Question:

Explain the Bernoulli and Venturi principles and their relationship to the
generation of lift. Additionally, describe, in detail, the following factors that affect
lift generation:

Bernoulli’s Principles

The principle used to explain how pressure of a fluid and its flowspeed can affect each
other as they are inversely proportional in quantities and rates. The lesser the velocity
the higher the pressure.

Venturi’s Principles

This principle is in relation with the Bernoulli’s principle this is where you can see the
concept of the Bernoulli’s principle it is shown in a venture tube which looks like an hour
glass.

Figure[1] Venturi Tube

In this image it shows the section in which the velocity decrease due to the area of the
tube. In the region 3 that is where the pressure is formed and in region 2 is where it
leaves and makes a higher velocity.

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Airfoil Shape

The shape, the curvature, and the smoothness of an airfoil can change of affect the lift
of the aircraft.

Lift Coefficient

It is the ability of the wing or airfoil to produce lift.

Angle of Attack

The angle of attack is used to produce lift but in a certain amount of angle, because if
the angle of attack goes too high the aircraft will stall.

Density of air

It means that your lift depends on how dense is your air, the more denser air means
more lift you get.

Airspeed

Means the speed of an aircraft relevant to the air through which it is moving.

Stall

This is the condition in which the aircraft exceeded the critical angle of attack. There will
be a sudden loss of lift when you exceed the critical angle of attack because there is no
more air flowing smoothly on the top camber of the wing.

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Question:

1.) Describe the different types of drag and the factors that affect drag over the
whole airframe such as Aerofoil shape, Angle of attack, Streamlining, Drag
coefficient and airspeed.
2.) What are the factors that enable the most efficient lift/drag ratio to be
achieved? This should include the lift to drag ratio, polar plot and optimum
angle of incidence and coefficient of lift & drag.

Parasitic Drag

This is the type of drag that occurs due to the other components of the aircraft the does
not produce lift characteristics. Parasitic drag is the combination of 3 drags these drags
are:

 Skin Drag – this is mostly on the surface of the aircraft. This occurs because of
the roughness of the surface of the aircraft. It can also be caused by the viscosity
of the air which creates friction thus making the drag.
 Form Drag – this occurs because of the shape of the components of the aircraft.
 Interference Drag – this drag is caused by the connection between two parts for
example: pilons which connects the engine and the wing. this attachment causes
turbulent flow which disturbs your airflow.

Induced Drag

This drag cannot be avoided. Every time that an aircraft produce lift, induced drag is
always present. Induced drag can be seen in the tip of your wing which are the vortices.

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Aerofoil shape – an aerofoil has different shape and sizes and may contain skin drag
which is due to the rough surface that creates friction due to roughness of the surface
and the air.

Angle of attack – the more angle you make in your angle of attack the more drag you
create due to the turbulent flow you leave.

Streamlining – streamlining depends on the shape of the airfoil if the shape of the airfoil
is not aerodynamic it will produce more drag in the wing.

Coefficient of drag – in the coefficient of drag the situation depends on the viscosity of
the air.

Airspeed – in airspeed the faster your aircraft travels the less drag you create but if your
aircraft is traveling slower the more drag you create.

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 Figure[2] Lift and drag ratio

This graph talks about the airfoil can go up to maximum lift with a very minimum amount
of drag force, this only depends on the airfoils shape, size, and the texture. Lift and drag
ratio should be able to produce sufficient lift without causing a large amount of drag

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Question:

Describe the four basic forces that act on the aircraft and explain the action of the
combined drag couples necessary to sustain level flight.

Four basic forces acting on the aircraft

 Thrust – it is the forward motion which the engine provides to accelerate the
aircraft. It is also used disable the drag of the aircraft.
 Drag – it is the force which counter acts the forward motion due to air friction
 Lift – it is the upward force which is provided by the wings to produce take off and
keep the aircraft in the air.
 Weight – it is the downward force which is created by the mass of the body of the
aircraft, engine, wings, passengers and etc.

To sustain a level flight the thrust should be equal to drag and the lift should be equal to
weight.

Figure[3]: Four basic forces acting on an aircraft

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Question:

1.) Draw and label a diagram to show the forces acting on an aircraft in cruise
and in a steady turn and explain quantitatively their interaction.
2.) Produce a manoeuvre envelope diagram, to identify the different
parameters and label them on the given diagram as well as explaining their
significance, with respect to the aircraft’s performance.

Cruise

While the aircraft is in cruise the four forces acting on it should be equal to maintain a
steady flight, this means that the weight should be equal to the lift and the drag is equal
to the thrust.

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Steady turn

If the aircraft is making a steady turn then the thrust and the drag should still be
balanced but they should be on opposite direction. Then it’s the control surfaces job to
make the turn. The aircraft’s wing should be higher than the other depends on which
direction they are turning.

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 Figure[4] Flight envelope diagram

This diagram shows the performance of each aircraft. Each aircraft has its own
envelope diagram. It is also called as a V-G diagram “V” is for velocity and “G” for load
factor. In this V-G diagram the the x axis is for airspeed or velocity and the y axis is for
the load factor. In this graph it says that the normal stall speed is around 65 mph with its
load factor of 1. It also shows in the graph the maneuvering speed which is in 135 mph
with the load factor of 4.5. the green area talks about the normal operating range. It also
says that the maximum structural cruise speed is 180 mph. the yellow area is the
caution range which is about 180 mph to 225 mph if you go over that speed then you
would have a structural failure. It also goes with load factor which is the color orange it
says structural damage if you exceeded the point of that load factor it would have a
structural damage.

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Question:

1.) What is Static and Dynamic stability? Produce sketches of an aircraft’s

motion after a disturbance to show positive, neutral and negative static and
dynamic stability. In addition, produce a sketch to show an aircraft which is
stable statically but unstable dynamically.
2.) Show, with diagrams, the following instability modes of an aircraft:
(a) Diverging sinusoidal wave motion
(b) Phugoid motion
(c) Porpoising motion
(d) Dutch roll motion

Static Stability - is the display of the object after its equilibrium is disturbed and its ability
to return to its original position.

There are three types of Static stability:

 Positive static stability – is the tendency of the aircraft to return to its original
attitude after displacement.
 Negative static stability – the tendency of the aircraft to move farther away from
its original attitude following the disturbance.
 Neutral Static stability – the tendency to remain in its displaced attitude.

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Dynamic Stability

It describes the time required for an airplane to respond to its static stability.

There are also three types of Dynamic stability:

 Positive dynamic stability – it is the tendency for the aircraft to return at its
original attitude directly or through series of decreasing.
 Negative dynamic stability – it is the oscillation increasing in magnitude as time
progress
 Neutral dynamic stability – if the airplane attempts to return to its original state of
equilibrium

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This figure shows an aircraft which is statically stable but dynamically unstable. In the
beginning the aircraft was at a stable position. After a disturbance the aircraft pitches
up and down as the oscillatory motion keeps on increasing.

Diverging sinusoidal wave motion

Figure[5] Divergent Oscillation graph

This graph explains the diverging wave motion. In this graph the amplitude keeps on
going higher with time.

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Phugoid motion

Figure[6] Phugoid motion

a long-period oscillation in the longitudinal motion of an airplane. The airplane climbs

and loses speed, or descends and gains speed, and then does the reverse, in a
continuing cycle when the equilibrium is disturbed.

Porpoising motion

Figure[7] Porpoising motion

is a periodic, hounded, vertical plane motion that a planning hull may exhibit at certain
speeds. It occurs in short oscillation and can increase if not damped by horizontal tail.
This happen when you’re not landing the plane properly and not knowing the distance of
the ground from the plane.

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Dutch roll motion

Figure[8] Dutch roll motion

Dutch roll has to do with the rolling and yawing motion of the aircraft to get this
instability. This happens when a gust of wind hits the tail section of your aircraft. The
aircraft will move to the right but it will yaw in the left.

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Reference page

Images:

1-
http://img.bhs4.com/CE/7/CE7F4D75759D538B90ECFD2E3B972D7D52A9DEB9_large
.jpg

2 - http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-XV-
swT3aNtQ/Tijs39FE51I/AAAAAAAAADM/Eb3qhU1Gj_4/s1600/drag+diagram.gif

3 - http://www.pc-education.mcmaster.ca/Instrumentation/flow.htm

4 - http://www.free-online-private-pilot-ground-school.com/images/vg_diagram.gif

5 - http://jeb.biologists.org/content/206/16/2803/F10.large.jpg

6 - http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Phugoid8.png

7 - https://www.faasafety.gov/files/gslac/FTB/Maneuvering/8-37_Porpoising.JPG

8 - http://www.cfinotebook.net/graphics/aerodynamics-and-performance/stability/dutch-
roll.png

R1: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

R2: http://www.robives.com/content

R3: http://global.britannica.com/

R4: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/sound/reson.html

R5: https://youtube.com

R6: http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/

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