on bearings. in engines run flowability and strength for heat ranges
at high speed and wiih corrosive oils, veri- between 700” and 1100°F (370” to
fy the information obtained at laboratory 595°C). Since indium melts at 311°F
tests-namely, that the indium treatments (155°C). and since it alloys very readily
as described prevent corrosion of the Cd with copper, silver, and other elements,
alloy bearings without impairing the fa- several alloys, using indium, have been
tigue resistance or other bearing metal produced which melt at from 795” to
properties.” 965°F (423” to 519°C). Because indium
One bearing manufacturer tested adds greater wettability to brazing materi-
indium-treated copper-lead bearings als and, in larger proportions, greater
against the present micro-Babbitt type strength, it becomes a very desirable con-
bearings for automobiles. Operating un- stituent of some of the conventional braz-
der a load of 6500 psi (44,800 kN/m*) ing materials.
Vanadium is one of the more important in the mineral vanadite and in iron ores,
elements used in alloy with steel. It occurs fire clay, and granite. The richest known
448
vanadium deposit is in Peru. It is difficult into wire. It can be highly polished and will
to produce pure vanadium, and only small not tarnish when exposed to air. The
amounts are produced commercially. Two physical properties of vanadium are as fol-
methods of vanadium production often lows: melting point, 3110°F (1710°C);
used are the reduction of vanadium di- boilicg point, 5432°F (3000°C); density,
chloride with hydrogen, and the electro- 5.68 g/cc, and electrical resistivity, 26 mi-
lysis of vanadium trioxide in fused calcium crohms.
vanadate. Vanadium has a more powerful effect
Vanadium is a hard, silvery-white metal upon the properties of steel Than any oth-
but, if heaied to a suitable temperature, it er element except carbon, comparatively
is sufficiently tough and malleable to be small amounts of it are necessary, as illus-
hammered and rolled into rods or drawn trated in Figs. 20-4, 20-5, 20-6 and 20-7.
451
Metallurgy
temperatures high enough to partially dis- The manufacture and use of roiled or
solve the vanadium carbides present in forged steel in large sections present con-
the steel, yet insufficient in temperah’ie or siderably different problems from those
time to result in appreciable grain growth. encountered in manufacture of small
Carbon vanadium steei is the most masses. The dangers of internal ruptures,
commonly used steel except for tool insufficient hardening, and sharp hard-
steels. Most frequently it is used in large ness gradients in the finished product ne-
forgings, but the uses of small sections cessitate uniform and not too rapid heat-
are increasing in number. The superior ing, time to insure total diffusion for hot
mechanical properties of carbon-vana- working and heat treatment temperatures,
dium steel, coupled with its fine machining uniform temperature gradients in cooling.
qualities in the normalizing state, and its and magnitude and time of occurrence of
low degree of distortion, are responsible volum e changes in the transformation
for this use. range in different locations in the mass. In
In many instances, carbon-vanadium some instances, where smaller masses
steel is tempered after normalbing, ;n are concerned, any one of several compo-
which case tne fol!owing heat treatment is sitions might satisfy manufacturing and
generally used: Normalizing-heat at 1600” design requirements.
to 1650” F (870” to 900” G); cool in still !n heavier masses, the sensitivity to fab-
air. Tempering-heat of 1100” to 1200” F rication processes limits to a much small-
(595” to 650” C); cool in still air or allow to er number the selection of steels suitable
remain in the furnace. for a particular set of properties. This sen-
The addition of 0.15 percent vanadium sitiveness to steep temperature gradients,
to plain carbon steel of this type raises the i.e., rapid cooling, often prevents the de-
strength and load-sustaining capacities at velopment of a desired hardness by a
higher temperatures. quenching and tempering practice.
Carbon-vanadium steel has also been Some forgings of moderately large sec-
made in the 0.30 percent to 0.35 percent tion may be quenched and tempered to
carbon range for use in small shafts, arms, provide in this hardened condition very
connecting rods, and other machine parts satisfactory service. When properties that
subject to impact loading. These parts are appear to demand such treatment are
normally quenched and tempered. The called for, special consideration must be
use of very mild alloy steel of this type in given to all pertinent details, such as com-
carburized gears is possible where (1) a position, size, manufacturing practice, and
moderately high core hardness is needed the nature of the service.
to support the case and prevent fatigue Vanadium steel forgings have supplied
failure by repeated deflection; (2) uniform- heavy industrial needs for many years.
ity of case depth and of hardening of both Carbon-vanadium steel appeared early in
case and core is vitally important; and (3) the century, at the beginning of commer-
moderate impact strength of the carbur- cial vanadium production. It extended
ized tooth is required. rapidly to the construction of locomotives
452
Zirconium, lndium and Vanadium
and heavy machinery, where it still retains they possess at least equal ductil-
a preeminent position. The demand of re- ity in tension and a considerably higher
cent years for a steel of the hardness and impact strength and wear resistance.
wear resistance of the carbon-vanadium Their grain size is markedly smaller and
type, with materially increased ductility more uniform, while grain growth at heat-
and impact strength, led to the production treatment temperatures is decidedly re-
of manganese-vanadium steel for forg- tarded.
ings. Still more recently, a chromium- Other components of the composition
molybdenum-vanadium steel was intro- being the same, and the details of steel-
duced for large sections in which full making, pouring, etc., almost constant, a
penetration of high hardness and vanadium-containing steel will exhibit less
commensurately high resistance to marked dendritic segregation and greater
sudden loading are required. A freedom from Widmanstatten patterns
vanadium-molybdenum-manganese steel within the grains than a vanadium-free
has been produced which has a high elas- steel before heat treatment.
tic-limit, ductility, and impact strength Without advocating the use of non-
without liquid quenching. heat-treated alloy steel castings, it is clear
that, for equal hardness and strength, the
vanadium steel, with its superior distribu-
Vanadium Cast Steels tion of microconstituents, possesses
greater ability to sustain stress or to de-
form rather than rupture under suddenly
The tremendous growth in the size and applied overloads. These characteristics
power of heavy machinery such as that are extremely important in avoiding the
used in the fabricating industries, mining, cracking of intricate castings during heat-
and transportation presents the foundry- ing and cooling cycles in the early stages
man with the job of producing not only of manufacture.
sound castings of greater size and thinner The structure of the vanadium-contain-
sections but articles of greater complexity ing steel exerts considerable influence
and ability to sustain both static and dy- upon ease of diffusion of the several con-
namic loads. stituents at heat-treatment temperatures.
Vanadium is among those elements It also unquestionably bears a relation to
whose widened use is a result of this the response of vanadium sieels to simple
growing appreciation of alloy cast steels. heat treatment. Mechanical properties
The incorporation of vanadium into the may be obtained by double normalizing
composition of steel castings results in a and tempering that are not equaled even
vast improvement of their properties. by the more drastic and often dangerous
Steel castings containing vanadium have liquid quenching and tempering of many
a higher elastic ratio than castings without other alloy steels. This is of great import-
vanadium but of otherwise like composi- ance in large complex castings. New uses
tion and heat treatment. At the same time, of high-strength cast steels are available
453
Metallurgy
L1
6135 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.6fi 0.40 0.045 0.80 1.10
6140 0.35 0.45 0.50~~0.60 0.40 0.045 0.80 1.10
6145 0.40 0.50 0.50 0.80 0.40 0.045 0.80 i.iil
6150 0.45 0.55 0.50~ 0.60 0.40 0.045 0.80 1.10
6195 0.90 1.05 0.20~0.45 0.30 0.035 0.80 1.10
i
(Society of Automotive Engineers)
quench from 1600” to 165O”F, (870” to and 6125 ranges. They are generally arc-
9OO”Q water quench from 1450” to welded with heavily flux-coated
1475°F (about 790” to SOO’C), and tem- chromium-vanadium electrodes. Most of
per at 375”to 425” (191” to 218°C). these vessels are only tempered after
While this treatment is the optimum one welding for stress-relieving purposes, but
for both case and core, many purposes some are fully annealed.
are served by a singie oil quench, which is Steels 6120 and 6125 respond to cyan-
carried out after reheating to 1625°F ide hardening and are used for gears,
(885°C). This heat treatment, followed by bobs, washers, small stampings, and forg-
tempering for stress relief, is the custom- ings. The nitrides formed are extremely
ary one for small automotive pinions. fine, and there is no tendency to develop
Chromium-vanadium steels are more the undesirable, coarse; acicular (needle-
applicable to single quenching than many shaped) structure, thus insuring case
of the other alloy steels, because of their toughness and resistance to spalling
fine giain in case and core, even after the (chipping). The transition from the hard
higher temperature necessary for single surface to the core is gradual and, even in
quenching operation. Tempering may be long-time cyaniding, there is no danger of
employed after single quenching. embrittlement of the core.
Typical tension and impact properties in Chromium-vanadium steel in the SAE
the core of case-hardened parts (one inch 6120 and 6125 carbon ranges is also used
diameter) of these low-carbon chromium- in boiler construction, superheater tubes,
vanadium steels are given in Table 20-5. tubing for the chemical industry, bolts,
The fabrication of welded pressure ves- and pressure vessels and welding rods.
sels is another application of chromium- Manganese-vanadium steel combines in
vanadium steel of the SAE 6115, 6120, large masses, in the normalized and tem-
456
Zirconium, lndium snd Vanadium
pered condition, the properties of high Some other vanadium alloy steels to
strength or hardness with excellent ductil- meet special needs are as follows:
ity and impact resistance. \. A chromium-molybdenum-vanadium
I
-j-
LI
-
;F
--
?
.060 .om ,100
DCPTH - lNC”ES
Fig. 20-8. Depth of hardness characteristics of vanadium-chromium steel, SAE 6120.
457
Metallurgy
steel was developed to meet the need for TABLE 20-6. VANADIUM PRODUCTION.’
a steel capable of developing a uniform SHORT TONS
high hardness throughout moderately
World production 19,949
large sec?ions and at the same time com- U.S. production 4,887
mensurately high ductility and impact consumption 5,227
strength. USES: alloy steels-kiiled grades
A nickel-chromium-molybdenum-vana- Nitrovan (78 to 80 percent Va
dium steel produces quenched and tem- 6 to 7 percent N
10 to 12 percent C)
pered forgings of moderately large section
and high strength. This composition has '1972 Metals Yearbook
the advantage of low-carbon content
which is possible in view of the high totai
alloy content.
The manganese-molybdenum-vanadi-
um steels have high yield-point in moder-
ately large sections that have been given utilized shortly following the introduction
only a normalizing and tempering treat- of vanadium alloy steel. Renewed interest
ment. in the properties of vanadium cast irons
Other major uses of vanadium are in the was brought about by a demand for steel
manufacture of spring steels, cast steels, to meet severe requirements. Vanadium is
cast irons, and the making of fine high- used in cast iron except where resistance
grade tool steels. See Table 20-F;. to structural decomposition at elevated
temperatures, or uniformity of hardness
Vanadium Cast/Iron and strength throughout a heavy section,
Vanadium has been added to irons for is the single characteristic of importance.
decades. Its beneficial effects were first There is a complexity in cast-iron metal-
458
lurgy caused by the existence of carbon in and the influence of raw materials and
two distinct forms, the manner in which manufacturing methods upon carbon be-
these forms change from one to the other, havior.
1. Describe the Van Arkel-de Boer 6. Why is indium used in making bearing
process for refining zirconium. metals?
2. What are the directional properties of 7. What does vanadium do to the grain
zirconium sheet? structure of steel?
3. Describe the precautions necessary 8. How is depth of hardness obtained in
in the handling of zirconium powder, vanadium steels?
sponge, and turnings. 9. What precautions should be taken to
4. What properties does indium impart avoid insufficient hardening and sharp
to alloys? hardness gradients in vanadium steels?
5. Why is indium used as an ingredient 10. What are the limitations of vana-
of solders and brazing alloys? dium cast irons?
459
I
Some of the most commonly used tions. No attempt has been made to cover
terms employed in the working, treating, all applications of metallurgical terms
and testing of metals and alloys are de- here. For a more complete discussion, the
fined here. As many of the terms used in student is referred to the Metals Hand-
the metal industry have more than one book pubiished by the ~American Society
meaning or interpretation, the student for Metals.
may find occasion to refer to other defini-
461
Metallurgy
elongation: Permanent elastic extension free ferrite: Iron phase found in a steel
which a metal undergoes during tensile which has less than 0.85 percent carbon
testing; the amount of elongation is usual- that has been slow-cooled from above its
ly indicated by the percentage of an origi- critical temperature range; the iron phase
nal gage length. is alpha iron, low in carbon content.
M~~nce limit: See fatigue strength. full annealing: Heating of steels or iron al-
loys to above their critical temperature
@xtp~aio~: Forcing plastic metal through a range, soaking at the annealing tempera-
die to produce a new form. ture until they are transformed to a uni-
form austenitic structure, followed by
@~t@cti~ alloy: Alloy oi a composition that cooling at a predetermined rate, depend-
solidifies at a lower temperature than the ing upon the type of alloy and structure re-
individual elements of the alloy and freez- quired; in general the cooling rate is rela-
es or soiidifies at a constant temperature !ively slow.
to form a fine mixture of crystals made up
of two or more phases. G
eutectoid steal: Steel of a composition gamma iron: Iron in a face-centered cubic
that will form a pearlite s?ructure from structure between 1666” and 2554OF
austenite during slow cooling through its (906” to 1401°C). Non-magnetic. Dense
critical temperature. In plain carbon steel, body structure leads to contraction from
its composition is approximately 0.85 per- beta phase.
cent carbon.
gray iron: A cast iron with 2 to 4 percent
carbon, in which the carbon is mostly in
F the form of graphite.
grain: Crystal made up of atoms simi!arly
fatigue failure: Progressive cracking that orientated.
takes place in metals that are subjected to
repeated loads. grain growth: Increase in size of a crystal
by its stealing atoms from its neighboring
fatigue strength Maximum repeated load crystals or grains; decrease in number of
a metal will carry without developing a fa- grains and increase in average size.
tigue failure.
finishing temperature: Temperature of
metal at the moment it ieaves the iast Ii
pass in a hot-rolling mill, or any hot-forg-
ing or forming operation. hardening: Operation of quenching steels
from the austenitic temperature range
forging: Deforming inta new shape by so as to produce martensite or a hard
compressive force. structure.
fracture: Ruptured surface ends of metals heat treatment: Any operation involving
that have been broken. the heating and cooling of metals or alloys
463
Metallurgy
465
Metallurgy
Neumann bands: Parallel bands or lines Also, air patenting is employed where the
which appear within a crystal or grain as a heated steel wire is air-cooled to room
result of mechanical deformation by ths temperature, as in the standard normaliz-
mechanism of twinning. ing operation.
nitriding: Surface treatment applied to pearlite: Eutectoid alloy of iron and car-
ferrous alloys for the purpose of carehard- bon, which contains 0.85 percent carbon;
ening, obtained by heating alloys in con- structural constituent found in steel that
tact with dissociated ammonia gas, re- has been cooled slowly from above its
leasing nitrogen gas to steel. critical temperature range, consisting of
layers or plates of cementite and ferrite
normal structure: Structure found in steel and appearing colorful under the
after slow cooling from above its critical microscope.
range of temperatures; this structure has
the usual standard appearance-free ferrite pig iron: The product of the blast furnace
and pearlite, pure pearlite, or free cement- cast into blocks convenient for handling
ite and pearlite, depending upon the car- or storage; iron alloy as recovered from
bon content of the steel. Steel with this the ore. A brittle material of high-carbon
structure is referred to as normalsteel. content (5 percent).
aliring: Treatment usually applied to pipe: The cone-shaped cavity or hole
steel castings and forgings consisting of found near the top of a casting or cast in-
heating to above the critical temperature got resulting from natural shrinkage and
range of the steel followed by cooling in uneven cooling during the casting and so-
air. lidification period. It is usually filled with
oxide and other dirt.
nucleus: Center or beginning of crystal
formation; central portion of an atom. pit: A rough surface found on metals re-
sulting from slight depressions on the
surface.
0
plasticity: Ability of a metallic state to un-
dergo permanent deformation without
overhea!ing: Heating of metals or alloys rupture.
to the zone of incipient melting; heating to
the point of developing a very coarse grain powder metallurgy: Process by which
size. shapes resembling a cast or forged metal
are made from metal powders by pressure
oxidation: See burning. and heat.
precipitation hardening: Process of hard-
P ening by heat treatment where a hard
phase is precipitated from solid solution at
psi: Abbreviation for pounds per square room temperature or at some eievated
inch. temperature.
patenting: Treatment usually applied to primary crystals: The first crystals to form
steel wire consisting of heating to well during solidification of a cast metal or
above the critical temperature range of alloy.
the steel, followed by cooling or quench-
ing the wire in a molten lead or salt bath process annealing: Treatment applied to
maintained at a temperature range of cold-worked steels consisting of heating
800°F to 1100°F (about 425’ to 595°C). to a temperature below the critical tem-
466
perature range of the steel followed by resilience: Elastic properties exhibited by
s!ow cooling. materials such as a spring; capability of a
strained body to recover it,s size and
shape after deformation, especially by
compressive stresses.
Q
rough fracture: Irregular surface resulting
quenching: process of fast-cooling met- from the fractureof a coarse-grained met-
als or alloys such as steel in the process of al or alloy.
hardening, as air quenching, oil quench-
ing, water quenching, etc. S
ing crack: Crack or failure occur-
ng from rapid cooling of alloys such as scale: The dark oxide coating found on
steel in the hardening operation. metals as a result of heating in an oxidiz-
ing atmosphere such as air.
seam: A longitudinal crack or surface de-
fect resulting from a surface cavity that
R becomes elongated during hot rolling or
forging.
b es~@~~e: The sudden liberation of
heat by a metal when cooltng through a season cracking: Failure by intercrystal-
certain critical temperature, as iron at line fracture that some alloys such as
1652°F (900°C). The recalescent point in brass undergo when in a highly stressed
a steel occurs when it is cooled through condition and exposed to corrosive
the lower Arf critical temperature and lib- media.
erates a small amount of heat.
secondary hardening: An increase in
red-hardness: Hardness maintained by hardness that occurs with some high-alloy
cutting tools when heated to about a red steels when subjected to tempering after
heat when in use, as in high-speed steels. hardening.
red-shortness: Brittleness, lack of ductili- segregation: The separation of liquid SO-
ty or malleability that occurs with some Iu?ions into uneven concentrations of al-
metals or alloys at a red heat. loys during cooling.
feductio~ ot area: Diminution of cross- self-hardening steels: Steels that become
section area, usually expressed in per- martensitic or fully hard by air cooling
centage of the original area; reduction from above their critical temperature or
that a metal or alloy undergoes during a from the austenitizing temperature.
tensile test; it is also called contraction of
area. shear steel: The reheating and welding of
broken cement steel bars into a homoge-
refractory: Capable of being heated to neous product. An early steel making
high temperatures without fusing or soft- process.
ening as in fire brick.
slip bands: Traces of slip planes that aq-
regenerative qMenchi~g: Heat treatment pear in a polished surface of metal when It
involving the use of a double heating and is stressed so as to produce plastic flow
quenching of some carburized steels for after polishing and etching. These slip
the purpose of refining the grains of both bands are the result of crystal displace-
the core and case. ment or blocks of crystal fragments which
467
tblf3taMurgy
have moved with respect to the crystal ori- to aid in the transformation of austenite to
entation. martensite.
soaking: Allowing steel or alloys to remain surface hardening: See casehardening.
at an elevated temperature long enough
to become uniformly heated and to com-
plete the desired change in structure.
solidification range: Range of tempera-
ture that extends from the beginning of T
freezing to the end of freezing or crystalli-
zation. temper carbon: The nodular graphitic
carbon found in iron-base alloys of the
sorbite: Structure found in steel resem- malleable or pearlitic malleable cast type.
bling pearlite but of a finer and more gran-
ular mixture of cementite and ferrite than tempering: Application of heat to
found in normal pearlite. quenched, hardened steels or to steels in
the martensitic condition. Temperatures
spheroidized pearlite or spheroidized employed in tempering are from slightly
cementite: Structure found in steel con- above room temperature to approximately
taining balls or spheroids of cementite in a 1200°F (649°C). Tempering can also be
matrix of ferrite. accomplished by the austempering or
martempering methods. Tempering is also
heroidiring: Annealing process which is called drawing. See austempering and
applied to steel when the cementite or martempering.
carbide is desired in a glohu!sr or spheri-
cal shape. In this treatment, the annealing twin bands: The microscopic appearance
cycle may follow that of full annealing, but resulting from twinning.
the cooling rate employed from the an-
nealing temperature is usually much slow- twin crystal or twinning: A crystal distor-
er in order to obtain the cementite in tion that takes place when metals are sub-
spheroidized form. jected to shock loading which causes a
change in orientation resulting in differ-
steel: An alloy of iron with LID to 1.4 per- ently-orientated crystal fragments within a
cent carbon, usually less. grain or crystal. See Neumann bands.
steeling: Welding of a strip of steel onto
an iron base. An early process not now in
use.
st:ees raiser: Notch or discontinuity on W
the surface of metals that produces stress
concentrations. welding: The crystallizing into union of
metals or alloys by methods of fusion or
strs&:tura! shapes: The making of S, H, pressure welding.
ared : beams, and angles by a universal
mll! for use in steel construction. work-hardening: The increase in hard-
ness and strength that takes place during
s~batm~a~ber~~ [cryogenic) treatment: any cold-working of metals.
Subjecting steels that are in the hardened
condition to low temperatures, as low as wrought iron: A commercial form of iron
minus IBO’F @PC), for periods up to 6 that is tough, malleable, and relatively
hours, for the purpose of stabilization and soft; less than 0.3 percent carbon.
A characteristics, 427~-429 cast iron, 45. 120, 269.~301
Admiralty metal, 416 composite, 434 alloy, 298-299
air furnace. 270 copper base, 431434 ductile, 294 ~205
AlSl steel numbering system. indium. 445-448 gray. 270-285
253 255 lead base, 429430 malleable, 288-294
allotropy, 76, 146, 150. 155 lead-calcium base, 430 mottled, 276
alloys, 131.749 tin base, 430 nodular, 294-296
properties, 148~149 zinc base, 434435 white. 270, 274: 286-288
types, 134.-143 bending, 66 Catalan iui”ace. 5-6
alloy cast iron. 298.~299 beryllium, 396,421G422,446 cementalio”. 10
ailoy diagram. 134 beryllium-copper alloy, cementite, 154. 156158, 181.
alloy powders, 332-333 42lV422,44&447 207, 236, 274, 275, 334
alloy steels. 90. 152,231~~250 Bessemer process. 27-30 cementitic steel, 236
austenitic. 236, 243-244 beta iron. 151, 155 Chapmanizing, 212-214
cementitic. 236 bismuth, 76. 137-140. 357, charcoal, 2. 4
f@iiitjc, ‘240-242 372, Charpy test, iO9
martensitic. 235-236 biast iurnace. 5-6. 13. 19-22 chilled cas: iron 286..288
pearlitic, 234-235 350.356 chromium, 190.‘238-240,278.
alpha-beta brass (Muntz metal), blister copper. 352-353 285,367
415-416 blister steel, 10 chromium-nickle-iron alloy,
alpha iron, 151, 155, 159 bloom, 5-7, 46 242-243
aluminizing. 220 blowhole, 4041 iron-chromium alloy.
aluminum. 285,363-367.374-308 body-centered cubic, 76. 151 240-242
clad. 375-376 BOF furnace. 28-29 iron-chromium-carbon alloy,
properties, 375 Bond&zing, 225 242-243
aluminum alloys, 376393 brass, 408416 chromium sieei. 236-240
aluminum Sronre, 419420 brazing, 305.322-324.448 chromium-vanadium, 454-458
aluminum casting, 37G381 Brinnell hardness. 113 chromizing, 21@.2!9
~!LT--iwm-copper alloy; 385, brittleness, 97-98 creavzge plane. 7677
386 bronze, 416-421 coatings, 224-228
aluminum-indium, 446 cobalt. 76, 371
aluminum-silicon, 380-381 coefficient of expansion, 103
C cold crysta!lization. 84-85
amorphous cement, 82
annealing, 6t. 82, 165. cadmium. 76,137-140,362, cold drawing, 63-65
16Ei71,192,282, 428 cold rolling. 58-60,383
289-290,412-415. bearino alloy. 43043? cold short steel, 27
440444 cadmiu&bis”&h alloy, coid work, 58-72,
anodic treatment, 376 137-140 annealing, 170-171
antimony, 76. 140,357,371 capped stee!. 42 effects. 71-72
antlmsny, lead. 140~141.149 carbon. 181-186.270-271.285 coke, 15-17
arc furnace, 30-32 carbon-arc welding. 307~3& composite bearings, 434
arsenic. 357 carbonitriding, 219 compressive strength, 96, 280
atmosphere furnace, 199 carbon steel. 90-92,94-95 constitutional diagram, 135.
austenite, 154, 159. 171. 172. 152%153. 756. 172, 175, 233
194 181-186, 196.231 continuous casting, 42-43
carburizing. S-l 1. 193, copper, 93,269.350-354.
205-212 367,403-424
B cartridge brass, 41 l-412 copper alloys, 136136. 141,
Babbitt metal, 430 case, 207.213,216,223 232,403-424
basic oxygen process, 26-29 case hardening, 213,223 coppei-lead bearing.
bauxite, 363-364 casting, 22,45.264,299-301. 431434
bearing metals. 427-436 357-358 copper-manganese-nickel,
cadmium base, 430431 376377,382 422423
9
copper-silver, M-142 flanging. 67 high brass, 411
copper-tin, 416418 flash welding. 321 high-carbon Steel, 92, 123, 152
copper-zinc. 408 flat drawing, 66-67 high-frequency fxnace. 32
Monel metal, 423424 fluid&d bed process, 25 high-speed molybdenum steel.
nickel-iron (Imar). 424 flussofen. 7 187.189.247
nickel-silver, 424 forging, 95 homogeneous solution, 135
corrosion, 71-72. 98-100, foundry, 299-301 hot forging, 53-55, 167
117-118 fracture test, 122-123 hot pressing, 340-341
critical point, 150 free machining, 169-170 hot rOlling. 4&53, 382-383
cribce! temperature diagram. freezing of alloys hot strip mill, 49
161, 162.166 (cryogenic treatment). hot working, 4658, 382-383
crucible furnace. 35-36 175-176 effects, 5&58
cryogenic t:eetment. 17LL176 friction welding, 314 Huntsman’s steel, 11
CWAelline state. 75-80. 158 fume. 350
polycrystailine. 80 furnaces. 1-8.27~36.197-202,
crystallization. 77-80. 84-85. 270.348-350 I
151.155159 atmospheres, 200-201 impact, 108~109
sintering. 339-340 impurities in steel. 94
0 indium, 445448
decarburira!ion. 185-186. G induction furnace, 32-33
193-194 galvanizing. 63. 225 induction heating, 221-223
deformation. 77. 80-85 gamma iron, 151.155. 159 inertie welding, 315. 316
aelk iron. 151, 155 gas shieided me;&sic ingot, 3742, 45.
dendritic siruztze. 39: 40. 79 welding. 308-309 types, 4i-42
destructive testing, 105-124 gas welding, 305306 inoculant. 301
die-casting. 361.388392 germination 84 iniermetallic compound. 142
iiiffusi+n py*@$ses, 2!&*2rJ grain grow&. 77-78. 83-84. IrOn, lj81.87. 151, 342
ductile iron. 294-296 15&i6i iron-carbon alloys, :46,
ductility, 96 grain refinement. 450 X2-153.343
grein SiruCtwe. 80, 159-181, iron-carbon diagram, 14bi48
E 164. !82 ~!84,450-45: 149-153
Size, 122, 159. 182-184 iron-Chizimium elloys. 240-242
elasticity, 96
graphitic carbon. 122-123, iron-chromium-carbon.
elestic limit, 80: 98. 106
272-273.285.294-295 242-243
electrical conductivity. 99. 100
gfavity Conceiitiation. 348 iron-nickel, 1
electrical resistance, 100
gray cast iron. 120, 123. iron ore. 1-2, 14-15
electric arc furnace, 30-32
electric steel furnace, 199 270-285
electrcchemical series. 98 Group I pearlitic steel, 234-235 K
electrolytic refining, 353, Group II martensitic steel.
235-236 Kelly process, 27-28
357-358.365
Group III austenitic steel. 236 killed steel, 41
electron beam welding,
3i2Z313 Group IV cementitic steel, 236 kiln, 23-24
elements (metals). 99
equilibrium diagram, 153 i-4 L
eutectic alloy, i36-141. hardenability. 8. 266-268 !a~@?we!ding. 313-314
146. 147.154 hardening, 171-173, lead. 93.354-359
eutectic line, 137 181-182,184.188-192. lead-antimony aliov. 149
eutectic point, t37 283-285 lead-base be&g metals.
eutectoid, 133. 147. 158. 173 hard-facing, 227 429.430
extrusion, 55.56 hardness, 97-98. 127-128, lead-calcium bearing metals,
181-182.192 430
F beat resistance, 100, 281-282. leaded bronze. 4t8-419
face-centered cubic, 76, 151 298-299 lead-zinc diagram, 142
fatigue strength, 96.280-281 heat treating furnace, 197-202 light metals and alloys,
ferrite, 8. 15!>156.240-242 heat treatment, 187-192, 376401
ferrite solubiflity. 155-156 197-202,218.282-285 limestone, 17-18,23,32,33
ferroalloy. 372 aluminum alloys, 384-386 liquid heating bath, 201, 202.
flame hardening. 220-221 heterogeneous solution: 136 211-212
Index
471
Metallurgy
472