TAMALE TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

HND CONSTRUCTION TECHNOLOGY

SECOND YEAR (LEVEL 300), SEMESTER ONE

STRUCTURAL DESIGN 2

(In conjunction with BS 8110 part 1)

(LECTURE NOTES)

BY ALHAJ HAMZA KALEEM

1
TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 REINFORCED CONCRETE…………………………………………………………………..3

2.0 DURABILITY AND FIRE RESISTANCE…………………………………………………….9

3.0 DESIGN OF BEAMS………………………………………………………………………….10

4.0 DESIGN OF SLABS…………………………………………………………………………...20

5.0 DESIGN OF COLUMNS………………………………………………………………………28

6.0 DESIGN OF FOOTING………………………………………………………………………..37

DATA SHEET……………………………………………………………………………………...41

2
1.0 REINFORCED CONCRETE
Reinforced concrete is a composite material of steel
bars embedded in a hardened concrete matrix;
concrete, assisted by the steel, carries the
compressive forces, while steel resists tensile
forces. Concrete itself is a composite material. The
dry mix consists of cement and coarse and fine
aggregates. Water is added and this reacts with the
cement which hardens and binds the aggregates into
the concrete matrix; the concrete matrix sticks or
bonds onto the reinforcing bars.
1.1 Concrete Materials
Cement
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is the commonest
type in use. The raw materials from which
it is made are lime, silica, alumina and iron oxide.
Aggregates
The bulk of concrete is aggregate in the form of
sand and gravel which is bound together by
cement. Aggregate is classed into the following two
sizes;
1. coarse aggregate: gravel or crushed rock 5 mm or
larger in size
2. fine aggregate: sand less than 5 mm in size
Natural aggregates are classified according to the
rock type, e.g. basalt, granite, flint.
Aggregates should be chemically inert, clean, hard
and durable
1.2 Reinforcement
Reinforcing bars are produced in two grades: hot
rolled mild steel bars have yield strength fy
of 250 N/mm2; hot rolled or cold worked high yield
steel bars have yield strength fy of 460
N/mm2. Steel fabric is made from cold drawn steel
wires welded to form a mesh. It has a yield
strengthfy of 460 N/mm2.
3
1.3 Symbols
For the purpose of this handout, the following symbols
have been used. These have largely been taken
from BS 8110. Note that in one or two cases the
same symbol is differently defined. Where this
occurs the reader should use the definition most
appropriate to the element being designed.
Geometric properties:
b - width of section
d - effective depth of the tension reinforcement
h -overall depth of section
x -depth to neutral axis
z -lever arm
d′ -depth to the compression reinforcement
b -effective span
c-nominal cover to reinforcement
Bending:
Fk - characteristic load
gk, Gk- characteristic dead load
qk, Qk- characteristic imposed load
wk, Wk-characteristic wind load
fk-characteristic strength
fcu-characteristic compressive cube strength
of concrete
fy- characteristic tensile strength of
reinforcement
γf-partial safety factor for load
γm- partial safety factor for materialstrengths
K -coefficient given by M/fcubd2
K′ -coefficient given by Mu/fcubd2 = 0.156 when
redistribution does not exceed 10 per cent
M-design ultimate moment
Mu- design ultimate moment of resistance
As -area of tension reinforcement
As′- area of compression reinforcement
Φ -diameter of main steel
Φ′ -diameter of links
Shear:
fyv- characteristic strength of links
sv spacing of links along the member
V-design shear force due to ultimateloads
v -design shear stress
vc design concrete shear stress
Asv- total cross-sectional area of shearreinforcement
Compression:
b-width of column
h -depth of column
bo- clear height between end restraints
be- effective height
bex-effective height in respect of x-x axis
bey-effective height in respect of y-y axis
N -design ultimate axial load
Ac -net cross-sectional area of concrete ina column
Asc- area of longitudinal reinforcement
1.4 Design Basis
The design of reinforced concrete elements toBS 8110 is
based on the limit state method. The two principal
categories
of limit states normally considered in design are:
(i) ultimate limit state
(ii) serviceability limit state.
The ultimate limit state models the behavior of the
element at failure due to a variety of
mechanismsincluding excessive bending, shear
andcompression or tension.
The serviceability limit statemodels the behavior of the
member at workingloads and in the context of reinforced
concretedesign is principally concerned with the limit
statesof deflection and cracking.
Having identified the relevant limit states, thedesign
process simply involves basing the designon the most
critical one and then checking for theremaining limit
states. This requires an understandingof:
1. material properties
2. loadings.
4
1.5 Material Properties
The two materials whose properties must be knownare
concrete and steel reinforcement. In the caseof concrete,
the property with which the designeris primarily
concerned is its compressive strength.
For steel, however, it is its tensile strength
capacitywhich is important.
1.5.1 Characteristic compressive Strength of
Concrete ,fcu
Concrete is a mixture of water, coarse and fineaggregate
and a cementitious binder (normally Portlandcement)
which hardens to a stone like mass.As can be
appreciated, it is difficult to produce ahomogeneous
material from these components.Furthermore, its
strength and other properties mayvary considerably due
to operations such as transportation,compaction and
curing.
The compressive strength of concrete is
usuallydetermined by carrying out compression tests
on28-day-old, 100 mm cubes which have been
preparedusing a standard procedure laid down in BSEN
12390-1 (2000). An alternative approach is touse 100
mm diameter by 200 mm long cylinders.Irrespective of
the shape of the test specimen, ifa large number of
compression tests were carriedout on samples made
from the same mix it wouldbe found that a plot of
crushing strength againstfrequency of occurrence would
approximate to a normal distribution. For design
purposes it is necessary to assume aunique value for the
strength of the mix. However,choosing too high a value
will result in a high probabilitythat most of the structure
will be constructedwith concrete having strength below
this value.Conversely, too low a value will result in
inefficientuse of the material.
As a compromise betweeneconomy and safety, BS 8110
refers to the characteristicstrength ( fcu) which is
defined as the valuebelow which not more than 5 per
cent of the testresults fall.
1.5.2 Characteristic Strength of Reinforcement (fy)

Concrete is strong in compression but weak intension.

Because of this it is normal practice toprovide steel
reinforcement in those areas wheretensile stresses in the
concrete are most likely to develop.

Consequently, it is the tensile strength of

thereinforcement which most concerns the designer.The
tensile strength of steel reinforcement canbe determined
using the procedure laid down inBS EN 10002: Part 1.

The tensile strength willalso vary ‘normally’ with

specimens of the samecomposition. Using the same
reasoning as above,BS 8110 recommends that design
should be basedon the characteristic strength of the
reinforcement( fy) and gives typical values for mild steel
and highyield steel reinforcement.
1.5.3 Design Strength
It is undesirableto use characteristic strengths to size
members.To take account of differences between actual
and laboratory values, local weaknesses and
inaccuraciesin assessment of the resistances of sections,
the characteristic strengths ( fk) are divided by
appropriate partial safety factor for strengths (γm),
obtained from Table 2.2 of the BS code. The resulting
values aretermed design strengths and it is the design
strengthswhich are used to size members.
Design Strength = fk
γm
It should be noted that for the ultimate limit
state the partial safety factor for reinforcement (γms)
is always 1.15, but for concrete (γmc) assumes different
values depending upon the stress
typeunderconsideration. Furthermore, the partial
safetyfactors for concrete are all greater than that for
reinforcementsince concrete quality is less controllable.
5
1.6 Loading
In addition to the material properties, the designer
needs to know the type and magnitude of the loading
to which the structure may be subject during
its design life.
The loads acting on a structure are dividedinto three
basic types: dead, imposed and wind.
Dead loads (Gk) come from the components of the
building, thus from the materials used in the
construction and it includes the finishes on the element
as well as heavy services.
Imposed Loading (Qk) comes from the use of the
building and its estimates takes into account the possible
number of persons and the level of fixtures and
furnishes.
Wind Loads (Wk) comes from the magnitude of the
winds against the building.
it is not possible to applystatistical principles to
determine characteristic dead(Gk), imposed (Qk) and
wind (Wk) loads simplybecause there are insufficient
data. Therefore, thecharacteristic loads are taken to be
those given inthe following documents:
1. BS 648: Schedule of weights for building materials.
2. BS 6399: Design loadings for buildings, Part 1:
Code of practice for dead and imposed loads; Part
2: Code of practice for wind loads; Part 3: Code of
practice for imposed roof loads
1.6.1 Design Load
Variations in the characteristic loads may arisedue to a
number of reasons such as errors in theanalysis and
design of the structure, constructionalinaccuracies and
possible unusual load increases.

In order to take account of these effects, the

characteristicloads (Fk) are multiplied by the
appropriatepartial safety factor for loads (γf), taken
fromTable 2.1 of the BS codes, to give the design loads
acting on thestructure:

Design load = γfFk

Generally, the ‘adverse’ factors will be used toderive the

design loads acting on the structure. Forexample, for
single-span beams subject to only deadand imposed
loads the appropriate values of γf aregenerally 1.4 and
1.6 respectively however,for continuous beams, load
cases must be analyzedwhich should include maximum
and minimum design loads on alternate spans

The design loads are used to calculate thedistribution of

bending moments and shear forcesin the structure
usually using elastic analysis methodsAt no point
shouldthey exceed the corresponding design strengths
ofthe member, otherwise failure of the structure may

arise.
1.6.2 Determination of Loading
A B C D

6
 1
Screed = 0.39 Kn/m3
1.5 m

Terrazzo = 0.29KN/m3
2
13 mm th. Render = 0.033KN/m3
2m

Partition wall= Allow 2.0KN/m

3
4m

Total dead load due to

4 Concrete = 0.15 x 24 x 1 = 3.6KN/m

2m 3m 5m
Screed = 0.3 x 0.39 x 1 = 0.117KN/m

Terrazzo = 0.2 x 0.39 x 1 = 0.078KN/m

20mm th. Floor finish
30mm th.screed
150mm th.slab
Render = 0.033 x 1= 0.033KN/m
300 x 300
13mm th.render
concrete beam Partion = 2.0KN/m = 2.0KN/m

Total gk= 5.828 KN/m

1.6.2.1 Dead load Determination (gk)

Dead load comes from the construction and it includes
the self-weight of the element and all permanent
construction. For a slab, dead load will come from the
concrete of the slab, the screeded finish and the floor
finish( could be terrazzo, tiles etc). It also includes the
render to the sofit of the slab.
The dead load due to the beam will include the self-
weight of the beam and the part of the slab that the beam
supports.
The formula is usually,
Thickness x density of material x length.
Thickness = as per the construction or architect specified
Density of material= from tables
Length= usually taken as 1 m length for continuous
elements and usually the length of the span for simply
supported elements
Lets say from tables , density of
Imposed Load (qk)
This is also termed live loads and they represent the
loading on the structure due to the use of it. The values
are also derived from tables . Thus, there is a value
corresponding to lecture Hall, Banks, Offices, and
Hostels etc. Lets Assume 3.5KN/m for this case
Loading from Beam
Beam C-C
The loading is determined for a 1 meter length of the
beam. Because all beams around a slab share the load
from the slab. It implies that a shape factor has to be
determined and that factor will be used to multiply the
load from the slab.
Shape Factor =Tributary Area
Span

Concrete = 24KN/m3

7
Tributary Area

Tributary Area is the area of the slab whose loading is A1 = ½ x 1.5 x (4+1) = 3.75m2
distributed on the beam. A2= ½ x 4 x 2.0 = 4m2
Two way Slab
Total Area = 4+ 3.75 = 7.75m2
S/2 S/2
Shape factor (S.F) =7.75
L
4
S/2

= 1.94m
L-S

S
Therefore the load from the slab unto the beam will
S/2

be multiplied by the shape factor.

Self-weight of beam (300mm x 300mm)

0.3 x 0.3 x 24 x 1 m = 2.16KN/m

Therefore the Areas Around the Beam to be
designed will be Self weight due to render around the beam
(0.3+0.3+0.3) x 0.033 = 0.0297 KN/m
3m 5m
Total Dead load due to Slab = 2.1897KN/m
1.5m

Therefore
Slab
Slab Gk = 5.828
2m

Slab Qk = 3.5

Total design load = 1.4 (GK) + 1.6(QK)

= 1.4(5.83) + 1.6(3.5)
4m

= 8.16 + 5.6
=13.76 KN/ m

Beam
Slab Gk = 5.828 x 1.94(S.F) = 11.31
Slab Qk = 3.5 x 1.94(S.F) = 6.79
Critical Span
1 Beam Gk= 2.189
Total Gk = 13.50
1.5

A1

A2 Total design load = 1.4 (GK) + 1.6(QK)

2.0

= 1.4(13.50) + 1.6(6.799)
= 8.90 + 10.88
4
=29.78 KN/ m
8
2.0 DURABILITY AND FIRE RESISTANCE
As part of Limit State Design, the designer must make
considerations for
1. Durability of the Structure and
2. Fire resistance capability of the structure.
The cover is chosen accordingly. For example choice of
cover for moderate environmental conditions, with a
maximum water cement ratio of 0.55, minimum cement
content of 350 kg/m3 and a concrete grade of C40 will be
30mm.

2.1 Durability 2.1.2 Choosing Cover to Satisfy Fire Resistance

Many concrete structures are showing signs ofsevere
deterioration after only a few years of service.Repair of
these structures is both difficult andextremely costly.
Therefore, over recent years, mucheffort has been
directed towards improving thedurability requirements,
particularly with regard tothe protection of steel
reinforcement in concretefrom corrosion caused by
carbonation and chlorideattack.
In general, the durability of concrete structures
is largely achieved by imposing limits on:
1. the minimum strength class of concrete;
2. the minimum cover to reinforcement;
3. the minimum cement content;
4. the maximum water/cement ratio;
5. the cement type or combination;
Fire protection of reinforced concrete members is
largely achieved by specifying limits for:
1. nominal thickness of cover to the reinforcement;
2. minimum dimensions of members.
Table 3.4 of the BS codesgives the actual values of the
nominaldepths of concrete covers to all reinforcement
forspecified periods of fire resistance and member
types. The covers in the table may need to beincreased
because of durability considerations. Theminimum
dimensions of members for fire resistanceare shown in
fig 3.2of BS 8110.
The eventual cover chosen must therefore satisfy both
Durability and Fire Resistance.

6. the maximum allowable surface crack width.

2.1.1 Choosing of cover to satisfy durability

Table 3.2 and 3.3 of the BS codes 8110 part 1 is used to

determine the choice of cover. The first step is to assess
the level of exposure that the concrete surfaces will
experience. The table3.2 gives different definitions for
different exposure conditions, ranging from mild to
Abrasive. The next step after determining your exposure
conditions is to determine the cover from Table 3.3. This
choice is also based on three other factors namely

1. Maximum free water/cement ratio

2. Minimum cement content
3. The lowest grade of concrete.

9
 3.0 DESIGN OF BEAMS (clause 3.4) 3.0.2 Notations to be Used

Beams are horizontal members that transfer either floor

loads or roof loads to the column. Beams can be defined
in three forms

i. Position of Reinforcement
ii. Cross-section
iii. Support Conditions
Here b is the width of thebeam, h the overall depth of
3.0.1 Position of Reinforcement section, d the effectivedepth of tension reinforcement, d′
the depth ofcompression reinforcement, As the area of
Beams reinforced with tension steel onlyare referred to
tensionreinforcement and As′ the area of compression
as singly reinforced. Beams reinforcedwith tension and
reinforcement.
compression steel is termeddoubly reinforced. Inclusion
of compression steelwill increase the moment capacity
of the beam andhence allow more slender sections to be
3.1 Singly Reinforced Beam Design
used. Thus,doubly reinforced beams are used in
preference tosingly reinforced beams when there is some
All beams may fail due to excessive bending or shear.
restrictionon the construction depth of the section.
In addition, excessive deflection of beams must be
avoided otherwise the efficiency or appearance of
the structure may become impaired.

Bending and shear are ultimate stateswhile deflection is

a serviceability state. Generally,structural design of
concrete beams primarily involvesconsideration of the
following aspects:
a. Single reinforced beam
b. Doubly reinforced beam 1. bending
2. shear
3.0.2 Cross-section 3. deflection.

Beam Sections can be rectangular (most roof beams) can

3.1.1 Bending (Clause 3.4.4.4, BS 8110)
be L-shaped (Edge floor beams) or T-Shaped ( middle
beams). In design for the bending of a beam under the action of a
load, we have to take into consideration three factors:

i. Ultimate Moment of Resistance (Mu)

ii. The Area of Tension Reinforcement (As)
iii. The Lever arm (z)

3.0.3 Support Conditions

Either simply supported (one Span beams) or continuous

(two or more span beams)

10
 3.1.1 Ultimate Moment of Resistance The Lever Arm is calculated from

The Ultimate Moment of Resistance of the beam is z = d[0.5 +√ (0.25 − K/0.9)]

the ability of the beam to withstand the applied
moment.
The BS codes gives
Mu = 0.156fcubd2
Note that Mu depends only on the properties of
the concrete and not the steel reinforcement. Provided
that the design moment does not exceed Mu
(i.e. M ≤ Mu), a beam whose section is singly reinforced
will be sufficient to resist the design moment.
Once z has been determined, the area of tension
reinforcement, As, can be calculated.
In clause 3.4.4.1 of BS 8110 it is noted that
z should not exceed 0.95d in order to give a reasonable
concrete area in compression. Moreover it
should be remembered that equation for area of steel
can only
be used to determine As provided that M ≤Mu or
K ≤ K′ where

3.1.2 Area of Tension Reinforcement

To summarize, design for bending requires
The Area of Tension Reinforcement is calculated from
the calculation of the maximum design moment
the formula
(M) and corresponding ultimate moment of resistance
As = M . of the section (Mu). Provided M ≤ Mu or
0.87fyz K ≤ K′, only tension reinforcement is needed and
the area of steel can be calculated.
Where M is the applied Moment and z is the lever arm
which can be calculated or obtained graphically from the Where M >Mu the designerhas the option to either
figure below. increase the sectionsizes (i.e. M ≤ Mu) or design as a
doubly reinforcedsection.

Example
3.1.3 Lever Arm

11
A simply supported rectangular beam of 7 m span Shear failure can come about due to the beam’s Shear
carries characteristic dead (including self-weight of capacity being exceeded by the applied or design shear.
beam), gk, andimposed, qk, loads of 12 kN/m and 8 The Maximum Shear capacity of concrete from the BS
kN/m respectively (Fig. below). The beam dimensions codes is
are breadth, b, 275 mm andeffective depth, d, 450 mm.
Assuming the following material strengths, calculate the
area of reinforcement required.
whichever isthe lesser.
2 2
fcu = 30 N/mm fy = 500 N/mm The design shear stress, υ, at any cross-section
Qk= 8Kn/m
can be calculated from:
275mm
Gk= 12Kn/m υ = V/bd
where
450mm

7m
V - design shear force due to ultimate loads
b - breadth of section
d - effective depth of section

Solution 3.1.2.1 Design Concrete Shear Stress (vc)

Ultimate Load (w) = 1.4GK + 1.6QK The design concrete shear stress can be determinedusing
w = 1.4(12) + 1.6 (8) = 29.6 KN/m Table 3.8. The values are in termsof the percentage area
of longitudinal tension reinforcement(100As/bd) and
M = wl2 = 29.6 x 72 = 181.3KNm effective depth of thesection (d). The table assumes that
8 8 cube strengthof concrete is 25 N/mm2. For other values
of cubestrength up to a maximum of 40 N/mm2, the
Ultimate Moment of Resistance M= 0.156 fcubd2 designshear stresses can be determined by
multiplyingthe values in the table by the factor
= 0.156 x 30 x 275 x 4502 = 260KNm (fcu/25)1/3.
Since 260>181.3 it implies that Mu> M 3.1.2.2 Form, Area and Spacing of Links
Hence As is designed as single reinforced Shearreinforcement should be provided in beams
accordingto the criteria given in Table 3.7.
As = M .
Thus where the design shear stress is less than
0.87fyz
half the design concrete shear stress (i.e. υ < 0.5υc),
z = d[0.5 + (0.25 − K /0.9) no shear reinforcement will be necessary although,
in practice, it is normal to provide nominal links
= 450[0.5 + (0.25 − 0.1085/0.9) ] in all beams of structural importance. Where
= 386.8 mm ≤ 0.95d (= 427.5 mm) OK. 0.5υc < υ < (υc + 0.4) nominal links based formula
should be provided. Where υ >υc + 0.4, design links
based on formula should beprovided.BS 8110 further
recommends that the spacing oflinks in the direction of
As = 181.3 x 106 .
the span should not exceed0.75d. This will ensure that at
0.87 x 500 x 386.8
least one link crossesthe potential crack.
= 1078 mm2
3.1.4 Design for Deflection (clause 3.4.6, BS
3.1.2.Designfor Shear (clause 3.4.5, BS 8110)
8110)
12
Actual Span/effective depth ratio should be less than the
allowable span/effective depth ratio obtained from
Table 3.9 times a modification factor(mf).
m.f is obtained from table 3.10 of the BS codes for
Tension Reinforcement and the formulas
mf = 0.55 +(477-fs)
120 (0.9 + m/bd2)
fs = 2x fy As(req) x 1
3 x Asprov Bb
3.1.5 Other Checks
3.1.5.1 Reinforcement Areas (clause 3.12.5.3 and
3.12.6.1, Table 3.25 BS 8110)
For rectangular beams with overall dimensions band
h, the area of tension reinforcement, As, shouldlie
within the following limits:
0.24%bh≤ As ≤ 4%bh when fy = 250 N/mm2
0.13%bh≤ As ≤ 4%bh when fy = 460 N/mm2
3.1.5.2 Spacing of reinforcement (clause
3.12.11.1, BS 8110)
For singly reinforced simply supported beamsthe
clear horizontal distance between tension bars,sb,
should lie within the following limits:
hagg + 5 mm or bar size ≤ sb ≤ 280 mm
whenfy = 250 N/mm2
hagg + 5 mm or bar size ≤ sb ≤ 155 mm
whenfy = 500 N/mm2
wherehagg is the maximum size of the
coarseaggregate.
3.1.5.2 Curtailment and anchorage of bars (clause
3.12.9, BS 8110).
13
The design process for simplysupported beams, in
particular the calculations relatingto the design moment
and area of bendingreinforcement, is concentrated at
mid-span.
However, the bending moment decreases either side of
the mid-span and it follows, therefore, that it should
be possible to reduce the corresponding area of
bending reinforcement by curtailing bars. For the
beam shown in Fig. below, theoretically 50 per cent
of the main steel can be curtailed at points A and
B.
However, in order to develop the design stressin the
reinforcement (i.e. 0.87fy at mid-span), thesebars must
be anchored into the concrete. Except atend supports,
this is normally achieved by extendingthe bars beyond
the point at which they aretheoretically no longer
required, by a distance equalto the greater of
(i) the effective depth of the memberand
(ii) 12 times the bar size.
Where a bar is stopped off in the tension zone,
e.g. beam shown in Fig. above , this distance should
be increased to the full anchorage bond length in
accordance with the values given in Table 3.27.
However, simplified rules for the curtailment of
bars are given in clause 3.12.10.2 of BS 8110. These
are shown diagrammatically in Fig. belowfor simply
supported and continuous beams.

The code also gives rules for the anchorage of
bars at supports. Thus, at a simply supported end
each tension bar will be properly anchored provided
the bar extends a length equal to one of the following:
(a) 12 times the bar size beyond the centre
line of the support, or
(b) 12 times the bar size
plusd/2 from the face of the support.
Sometimes it is not possible to use straight bars
due to limitations of space and, in this case, anchorage
must be provided by using hooks or bends
in the reinforcement. The anchorage values of hooks
and bends are shown in Fig. next.
14
Where hooks orbends are provided, BS 8110 states that
they shouldnot begin before the centre of the support for
rule
(a) or before d/2 from the face of the support for
rule (b).
3.1.5.3 Laps in reinforcement (clause 3.12.8, BS
8110).
It is not possible nor, indeed, practicableto construct the
reinforcement cage for an individualelement or
structure without joining someof the bars. This is
normally achieved by lappingbars. Bars which have
been joined inthis way must act as a single length of bar.
Thismeans that the lap length should be sufficiently
long in order that stresses in one bar can be transferred
to the other.
The minimum lap length should not be lessthan 15 times
the bar diameter or 300 mm. Fortension laps it should
normally be equal to thetension anchorage length, but
will often need tobe increased as outlined in clause
3.12.8.13 ofBS 8110. The anchorage length (L) is
calculatedusing
L = LA × Φ
where
Φ is the diameter of the (smaller) bar
LA is obtained from Table 3.27and dependsupon the
stress type, grade of concrete andreinforcement type.For
compression laps the lap length shouldbe at least 1.25
times the compression anchoragelength.
Example
A reinforced concrete beam which is 300 mm wide and = Wl
600 mm deep is required to span 6.0 m between the 8
centersof supporting columns 300 mm wide. The beam = 428. 7 x 6
carries dead and imposed loads of 25 kN/m and 19 8
kN/mrespectively. Assuming fcu = 30 N/mm2, fy = fyv = = 321. 5KNm
500 N/mm2and the cover is 25mm, design the beam.

Ultimate moment of resistance, MU

Effective depth, d

Assume diameter of main bars (Φ) = 25 mm

Assume diameter of links (Φ′) = 8 mm

Ultimate moment
Solution
Mu = 0.156fcubd2 = 0.156 × 30 × 300 × 5542
design moment, M = 430.9 × 106Nmm
= 430.9 kNm>M
Loading
Dead Since Mu >M no compression reinforcement is required.
Self-weight of beam = 0.6 × 0.3 × 24 = 4.32 kN/m
Total dead load (gk) = 25 + 4.32 = 29.32 kN/m

Imposed Main Steel

Total imposed load (qk) = 19 kN/m
K = Mbd= 321.5 x 106 = 0.116
Ultimate load fcubd2 30 x 300 x 554 2

Total ultimate load (W) = (1.4gk + 1.6qk)span

= (1.4 × 29.32 + 1.6 × 19)6 z = d [0.5 + √( 0.25 – (k/ 0.9)]
= 428.7 kN = 450mm

As = M= 321.5 x 106 = 1573mm2

0.87fyz 0.87 x 500 x 450
From tables, provide 4H25 (As = 1963 mm2).

Design moment
Maximum design moment (M) =
15
Shear Reinforcement

Where υ > (υc + 0.4) = 1.10 N/mm2 design links

required according to

Asv= b(v-vc) = 400(129-0.70) = 0.407

Ultimate design load, sv 0.87fyv 0.87 x 500
W = 428.7 kN
Maximum spacing of links is 0.75d = 0.75 × 554 = 416
Shear stress, υ mm. Hence from Tables, provide 8 mm diameter links
at225 mm centres (Asv/sv = 0.447) where v > 1.10
Since beam is symmetrically loaded N/mm2, i.e. 0.442 m in from both supports.

RA = RB = W/2 = 214.4 kN
Deflection
Ultimate shear force (V) = 214.4 kN and design shear Actual span/effective depth ratio = 6000/554 = 10.8
stress, υ, is

υ= V = 214.4 x 103 = 1.29 N/mm2

bd 300 x 554
From Table 3.10
1.29 <0.8√30 = 4.38 N/mm2

Design concrete shear stress,υc

υ = 100As = 100 x 1960 = 1.18 N/mm2
bd 300 x 554
from table 3.8 υc = (30/25)1/3 × 0.66 = 0.70 N/mm2
Diameter and spacing of links
Where υ < (υc + 0.4) = 0.7 + 0.4 = 1.1 N/mm2, nominal
links are required according to
From Table 3.9, basic span/effective depth ratio for a
simply supported beam is 20 and from Table 3.10,
modificationfactor ≈ 0.97. Hence permissible
span/effective depth ratio = 20 × 0.97 = 19 > actual (=
10.8) and the beam thereforesatisfies the deflection
criteria in BS 8110.

Asv= 0.4b = 0.4 x 300 = 0.276

sv 0.87fyv 0.87 x 500

Hence from Tables, provide H8 links at 300 mm centres

where υ < 1.10 Nmm−2, i.e. 2.558 m either side of
themid-span of beam.

16
 3.2 Doubly Reinforced Beam Design
If the design moment is greater than the ultimate
moment of resistance, i.e. M >Mu, or K >K′
whereK = M/fcubd2 and K′ = Mu/fcubd2 the concrete
will have insufficient strength in compression
to generate this moment and maintain an
underreinforcedmode of failure.
whered ′ is the depth of the compression steel from
the compression face.
The area of tension reinforcement is calculated from
(As′) = Mu + (As′)
0.87fyz
wherez = d [0.5 + √ (0.25 – (K′ / 0.9)]and K′ = 0.156

If d′/x > 0.37, the compression steel will not

have yielded and, therefore, the compressive stress
will be less than 0.87fy.

Example
The required compressive strength can be
The reinforced concrete beam shown in Fig. belowhas
achieved by increasing the proportions of the beam,
an effective span of 9 m and carries uniformly
particularly its overall depth.
distributed dead(including self-weight of beam) and
However, this maynot always be possible due to imposed loads of 4 and 5 kN/m respectively. Design the
limitations on theheadroom in the structure, and in such bending reinforcementassuming the following:
cases it willbe necessary to provide reinforcement in the
compressionface. fcu = 30 Nmm2
fy = 500 Nmm2
The compression reinforcement willbe designed to resist
the moment in excess of Mu.

This will ensure that the compressive stress in the

concrete does not exceed the permissible value and
ensure an under-reinforced failure mode.

Beams which contain tension and compression

reinforcement are termed doubly reinforced. They
are generally designed in the same way as singly Solution
reinforced beams except in respect of the calculations
needed to determine the areas of tension and DESIGN MOMENT,
compression reinforcement. M
Loading
3.2.1 Compression and tensile steel areas
Ultimate load
(clause 3.4.4.4, BS 8110)
The area of compression steel (As′) is calculated from Total ultimate load (W) = (1.4gk + 1.6qk)span
= (1.4 × 4 + 1.6 × 5)9 = 122.4 kN
(As′) = M-Mu .
0.87fy(d-d’)

17
Design moment
Maximum design moment (M) =Wl = 122.4 x 9
8 8

= 137.7 KNm

ULTIMATE MOMENT OF RESISTANCE, Mu

Effective depth, d

Assume diameter of tension bars (Φ) = 25 mm:

d = h − Φ/2 − cover
= 370 − 25/2 − 40 = 317 mm
3.3 Design of A continuous Beam (T or L Beam)
Ultimate moment
Mu = 0.156fcubd2 Steps

= 0.156 × 30 × 230 × 3172 i. Identify the grid on which the beam is to be

= 108.2 × 106 N/mm = 108.2 kNm
designed and pick out the critical Span.
Since M >Mu compression reinforcement is required.
ii. Determine the Preliminary size of beam

COMPRESSION REINFORCEMENT including the cover to reinforcement and

Assume diameter of compression bars (φ) = 16 mm.
Hence effective depth.

d′ = cover + φ/2 = 40 + 16/2 = 48 mm iii. Estimate The loading

z = d [ 0.5 + √(0.25 − K ′/0.9)] iv. Use Moment distribution or any other

= 317 [ 0.5 +√ (0.25 − 0.156/0.9)] = 246 mm structural analysis technique to determine

x = d –z = 317 – 246 = 158mm the maximum moments.

0.45 0.45
d′ =48 = 0.3< 0.37 v. Design the Beam as Singly reinforced or
x 158
doubly reinforced
As′= M –Mu = 317 – 246
0.87fy(d- d′) 0.87x 500(317-48) vi. Prepare all necessary Checks.
=252mm2hence provide 2H16 (As′ = 402 mm2)

TENSION REINFORCEMENT

Hence provide 3H25 (As = 1473 mm2).

18
 3.3.1 Design for Beam on Grid C-C Effective depth (deff)

Preliminary Sizing

D deff
Effective Span (le)

distance between supports

D = deff + ½ ϕ + ϕs + cover
Le = 4000mm
Deff = D-½ ϕ - ϕs - cover
Width of beam (bw)

Assume main bars = 12mm ϕ

From fig 3.2 with an assumed fire resistance of 2 hrs Assume links = 8mm ϕ
Use cover of 30 mm chosen from table 3.3 and 3.4
Use 300mm
deff= 450-6-8-30
= 406mm.
Effective width of Flange (b)
Estimate Loading as explained previously and determine
From clause 3.4.1.5 the moment using any of the structural analysis
technique. Determine your Maximum Hogging and
T beams = bw + lz/5 or actual flange width if less Maximum sagging Moments and design for the two

L beams = bw + lz/10 or actual flange width if less Max hogging

moment
Where lz = 0.7 x le

From the grid,

Actual Flange Width

=½ (3) + ½(5) = 1.5 + 2.5 = 4m.

T beam = bw + lz/5

Lz = 0.7 x 4000 = 2.8

Max sagging
300 + 2800/5 = 860mm moment

Therefore b = 860mm
Use both the hogging and Sagging Moments to check
for adequacy of section as well as determine the area of
steel required.

Perform all necessary checks.

19
4.0 DESIGN OF SLABS (CLAUSE 3.5) Preliminary Sizing

Reinforced concrete slabs are used to form a Effective Span (le)

variety of elements in building structures such as
floors, roofs, staircases, foundations and some types The effective span of the beam is the distance between
of walls supports of the smaller side of the slab.

Le = 2000
4.1 Types of Slabs
Depth of Slab (D).
Slabs may be solid, ribbed, precast or in-situ and if
in-situ they may span two-ways. In practice, the
choice of slab for a particular structure will largely
D deff
depend upon economy, build ability, the loading
conditions and the length of the span.

4.2 One way or Two way Spanning Slab

D= deff + ½ ϕ + cover
Slabs can designed as spanning in either one way
meaning loading form the slab to its supporting beams deff is obtained from the formula
are transmitted one way or two way meaning loading is
transmitted in both ways to all four beams supporting dmin= Span .
the slab. basic ratio x modification ratio

Ly Span = Le

The basic ratio is picked from table 3.9 of BS 8110 as a

Lx rectangular section and it depends on whether the slab
is cantilevered, continuous or simply supported

Modification factor is based on the allowable deflection

of the slab and it’s picked from 3.10 but as the area of
If Ly> 2 designed as a one way spanning slab. reinforcement is not yet Known, either a provisional
Lx area is used or a conservative value of 1.4 is used as
modification factor.
Ly<2 designed as a two way spanning slab
Lx dmin = 2000 .
26 x 1.4

4.2.2 Design of One way Slab dmin = 54.95mm

Slab between grid 2-3 and C-D
One way Slabs are designed as beams with certain minor Assume 12mm ϕ bars for design
differences in determination of some parameters. Below
is the general procedure for the design of one way Slab. Choose cover for durability and fire resistance from
5000mm table 3.3 and 3.4

Use cover of 30mm.

2000mm
Dmin= 54.95 + ½ (12) + 30 = 90.96mm
20
The Dminis the minimum Overall Depth for the Slab. In Check for Adequacy of Section /Ultimate Moment of
most cases, the architect might have provided an overall Resistance.
depth in the design. This depth will therefore have to be
lower than that provided by the architect. As in the case of the beam,

In other cases where it is the prerogative of the Mu =0.156fcubd2

structural designer to provide the Overall Depth. The
Dmin will have to normalized into a more If Mu>Msag, the section is adequate.
“constructionable” depth. And a new effective depth
will then have to be calculated Mu = 0.156 x 30 x 1000 x 1142

In this case, = 60.82 KNm

Use 150mm. Since 40< 60.82, the section is adequate.

deff = 150-cover – ½ ϕ
Area of Steel.
= 150-30-6

= 114mm.

Determination of Loading

The load is determined as previously explained. That is

considering dead load and Imposed Load. z= 114[ 0.5 + √ (0.25 – k/0.9)]

This gives the total design load on the slab. k = M/fcubd2

Use = 40 x 106
η = 13.76 KN/m 30 x 1000 x 114 x114

= 0.081
Determination of Moment
z = 114(0.9)
The Moment is determined using moment distribution
across the side with the effective span. = 102.6mm

w= 13.76 As = 40 x 106
0.87 x 250 x102.6

1.5m 2.0 m 4.0 m = 1792.47mm2

The Maximum sagging Moment and Maximum hogging Provide 25mm ϕ bars at 250mm c/c. As prov =1964mm2
Moment is determined.

Use Msagg of 40KNm

21
Secondary Reinforcement From table 3.8,

Secondary or distribution steel is required in the Pick vc

transverse direction and this is usually based on With
the minimum percentages of reinforcement (As min) 100As= 100 x1964 = 1.72
given in Table 3.25 of BS 8110: bd 1000 x 114

As min = 0.24% Ac when fy = 250 N/mm2 and effective depth of 114mm

As min = 0.13% Ac when fy = 500 N/mm2
vc = 1.02 x (30/25)1/3
0.24 x (1000 x 150)
100 vc = 1.06
since 0.44 < 1.06, no shear reinforcement needed.
= 360mm2

Provide 10mm ϕ bars at 150c/c Minimum Area of Reinforcement.

Asprov = 524mm2
Shear
Shear resistance is generally not a problem in solid
slabs subject to uniformly distributed loads and,
in any case, shear reinforcement should not be provided
in slabs less than 200 mm deep.
From clause 3.12
The area of tension reinforcement, As, should not be less
than the following limits:
As ≥ 0.24%Ac when fy = 250 N/mm2
As ≥ 0.13%Ac when fy = 500 N/mm2

As discussed for beams in section 3.9.1.3, the whereAc is the total area of concrete.
design shear stress, υ, is calculated from
v=V 02.4% of Ac = 360mm2
bd
1974mm2 > 360mm2. Therefore adequate.
The ultimate shear resistance, υc, is determined
usingTable 3.8. If υ <υc, no shear reinforcement
is required. Where υ >υc, the form and area Spacing of Reinforcement.
of shear reinforcement in solid slabs should be
provided in accordance with the requirements From clause 3.12.11.2.7,BS 8110.The clear distance
contained in table 3.16 of the BS 8110. between tension bars,sb, should lie within the following
limits: hagg + 5 mmor bar diameter ≤ sb ≤ 3d or 750
Use V = 50KN mm whichever isthe lesser where hagg is the maximum
aggregate size.
V= 50 x103
1000 x 114
= 0.44

22
Crack width
(clause 3.12.11.2.7, BS 8110).
Unless the actual crack widths have been checkedby
direct calculation, the following rules willensure that
crack widths will not generally exceed0.3 mm. This
limiting crack width is based onconsiderations of
appearance and durability.
(i) No further check is required on bar spacing if
either:
(a) fy = 250 N/mm2 and slab depth ≤ 250 mm,or
(b) fy = 500 N/mm2 and slab depth ≤ 200 mm,or
(c) the reinforcement percentage (100As/bd)< 0.3%.
(ii) Where none of conditions (a), (b) or (c) apply
and the percentage of reinforcement in the slab
exceed 1 per cent, then the maximum clear
distance between bars (smax) given in Table 3.28
of BS 8110 should be used, namely:
smax ≤ 280 mm when fy = 250 N/mm2
smax ≤ 155 mm when fy = 500 N/mm2
4.2.3 Design of A two-way Spanning Slab.
With a two-way slab, load from the slab is distributed
both ways to supporting beams or walls. This means that
tensile reinforcement runs in both ways.
The differences in design from a two way slab are:
1. There are two effective depths (d1 and d2) and
this is obtained after the Overall depth is
obtained.
2. Moment is determined differently with the help
of tables from the BS 8110.
3. Shear is also determined with the help of tables
also from the BS 8110.
The extra complication arisesfrom the fact that it is
rather difficult to determinethe design bending moments
and shear forces inthese plate-like structures.
Fortunately BS 8110contains tables of coefficients (βsx,
βsy, βvx, βvy) thatmay assist in this task (Tables 3.14
and 3.15). Thus,the maximum design moments per unit
23
width ofrectangular slabs of shorter side lx and longer
side ly are given by
msx = βsxηl2x
msy = βsyηl2y
where
msx- maximum design ultimate moments either
over supports or at mid-span on strips ofunit width and
span lx
msy- maximum design ultimate moments either
over supports or at mid-span on strips of
unit width and span ly
η- total design ultimate load per unit area =
1.4gk + 1.6qk
Similarly, the design shear forces at supports
in the long span direction, υsy, and short span
direction, υsx, may be obtained from the following
expressions:
vsx = βvxηlx
vsy = βvyηly
4.2.3.2 Location of Moments
These moments and shears are considered to actover the
middle three quarters of the panel width.The remaining
edge strips, of width equal to one-eighth of the panel
width, may be provided withminimum tension
reinforcement. In some cases,where there is a significant
difference in the supportmoments calculated for adjacent
panels, it maybe necessary to modify the mid-span
moments inaccordance with the procedure given in BS
8110.
Example
The figureshows a part plan of an office floor supported
by monolithic concrete beams (not detailed), with
individual slabpanels continuous over two or more
supports. The floor is to be designed to support an
imposed load of 4 kN/m2andfinishes plus ceiling loads
of 1.25 kN/m2. The characteristic strength of the
concrete is 30 N/mm2 and the steelreinforcement is 500
N/mm2. The cover to steel reinforcement is 25 mm.
(a) Calculate the mid-span moments for panels AB2/3
and BC1/2 assuming the thickness of the floor is 180
mm.
(b) Design the steel reinforcement for panel BC2/3
(shown hatched) and check the adequacy of the slab in
terms ofshear resistance and deflection. Illustrate the
reinforcement details on plan and elevation views of the
panel.
MID-SPAN MOMENTS
Loading
Total dead load, gk = finishes etc. + self-weight of slab
= 1.25 + 0.180 × 24 = 5.57 kN/m2
Imposed load, qk = 4 kN/m2
Design load, η= 1.4gk + 1.6qk
= 1.4 × 5.57 + 1.6 × 4 = 14.2 kN/m2
PANEL AB2/3
By inspection, panel AB2/3 has a discontinuous long
edge. Also ly/lx = 7/5 = 1.4
24
From Table 3.14,
short span coefficient for mid-span moment, βsx = 0.051
long span coefficient for mid-span moment, βsy = 0.028
Hence mid-span moment in the short span,
msx = βsxηl2x= 0.051 × 14.2 × 52 = 18.1 kNm
and mid-span moment inthe long span,
msy = βsynl2x = 0.028 × 14.2 × 52 = 9.9 kNm
PANEL BC1/2
By inspection, panel BC1/2 has two adjacent
discontinuous edges and ly/lx = 7/3.75 = 1.87.
From Table 3.14,
short span coefficient for mid-span moment, βsx=0.0675
long span coefficient for mid-span moment, βsy = 0.034
Hence mid-span moment in the short span,
msx = βsxnl2x= 0.0675 × 14.2 × 3.752 = 13.5 kNm
mid-span momentin the long span,
msy = βsynl2x= 0.034 × 14.2 × 3.752 = 6.8 kNm
PANEL BC2/3
By inspection, panel BC2/3 is an interior panel. ly/lx =
7/5 = 1.4
From Table 3.14,
short span coefficient for negative (i.e. hogging)
moment at continuous edge, βsx,n = 0.05
short span coefficient for positive (i.e. sagging) moment
at mid-span, βsx,p = 0.037
long span coefficient for negative moment at continuous
edge, βsy,n = 0.032 and
long span coefficient for positive moment at mid-span,
βsy,p = 0.024
Hence negative moment at continuous edge in the short
span
msx,n = βsx,nηl2x= 0.05 × 14.2 × 52 = 17.8 kNm; K =Msxn = 17.8 x 106
Fcubd2 30 x 1000 x 1502
positive moment at mid-span in the short span,
msx,p = βsx,pηl2x= 0.037 × 14.2 × 52 = 13.1 kNm; z=d[ 0.5 + √ (0.25 – k/0.9)]<0.95d
= 0.97d> 0.95d hence use 0.95d = 0.95 x 150
negative moment at continuous edge in the long span, =142.5mm
msy,n = βsy,nηl2x= 0.032 × 14.2 × 52 = 11.4 kNm;
As = Msxn = 17.8 x 106
and positive moment at mid-span in the long span, 0.87x fy x z 0.87 x500 x 142.5
msy,p = βsy,pηl2x= 0.024 × 14.2 × 52 = 8.5 kNm. =287mm 2

Provide H10 @ 250 centres (As=314mm2) in short span

Steel reinforcement direction.

Continuous supports Secondary Steel.

At continuous supports the slab resists hogging moments K =Msxn = 11.8 x 106
in both the short-span and long-span directions. Fcubd2 30 x 1000 x 1402
Thereforetwo layers of reinforcement will be needed in
the top face of the slab. Comparison of design moments z= d[ 0.5 + √ (0.25 – k/0.9)]<0.95d
shows that themoment in the short span (17.8 kNm) is = 0.98d> 0.95d hence use 0.95d = 0.95 x 140
greater than the moment in the long span (11.4 kNm) =133mm
and it is appropriatetherefore that the steel in the short
span direction (i.e. main steel) be placed at a greater As = Msyn = 11.4 x 106
effective depth than thesteel in the long-span direction 0.87x fy x z 0.87 x500 x 133
(i.e. secondary steel) as shown. =197mm2
Provide H10 @ 300 centres (As=262mm2) in long span
direction.

Mid Span

Assume diameter of main steel, φ = 10 mm and nominal At mid-span the slab resists sagging moments in both
cover, c = 25 mm. Hence, the short-span and long-span directions, necessitating
Effective depth of main steel, d = h −ϕ –c twolayers of reinforcement in the bottom face of the slab
2 too. Comparison of mid-span moments shows that the
= 180 −5− 25 = 150 mm momentin the short span (13.1 kNm) is greater than the
moment in the long span (8.5 kNm) and it is again
Assume diameter of secondary steel, φ′ = 10 mm. appropriatetherefore that the steel in the short span
Hence, direction (main steel) be placed at a greater effective
Effective depth of secondary steel, d′ = h − φ −φ′− c depth than the steelin the long span direction (secondary
2 steel) as shown.
= 180 − 10 −5− 25 = 140 mm

Main Steel

25
Assume diameter of main steel, φ = 10 mm and nominal
cover, c = 25 mm. Hence
d= 150mm d’=140mm

Main Steel

As = Msxn = 13.1 x 106

0.87x fy x z 0.87 x500 x 142.5
2
=211mm
Provide H10 @ 300 centres (As=262mm2) in short
span direction.

Secondary Steel

As = Msyn = 8.5 x 106

0.87x fy x z 0.87 x500 x 133
2
=197mm
Provide H10 @ 300 centres (As=262mm2) in long span
direction.

Shear
From Table 3.13,

long span coefficient, βvy = 0.33 and

short span coefficient, βvx = 0.43

Design load on beams B2/3 and C2/3,

vsy = βvynbx = 0.33 × 14.2 × 5 = 23.4 kN/m
Design load on beams 2B/C and 3B/C,
vsx = βvxnbx = 0.43 × 14.2 × 5 = 30.5 kN/m (critical)

shear stress, v = Vsx = 30.5 x 103 =0.20N/mm

bd 1000 x 150

100As = 100 x 314 =0.21

Bd 1000 x 150

From tables
Vc = 3√(30/25) x 0.48 = 0.51

Since vc>V, no shear reinforcement is required.

Deflection

26
REINFORCEMENT DETAILS

27
5.0 DESIGN OF COLUMNS (Clause 3.8)
The function of columns in a structure is to act
asvertical supports to suspended members such
asbeams and roofs and to transmit the loads fromthese
members down to the foundations.
Columns are primarily compression membersalthough
they may also have to resist bendingmoments
transmitted by beams.
Columns may be classified as short or slender,braced or
unbraced, depending on various dimensionaland
structural factors which will be discussedbelow.
This study will be restricted to the design of the
mostcommon type of column found in building
structures,namely short-braced columns.
4.1 Types of column sections.
Depending on the specification of the architect, any
section can be used, the common types are
for design purposes, the greatest overall cross-sectional
dimension does not exceed four times its smaller
dimension i.e. h ≤ 4b,. With sectionswhere h > 4b the
member should be regarded as awall for design
purposes (clause 1.2.4.1, BS 8110).
4.2 Short and Slender Columns
Columns may fail due to one of three mechanisms:
1. compression failure of the concrete/steel
reinforcement
2. buckling
3. combination of buckling and compression failure.
For any given cross-section, failure mode (1) ismost
likely to occur with columns which are shortand stocky,
while failure mode (2) is probable with
columns which are long and slender. It is important,
therefore, to be able to distinguish between
columns which are short and those which are slender
since the failure mode and hence the designprocedures
for the two column types are likely tobe different.
Clause 3.8.1.3 of BS 8110 classifies a column as
being short if
where
lex- effective height of the column in respect of
the major axis (i.e. x–x axis)
ley- effective height of the column in respect of
the minor axis
b -width of the column cross-section
h-depth of the column cross-section
It should be noted that the above definition applies
only to columns which are braced, rather thanunbraced.
This distinction is discussed more fully
in section 3.13.3. Effective heights of columns is
covered in section 3.13.4.
4.3 Braced and Unbraced Columns (3.8.1.5)
A column may be considered braced if the lateral
loads, due to wind for example, are resisted byshear
walls or some other form of bracing ratherthan by the
column.
A column may beconsidered to be unbraced if the
lateral loads areresisted by the sway action of the
column.
29
4.4 Effective height of Column
The effective height (le) of a column in a givenplane is
obtained by multiplying the clear heightbetween lateral
restraints (lo) by a coefficient (β)which is a function of
the fixity at the column endsand is obtained from Table
3.19 of BS codes.
le = βlo
End condition 1 signifies that the column end isfully
restrained. End condition 2 signifies that thecolumn end
is partially restrained and end condition3 signifies that
the column end is nominallyrestrained. In practice it is
possible to infer thedegree of restraint at the column
ends simply byreference to the diagrams shown
4.5 Short Braced Column Design 4.5.1 Axially loaded columns
(clause 3.8.4.3, BS 8110)
columns into three categories. These are:

1. columns resisting axial loads only; Consider a column having a net cross-sectional
2. columns supporting an approximately symmetrical area of concrete Ac and a total area of longitudinal
arrangement of beams; reinforcementAsc
3. columns resisting axial loads and uniaxial or
biaxial bending. The design stresses forconcrete and steel in
compression are 0.67fcu/1.5and fy/1.15 respectively,
i.e.
3

L1

2
L1
1 carried by the concrete (Fc) and the reinforcement
L1 L1 L2
A B C D
Referring to the floor plan shown in Fig, itcan be seen
that column B2 supports beams whichare equal in
length and symmetrically arranged.Provided the floor is
uniformly loaded, columnB2 will resist an axial load
only and is an exampleof category 1.
Column C2 supports a symmetrical arrangement
of beams but which are unequal in length. Column
C2 will, therefore, resist an axial load and moment.
However, provided that (a) the loadings on thebeams
are uniformly distributed, and (b) the beamspans do not
differ by more than 15 per cent of thelonger, the
moment will be small. As such, columnC2 belongs to
category 2 and it can safely be designedby considering
the axial load only but usingslightly reduced values of
the design stresses in theconcrete and steel
reinforcement (section 3.13.5.2).
Both the concrete and reinforcement assist in
carrying the load. Thus, the ultimate load N whichcan
be supported by the column is the sum of theloads
(Fs), i.e.
N = Fc + Fs
Fc = stress × area = 0.45fcuAc
Fs = stress × area = 0.87fyAsc
Hence, N = 0.45fcuAc + 0.87fyAsc
It is assume that the load is appliedperfectly axially to
the column. However, in practice,perfect conditions
never exist.
To allow for asmall eccentricity BS 8110 reduces the
designstresses in equation above by about 10 per cent,
giving the following expression:
N = 0.4fcuAc + 0.75fyAsc
This is equation 38 in BS 8110 which can be
used to design short-braced axially loaded columns.

Columns belong to category 3 if conditions(a) and (b)

are not satisfied. The moment here
becomes significant and the column may be
required to resist an axial load and uni-axial bending,
e.g. columns A2, B1, B3, C1, C3 and D2, or
an axial loads and biaxial bending, e.g. A1, A3, D1
and D3.

30
4..5.2 Columns supporting an approximately
symmetrical arrangement of beams
(clause 3.8.4.4, BS 8110)
Where the column is subject to an axial load and
‘small’ moment (section 3.13.5), the latter is taken
into account simply by decreasing the design stresses
in equation previously by around 10 per cent, giving the
following expression for the load carrying capacity
of the column:
N = 0.35fcuAc + 0.67fyAsc
This is equation 39 in BS 8110 and can be used
to design columns supporting an approximately
symmetrical arrangement of beams provided (a) the
loadings on the beams are uniformly distributed,
and (b) the beam spans do not differ by more than
15 per cent of the longer.
The Equations are not only used todetermine the load-
carrying capacities of shortbracedcolumns
predominantly supporting axialloads but can also be
used for initial sizing of theseelements
Example
A short-braced column in which fcu = 30 N/mm2 and fy
= 500 N/mm2 is required to support an ultimate axial
load of2000 kN.
Determine a suitable section for the column assuming
that the area of longitudinal steel, Asc, is of the order
of 3 per cent of the gross cross-sectional area of
column, Acol.
31
Solution
Since the column is axially loaded use equation 3.40
N = 0.4fcuAc + 0.75fyAsc
Assuming that the column is square,
Hence a 300 mm square column constructed of
concrete fcu = 30 Nmm−2 would be suitable.
4.5.3 Columns resisting axial load and
Bending
The area of longitudinal steel for columns resistingaxial
loads and uniaxial or biaxial bending is normally
calculated using the design charts in Part 3of BS 8110.
These charts are available for columnshaving a
rectangular cross-section and a symmetrical
arrangement of reinforcement. BSI issued thesecharts
when the preferred grade of reinforcementwas 460 not
500. Nevertheless, these charts couldstill be used to
estimate the area of steel reinforcementrequired in
columns but the steel areas obtainedwill be
approximately 10 per cent greaterthan required.
It should be noted that each chart is particular
for a selected
1. characteristic strength of concrete, fcu;
2. characteristic strength of reinforcement, fy;
3. d/h ratio.
Design charts are available for concrete grades 25,
30, 35, 40, 45 and 50 and reinforcement grade
460.
For a specified concrete and steel strength
there is a series of charts for different d/h ratios in
the range 0.75 to 0.95 in 0.05 increments.
4.5.3.1 Uniaxial bending. 4.6. REINFORCEMENT DETAILS

With columns which aresubject to an axial load (N) and In order to ensure structural stability, durability
uni-axial moment(M), the procedure simply involves and practicability of construction BS 8110 lays
plotting theN/bhand M/bh2 ratios on the appropriate down various rules governing the minimum size,
chartand reading off the corresponding area of amount and spacing of
reinforcementas a percentage of the gross-sectionalarea (i) longitudinal reinforcement and
of concrete (100Asc/bh) (ii) (ii) links.
.
Wherethe actual d/h ratio for the section being
designedlies between two charts, both charts may be 4.6.1 Longitudinal reinforcement
readand the longitudinal steel area found by linear
interpolation. (a) Size and minimum number of bars
(clause3.12.5.4, BS 8110).
(ii) Biaxial bending
(clause 3.8.4.5, BS 8110). Columns with rectangularcross-sections should be
reinforced with a minimumof four longitudinal bars;
Where the column is subject to biaxial bending, columns withcircular cross-sections should be
the problem is reduced to one of uniaxial bending
reinforced with aminimum of six longitudinal bars.
simply by increasing the moment about one of the
axes using the procedure outlined below. Each of the barsshould not be less than 12 mm in
diameter.
ifMx/My ≥ h′/b′ the enhanced design
moment, about the x–x axis, Mx′, is (b) Reinforcement areas
(clause 3.12.5, BS 8110).

The code recommends that for columns

with a gross cross-sectional area Acol, the area of
If Mx/My<h′/b′, the enhanced design moment about longitudinal reinforcement (Asc) should lie within
the y-y axis, My′, is the following limits:

0.4%Acol ≤ Asc ≤ 6%Acol in a vertically cast

column and
Where
0.4%Acol ≤ Asc ≤ 8%Acol in a horizontally cast
column.
b′ and h′ are the effective depths

At laps the maximum area of longitudinal

β is the enhancement coefficient for biaxial
reinforcementmay be increased to 10 per cent of the
bending obtained from Table 3.22.
gross cross-sectional area of the column for both
types of columns.
The area of longitudinal steel can then be
determined using the ultimate axial load (N) and
enhanced moment (Mx′ or My′,) in the same way as
that described for uniaxial bending.

32
 (c) Spacing of reinforcement.

The minimumdistance between adjacent bars should

not be lessthan the diameter of the bars or hagg + 5
mm, wherehagg is the maximum size of the coarse
aggregate.

The code does not specify any limitation with

regard to the maximum spacing of bars, but
for practical reasons it should not normally exceed
250 .

4.6.2 Links (clause 3.12.7, BS 8110)

The axial loading on the column may cause

buckling of the longitudinal reinforcement and
subsequent cracking and spalling of the adjacent
concrete cover. In order to preventsuch a situation from
occurring, the longitudinalsteel is normally laterally
restrained at regular intervals by links passing round the
bars. Example 1
Design the longitudinal steel and links for a 350 mm
a. Size and spacing of links. square, short-braced column which supports the
following axial loads:
Links should be at least one-quarter of the size of the
largest longitudinal bar or 6 mm, whichever is the Gk = 1000 kN
greater. However, in practice 6 mm bars may not be Qk = 1000 kN
freely available and a minimum bar size of 8 mm is Assume fcu = 40 N/mm2 and
preferable. fy&fyv = 500 N/mm2.

Links should be provided at a maximum spacing LONGITUDINAL STEEL

of 12 times the size of the smallest longitudinal Since column is axially loaded, use equation 3.40, i.e.
bar or the smallest cross-sectional dimension of N = 0.4fcuAc + 0.75fyAsc
the column. The latter condition is not mentioned
in BS 8110 but was referred to in CP 114 and is Total ultimate load (N) = 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk = 1.4 × 1000 +
still widely observed in order to reduce the risk of 1.6 × 1000 = 3000 kN
diagonal shear failure of columns.
Substituting this into the above equation for N gives
b. Arrangement of links. 3000 × 103 = 0.4 × 40 × (3502 − Asc) + 0.75 × 500Asc
Asc = 2897 mm2
The code furtherrequires that links should be so
arranged thatevery corner and alternate bar in an outer Hence from Tables
layerof reinforcement is supported by a link passing provide 4H32 (Asc = 3217 mm2)
around the bar and having an included angle of
not more than 135°. All other bars should be within
150 mm of a restrained bar

33
LINKS
The diameter of the links is one-quarter times the
diameter of the largest longitudinal bar, that is,
1/4 × 32 = 8 mm,but not less than 8mm diameter.

The spacing of the links is the lesser of

(a) 12 times the diameter of the smallest

longitudinal bar, that is, 12 × 32 = 384 mm, or

(b) the smallest cross-sectional dimension of the CHECK IF COLUMN IS SHORT

column (= 350 mm). Effective height

Hence, provide H8 links at 350 mm centres.
Depth of beams (600 mm) > depth of column (350
mm), therefore end condition at top of column = 1.
Assumingthat the pad footing is not designed to resist
any moment, end condition at bottom of column = 3.
Therefore, fromTable 3.19,
β = 0.9.
bex = bey = βbo = 0.9 × 4500 = 4050 mm

Short or slender

Example 2

An internal column in a braced two-storey building Since both ratios are less than 15, the column is short.
supporting an approximately symmetrical arrangement
of beams(350 mm wide × 600 mm deep) results in
characteristic dead and imposed loads each of 1100 kN LONGITUDINAL STEEL
being applied to thecolumn. The column is 350 mm Since column supports an approximately symmetrical
square and has a clear height of 4.5 m as shown in Fig.
below. Design the longitudinalreinforcement and links N = 0.35fcuAc + 0.67fyAsc
assuming
Total axial load, N, is
fcu = 40 N/mm2 and fy&fyv = 500 N/mm2 N = 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk
= 1.4 × 1100 + 1.6 × 1100 = 3300 kN

Substituting this into the above equation for N

3300 × 103 = 0.35 × 40(3502 − Asc) + 0.67 × 500Asc
⇒Asc = 4938 mm2

Hence from Tables 3.10, provide

4H32 and 4H25

(Asc = 3220 + 1960 = 5180 mm2)

34
LINKS d = h − cover − Φ′ − Φ/2 = 275 − 35 − 8 − 20/2
The diameter of the links is one-quarter times the = 222 mm
diameter of the largest longitudinal bar, that is 1/4 × 32
= 8 mm,but not less than 8mm diameter. The spacing of d/h= 222/275 = 0.8
the links is the lesser of From charts, 100Asc/bh= 3,
(a) 12 times the diameter of the smallestlongitudinal
bar, that is, 12 × 25 = 300 mm, or Asc = 3 × 275 × 275/100 = 2269 mm2
(b) the smallest cross-sectional dimension of the Provide 8H20 (Asc = 2510mm2,
column (= 350 mm).

Provide H8 links at 300 mm centres.

Links

The diameter of the links is one-quarter times the

diameter of the largest longitudinal bar, that is, 1/4 × 20
= 5 mm,
but not less than 8 mm diameter. The spacing of the
links is the lesser of (a) 12 times the diameter of the
smallestlongitudinal bar, that is, 12 × 20 = 240 mm, or

Example 3 (b) the smallest cross-sectional dimension of the

Design the longitudinal and shear reinforcement for a column
275 mm square, short-braced column which supports (= 275 mm).
either
(a) an ultimate axial load of 1280 kN and a Provide H8 links at 240 mm centres
moment of 62.5 kNm about the x–x axis or

(b) an ultimate axial load of 1280 kN and bending

moments of 35 kNm about the x–x axis and 25 kNm
about they–y axis.

Assume fcu = 30 Nmm−2, fy = 500 Nmm−2 and cover

to all reinforcement is 35 mm.
LOAD CASE (B)
Longitudinal steel
LOAD CASE (A) Assume diameter of longitudinal bars (Φ) = 25 mm,
Longitudinal steel diameter of links (Φ′) = 8 mm

b′ = h′ = h − Φ/2 − Φ′ − cover
= 275 − 25/2 − 8 − 35 = 220 mm

Mx/My = 35/25 = 1.4 >h′/b′ = 1

Assume diameter of longitudinal bars (Φ) = 20 mm,

diameter of links (Φ′) = 8 mm
Hence β = 0.35 (Table 3.22)

35
Enhanced design moment about x–x axis, Mx′, is

General Procedure for Design of Colum

1. Determine the preliminary size if not already

given with the aid of figure 3.2 of the BS
codes.
2. Calculate the height between supports, or the
height of the column.
3. Determine the effective height of the the two
planes of the column, x-x and y-y plane by first
determining the coefficients for end conditions
from table 3.19.
y
From charts,
100Asc/bh= 2.2,
Asc = 2.2 × 275 × 275/100 = 1664 mm2
x x
2
Provide 4H25 (Asc = 1963 mm )

Links
The diameter of the links is one-quarter times the
diameter of the largest longitudinal bar, that is,
1/4 × 25 ≈ 6 mm,
but not less than 8 mm diameter.
The spacing of the links is the lesser of
(a) 12 times the diameter of the smallest
longitudinal bar, that is, 12 × 25 = 300 mm,
(b) or (b) the smallest cross-sectional dimension of
the column (= 275 mm).
Provide H8 links at 275 mmcentres.
y
4. Determine the type of column(Slender or
Short)
5. Estimate the total design load (N) on the
column
6. Determine Moment in X-X plane (Mx) by
finding the imbalanced moment from the
beams in the x plane and Moment in Y-Y plane
by finding imbalance moment from the beams
in the y plane (My)
7. Determine which moment amongst Mx’ or My’
to use.
8. plot the N/bhand M/bh2 ratios on the
appropriate chart and read off the
corresponding area of reinforcement as a
percentage of the gross-sectional area of
concrete (100Asc/bh)
9. Determine diameter and spacing of Links
10. Perform all necessary checks.

36
6.0 DESIGN OF FOOTINGS

Foundations are required primarily to carry the dead

and imposed loads due to the structure’s floors,beams,
walls, columns, etc. and transmit and distribute
the loads safely to the ground.
The purpose of distributing the load is to avoid the
safe bearing capacity of the soil being exceeded
otherwise excessive settlement of the structure may
occur.
Since the settlement of the structure occurs during
its working life, the design loadings to be considered
when calculating the size of the base should
be taken as those for the serviceability limit state
(i.e. 1.0Gk + 1.0Qk). The calculations to determine
the thickness of the base and the bending and shear
reinforcement should, however, be based on ultimate
loads (i.e. l.4Gk + 1.6Qk).

6.2 Design of Pad Footing

The general procedure to be adopted for the
design of pad footings is as follows:

1. Calculate the plan area of the footing using

serviceability loads.

2. Determine the reinforcement areas required for

bending using ultimate loads

Foundation failure can produce catastrophic

effects on the overall stability of a structure so that
it may slide or even overturn. Such
failures are likely to have tremendous financial and 3. Check for punching, face and transverse shear
safety implications. It is essential, therefore, that Failures
much attention is paid to the design of this element
of a structure.

6.1 Foundation Design

Foundation failure may arise as a result of

(a) allowablebearing capacity of the soil being
exceeded,or
(b) bending and/or shear failure of the base.

The first condition allows the plan-area of the base

to be calculated, being equal to the design load
divided by the bearing capacity of the soil, i.e.

37
 Self weight of footing = area × h × density of concrete
= 9 × 0.6 × 24 = 129.6 kN< assumed (130 kN)

Explanatory Example BENDING REINFORCEMENT

A 400 mm square column carries a dead load (Gk) of Design moment, M

1050 kN and imposed load (Qk) of 300 kN. The safe Total ultimate load (W) = 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk
bearingcapacity of the soil is 170 k/Nm2. Design a
square pad footing to resist the loads assuming the = 1.4 × 1050 + 1.6 × 300 = 1950 kN
following material strengths
Earth Pressure (ρs) = W = 1950 = 217Kn/m2
fcu = 35 N/mm2fy = 500 N/mm2 Plan Area 9

PLAN AREA OF BASE Maximum design moment occurs at the face of column

Loading M = ρsl2 = 217 x 1.302 = 183KNm

Dead load 2 2
Assume a footing weight of 130 kN
Total dead load (Gk) = 1050 + 130 = 1180 kN Ultimate moment
Effective depth
Serviceability load Base to be cast against blinding, hence cover (c) to
Design axial load (N) = 1.0Gk + 1.0Qk reinforcement = 50 mm
= 1.0 × 1180 + 1.0 × 300 = 1480 kN
Assume 20 mm diameter(Φ) bars will be needed as
Plan area bending reinforcement in both directions.

Hence provide a 3 m square base (plan area = 9 m2)

Self-weight of footing Hence, average effective depth of reinforcement, d, is

Assume the overall depth of footing (h) = 600 mm d = h − c − Φ = 600 − 50 − 20 = 530 mm

38
 V = load on shaded area = 217 × (9 − 3.96) = 1094 kN
Ultimate moment
Design punching shear stress, υ, is
Mu = 0.156fcubd2 = 0.156 × 35 × 103 × 5302
= 1534 × 106 Nmm = 1534 kNm

Since Mu >M no compression reinforcement is

required.

Hence from, design concrete shear stress, υc, is

υc = (35/25)1/3 × 0.37 = 0.41 Nmm−2

Since υc> υ, punching failure is unlikely and a 600 mm

depth of slab is acceptable.

Face shear
Maximum shear stress (υmax) occurs at face of column.
Minimum steel area is Hence
0.13%bh= 780 mm2/m <As OK

Hence from Tables, provide H20 at 300 mm centres (As

= 1047 mm2/m) distributed uniformly across the full
widthof the footing parallel to the x–x and y–y axis (see
clause 3.11.3.2, BS 8110). = 2.3 N/mm2< permissible (= 0.8√ 35 = 4.73 N/mm2)

CRITICAL SHEAR STRESSES

Punching shear Transverse shear

Critical perimeter, pcrit, is

= column perimeter + 8 × 1.5d Ultimate shear force (V) = load on shaded area = ps ×
area
= 4 × 400 + 8 × 1.5 × 530 = 7960 mm = 217(3 × 0.770) = 501 kN

Area within perimeter is Design shear stress, υ, is

(400 + 3d)2 = (400 + 3 × 530)2 = 3.96 × 106 mm2

Ultimate punching force, V, is

39
Hence no shear reinforcement is required.

REINFORCEMENT DETAILS
The sketch below shows the main reinforcement requirements for the pad footing.

40
APPENDICES

41
TABLE 1 - BY SELECTION CHART - FOR SLABS & WALLS
Bar Areas / M width - based on Bar Size & Spacing

Table - Bars Areas &Spacings (mm2/M width)

Spacing Bar Size (mm)
per M 6 8 10 12 16 20 25 32
75 377 670 1047 1508 2681 4189 6545 10723
80 353 628 982 1414 2513 3927 6136 10053
100 283 503 785 1131 2011 3142 4909 8042
110 257 457 714 1028 1828 2856 4463 7311
120 236 419 655 942 1676 2618 4091 6702
125 226 402 628 905 1608 2513 3927 6434
130 217 387 604 870 1547 2417 3776 6187
140 202 359 561 808 1436 2244 3506 5745
150 188 335 524 754 1340 2094 3273 5362
160 177 314 491 707 1257 1964 3068 5027
170 166 296 462 665 1183 1848 2888 4731
175 162 287 449 646 1149 1795 2805 4596
180 157 279 436 628 1117 1745 2727 4468
190 149 265 413 595 1058 1653 2584 4233

42
 200 141 251 393 565 1005 1571 2454 4021
210 135 239 374 539 957 1496 2338 3830
220 129 228 357 514 914 1428 2231 3656
225 126 223 349 503 894 1396 2182 3574
230 123 219 341 492 874 1366 2134 3497
240 118 209 327 471 838 1309 2045 3351
250 113 201 314 452 804 1257 1964 3217
260 109 193 302 435 773 1208 1888 3093
270 105 186 291 419 745 1164 1818 2979
275 103 183 286 411 731 1142 1785 2925
280 101 180 281 404 718 1122 1753 2872
290 97 173 271 390 693 1083 1693 2773
300 94 168 262 377 670 1047 1636 2681

Table - Bars Nos& Areas

Bar Bar Diameters (mm)
Nos 6 8 10 12 16 20 25 32

1 28 50 79 113 201 314 491 804

2 57 101 157 226 402 628 982 1608
3 85 151 236 339 603 942 1473 2413
4 113 201 314 452 804 1257 1963 3217
5 141 251 393 565 1005 1571 2454 4021
6 170 302 471 679 1206 1885 2945 4825
7 198 352 550 792 1407 2199 3436 5630
8 226 402 628 905 1608 2513 3927 6434
9 254 452 707 1018 1810 2827 4418 7238
10 283 503 785 1131 2011 3142 4909 8042
11 311 553 864 1244 2212 3456 5400 8847
12 339 603 942 1357 2413 3770 5890 9651
13 368 653 1021 1470 2614 4084 6381 10455
14 396 704 1100 1583 2815 4398 6872 11259
15 424 754 1178 1696 3016 4712 7363 12064

43
16 452 804 1257 1810 3217 5027 7854 12868
17 481 855 1335 1923 3418 5341 8345 13672
18 509 905 1414 2036 3619 5655 8836 14476
19 537 955 1492 2149 3820 5969 9327 15281

20 565 1005 1571 2262 4021 6283 9817 16085

44
Bending moment coefficients for slabs spanning in two directions at right angles, Simply-supported on four
sides

ly/lx 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.75 2.0

αsx 0.062 0.074 0.084 0.093 0.099 0.104 0.113 0.118
αsy 0.062 0.061 0.059 0.055 0.051 0.046 0.037 0.029

Basic span/effective depth ratio for rectangular or flanged beams

Support conditions Rectangular section Flanged beams with

𝑏𝑤
≤ 0.3
𝑏
Cantilever 7 5.6
Simply supported 20 16.0
Continuous 26 20.8

Enhancement coefficient for biaxial bending

N 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 ≥0.6

bhfcu
β 1.0 0.88 0.77 0.65 0.53 0.42 0.30

Values of Asv/sv

Diameter(mm) Spacing of links or stirrups

85 90 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300
8 1.183 1.118 1.006 0.805 0.671 0.575 0.503 0.447 0.402 0.336 0.335
10 1.847 1.744 1.570 1.256 1.047 0.897 0.785 0.698 0.628 0.571 0.523
12 2.659 2.511 2.260 1.808 1.507 1.291 1.130 1.004 0.904 0.882 0.753
16 4.729 4.467 4.020 3.216 0.680 2.297 2.010 1.787 1.608 1.462 1.340

Cross Sectional area per meter width of slab (mm2/m)

Bar size Spacing

50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 300
6 566 377 283 226 189 162 142 126 113 94.3
8 1010 671 503 402 335 287 252 223 201 168
10 1570 1050 785 628 523 449 393 349 314 262
12 2260 1510 1130 905 754 646 566 503 452 377
16 4020 2680 2010 1610 1340 1150 1010 894 804 670
20 6280 4190 3140 2510 2090 1800 1570 1396 1257 1050
25 9820 6550 4910 3930 3270 2810 4550 2182 1960 1640
32 16100 10700 8040 6430 5360 4600 4020 3574 3217 2680
40 25100 16800 12600 10100 8380 7180 6280 5585 5027 4190

45
Form and area of shear reinforcement in beams

Values of v(N/mm2) Area of shear reinforcement to be provided

v<0.5vc throughout the No links required but normal practice is to provide nominal links in members
beam of structural importance
A 0.4b
Nominal (or minimum) links for whole length of beam ssv ≥ 0.95f
0.5vc<v< (vc + 0.4) v yv
Design links
(vc + 0.4) <v<0.8√fcu or 5 Asv b(v − vc )
≥
N/mm2. sv 0.95fyv

Value of ultimate shear stress vc (N/mm2) for concrete strength of fcu= 30 N/mm2

100As Effective depth (mm)

bd 150 175 200 225 250 300 ≥400
≤ 0.15 0.46 0.44 0.43 0.41 0.40 0.38 0.36
0.25 0.54 0.52 0.50 0.49 0.48 0.46 0.42
0.50 0.68 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.59 0.57 0.53
0.75 0.76 0.75 0.72 0.70 0.69 0.64 0.61
1.00 0.86 0.83 0.80 0.78 0.75 0.72 0.67
1.50 0.98 0.95 0.91 0.88 0.86 0.83 0.76
2.00 1.08 1.04 1.01 0.97 0.95 0.91 0.85
≥3.00 1.23 1.19 1.15 1.11 1.08 1.04 0.97
For characteristic strengths other than 30 N/mm2, the values in the table may be multiplied by (fcu/25)1/3÷1.06.
The value fcu should not be greater than 40 N/mm2.

Cross – sectional areas of group of bars (mm2).

Number Bar diameter (mm)

of Bars 6 8 10 12 16 20 25 32 40
1 28 50 79 113 201 314 491 804 1257
2 57 101 157 226 402 628 982 1608 2513
3 85 151 236 339 603 942 1473 2413 3770
4 113 201 314 452 804 1257 1963 3217 5027
5 141 251 393 565 1005 1571 2454 4021 6283
6 170 302 471 679 1206 1885 2945 4825 7540
7 198 352 550 792 1407 2199 3436 5630 8796
8 226 402 628 905 1608 2513 3927 6434 10053
9 254 452 707 1018 1810 2827 4418 7238 11310

BS 8110-3:1985

46
 © BSI 12-1998

47