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Basic Buddhism
A Modern Introduction to
the Buddha's Teaching
by Dr Victor A. Gunasekara
Third Edition

CONTENTS
Preface to this Edition

1.Introduction to Basic Buddhism

2.The Life of the Buddha
3.The Basic Teaching of the Buddha
4.Some Cardinal Tenets of Buddhism
5.Meditation and BuddhistPractice
6.The Buddhist Attitude to God
7.The Buddhist Attitude to Man
8.Knowledge, Wisdom and Enlightenment
9.The Doctrines of Karma and Rebirth
10.Buddhist Cosmology and Nibbana
11.Buddhism and the Modern World

Appendices

A.On Becoming a Buddhist

B.The Five Precepts
C.Higher Precepts and Meditation
D.The Three Gems of Buddhism
E.Main Buddhist Tendencies in the West
F.Glossary of Pali Terms

First Published: Nov 1982

Second Edition: May 1992
Third Edition April 1997
Preface to the Third some new material, intended to
amplify some of the comments in
Edition the original text, were added as
The first edition of this footnotes. Two Appendices were
booklet appeared in November also added. The first gave
1982 under the title Basic information for those who want
Buddhism: an Outline of the to call themselves Buddhists,
Buddha's Teaching. It was and gives the basic precepts lay
published by the Buddhist Buddhists are expected to
Society of Queensland to observe. The second identifies
commemorate the centenary of the three main tendencies in Pali
arrival of Theravada immigrants Buddhism in the West.
to Queensland. It grew out of a
The present edition is a
lecture given to teachers of
revision of the second edition.
religion in Secondary Schools in
Some new sections have been
October 1980. The following is
added. Some of this material
an extract from the original
first appeared as articles
Preface:
published by the author in BSQ
"This introductory essay publications.
is confined to the basic
doctrines propounded by Since the first edition of this
the Buddha over 2500 booklet in 1982 Buddhism has
years ago. This message greatly expanded in Australia.
is surprisingly modern, However most of recent Buddhism
and more in keeping with has been ethnically oriented
the rational-scientific associated with the activity of
temper of our age than
the various theistic migrants from Buddhist Asian
systems to which most of countries. Much of the recent
the people of the world literature on Buddhism in
owe formal allegiance. A Australia has also been from
widespread interest in this perspective. The need for a
Buddhism in Australia is statement of Buddhism divested
relatively recent. It is of cultural trappings is thus
important that the
original doctrine of the still as urgent as it was in
Buddha, divested of the 1982. There is therefore a need
cultural trappings and for a publication like the
metaphysical present one giving access to the
speculations that has authentic message of the Buddha
gathered around it freed from cultural encumbrances
during its long sojourn
in a dozen Asian lands, and other innovations.
is placed before the The objective of the present
public. This booklet is work is still to introduce the
written with that aim in
mind." central principles of Buddhism
to the modern reader in the
A second edition of this Western world in a modern idiom.
publication appeared in 1994. It Buddhism has been well
made no changes to the main text established in several Asian
of the first edition, except for countries for many centuries,
some minor corrections. However but its expansion to other parts
of the world has been
comparatively recent. As far as teaching is to be of use to
the West is concerned in the those people who for historical
ancient Hellenic world there was reasons have not had access to
some contact with Buddhist it. Only a small proportion of
thinking mainly due to the world's population are
Alexander's expedition to Asia officially counted as professing
and Asoka's missions, some of Buddhism. This is partly due to
which are said to have been to the way in which people are
the West. It has even been classed into religious
speculated that the ethical groupings. Buddhism in its
teaching of Christianity may original form does not fall into
have some Buddhist links. But the conventional category of
after the conversion of religion, and trying to count
Constantine to Christianity the the number of Buddhists is
hitherto open attitude to somewhat futile. But it is true
religions was subverted and that a large number of people
other religions like Buddhism have scarcely heard of the
were barred. Buddha, and many of those who
have done so have a very
The relative isolation of
incorrect view of Buddhism. This
Buddhism to specific cultures,
is very often deliberately
with very little interaction
propagated by the media and by
even between countries which
other religions.
professed in varying ways the
Buddha's message, has led to the Even though the basic teaching
development of particular ethnic of the Buddha has been known in
traits in the national forms of the modern West for over a
Buddhism practised in these century, most of this knowledge
countries. It is true that for was confined to academic
the most part these ethnic circles. The widespread practice
influences have affected only of Buddhism is relatively
relative minor aspects of the recent, and now several Buddhist
practice of the Buddha's centres have sprung up in the
teaching, but it has nonetheless West. In the last three decades
been an impediment to the many traditional Buddhists from
expansion of Buddhism to new Asia have migrated to the West,
areas. It is important to divest bringing with them ethnic forms
Buddhism of its national of Buddhism. This has made
peculiarities, and to seek the Buddhism more visible but it has
essence of Buddhism, which is a also obscured to some extent the
message for all people central message of the Buddha.
irrespective of time and place. All these reasons make it
It is this "original Buddhism" necessary to give a clear
that we have termed Basic statement of the fundamental
Buddhism. Chapter 1 looks at teaching of the Buddha to
this concept in more detail, but readers in the West. This is the
it should be remembered that the task that is attempted in this
term "basic" does not imply that short booklet.
Buddhism has been simplified in
It is not possible to avoid Pali
any way.
terms in an exposition of
A restatement of Basic Buddhism Buddhism. A glossary of all Pali
is necessary if the Buddha's words used in this work is given
in Appendix F. If the meaning of
a Pali word used in the text is
not given in the context the
glossary should be consulted.
Dr V. A. Gunasekara
Go to Contents
 records, and his disciples
transmitted his teaching
CHAPTER 1
initially as an oral tradition.
Introduction to Basic Buddhism Quite early in its history
several distinct schools of
The term Buddhism is now used to
Buddhism arose based partly on
denote the teaching of the
the interpretation of common
Buddha, a historical person who
discourses, and partly on
flourished some 25 centuries ago
differing texts of the
on the Indian subcontinent. This
discourses themselves. There is
eaching has been described
a substantial degree of
variously as a religion, a
agreement between these diverse
philosophy, a psychological
schools, and they have never
system, an ethico-moral code, a
exhibited an animosity towards
socio-economic blue-print, and
each other comparable to the
so on. No doubt all these
schisms that have characterised
aspects could be discerned in
different parts of the Buddha's many other religions.(3) It is
teaching, but the teaching is from the scriptures of these
itself something more than all various schools of Buddhism,
these combined. The term which particularly from the Pali
Buddhists use to designate the Canon, that the original message
of the Buddha, which we term
teaching is Dhamma or Dharma(1) .
Basic Buddhism, has to be
This term comes from a root term
reconstructed.
meaning "to uphold", and means
the basic law which "upholds" About three centuries after the
the universe. It is therefore death of the Buddha several
sometimes translated simply as different schools of Buddhism
Law or Norm. It conveys some emerged, but the differences
idea of the unity that informs between them were slight and
the whole body of the Buddha's related to minor points. However
teaching. We shall use the words towards the beginning of the
dhamma and Buddhism as synonyms. Common Era (CE)(4) some of these
The term "Basic Buddhism" is groups gave a new interpretation
used in this work to denote to the Buddha's teaching and
those elements of Buddhism as called themselves the Mahāyāna
currently propagated which could ("Greater Vehicle") School. They
be attributed fairly called the earlier schools the
unambiguously to the Buddha "Hinayāna" (Lesser Vehicle)
himself. It is a basic argument school. However this term was
here that this teaching can not never accepted by the schools
only be practised effectively in who were designated by it. Of
the modern world but also these schools only one survives
conforms to the modern today(5) . This is the Theravāda
scientific view of the world(2) . ("Doctrine of the Elders")
In seeking to establish the school which claims to carry on
content of Basic Buddhism we the Buddhism of the early
have to start with a followers of the Buddha. This
consideration of the different view is now generally accepted
schools of Buddhism that have and the Mahāyāna is seen as a
arisen in the course of history. new innovation in Buddhism but
The Buddha did not leave written still containing some of the
essence of the original preserved the texts from
teaching. These two traditions possible further verbal
have also been termed the corruption. The Pali Canon (like
Southern and Northern schools of some other Buddhist canons)
Buddhism because of the consists of three sections
geographical areas in which each (called Piakas or baskets)
prevailed. Each of these dealing with the Vinaya
traditions has its own versions (monastic discipline), Sutta
of the Buddhist scriptures. All (doctrines) and the Abhidhamma
Theravada groups subscribe to a (the analysis of the Dhamma).
common set of basic books
While the principles and
(called the Pali Canon after the
practice of basic Buddhism has
language, Pali, in which it is
to be sought in the Pali Canon
recorded). We shall however
(especially in the Vinaya and
refer to the original Buddhism
the Sutta piakas), actual
as Pali Buddhism rather than
Theravāda theory shows some
Theravada Buddhism. (6) Amongst development from early Buddhism.
the Mahāyāna there is a much This took three directions:
greater diversity of schools,
doctrines, languages and texts. 1.Some of the material in the
Initially Sanskrit was the third section of the Canon,
language of the Indian Mahayāna the Abhidhamma Pitaka, was
schools, but many of these were composed at a later date,
later translated to Chinese and and employed a didactic and
China soon became the centre of taxonomic method in
Mahayāna Buddhism. From there it analysing the psychological
spread to many other countries and philosophical concepts
including Korea, Japan (where introduced by the Buddha.
the best known school of The empirical method it
Buddhism is Zen) and Tibet employed to verify the
(where a distinct variety of Buddha's teaching was
Mahāyāna Buddhism called the meditative contemplation
Vajrayāna or the "Diamond (especially insight
Vehicle" developed). meditation), and it
excluded the use of other
In its fundamental doctrines empirical methods such as
basic Buddhism is closer to Pali those employed by modern
Buddhism than to the Mahāyāna science.
schools. This is because the
Pali Canon is the oldest 2.The commentatorial efforts
compilation of the Buddha's of the great medieval
teaching, and closest to the scholastics like
actual words of the Buddha. Its Buddhaghosa and Dharmapāla
present form was settled at the tended to ossify the
Third Council of Buddhists held meaning and interpretation
during the reign of King Asoka of the Buddha's discourses,
of Ancient India about 250 BCE. which was taken to be
The Pali Canon was thus authoritative
systemised quite early, and has interpretations of the
changed very little, indeed if Dhamma.
at all, since then. It was 3.Some contemporary
committed to writing in the developments in the
first century BCE, and this
 Mahayāna came to influence Buddhism tended to be
not only the practices of excessively centred on the
Theravāda, but also some monastic orders, and included in
aspects of Theravāda the Sangha only ordained monks,
doctrine as well. These and sometimes reserved for them
developments must be taken the exclusive role as teachers
into account in the of the Dhamma. Mahāyāna took a
reconstruction of the more flexible attitude. While
original message of the the role of monks in Buddhism
Buddha. cannot be underrated, and they
will continue to play an
It must not be thought that
important part in contemporary
Basic Buddhism should exclude
Buddhism, it is clear that basic
everything found in the Mahayana
Buddhism should reinstate the
teachings. While Mahayana has
little to contribute to the role of the lay community(7) .
reconstruction of the theory of Basic Buddhism should not be
early Buddhism, it did retain seen as an innovation in
some early Buddhist practices Buddhism but rather as an
which play a subordinate role in attempt to go back to the roots
Pali Buddhism but could play a of Buddhism, to what would have
useful role in modern Buddhist been the actual doctrines
practice. Mahayana Buddhism preached originally by the
shifted the Buddhist ideal from Buddha. Go to Contents
the Arahant of Theravada
Buddhism to the Bodhisattva. The
Bodhisattva was seen as a being
who while being capable of
enlightenment and release from
samsāra, wilfully postpones
becoming fully liberated in
order to help others. A natural
consequence of this view was
that the primary Buddhist virtue
was compassion (karunā). In
contrast to this Theravada had
regarded mettā (loving-kindness)
as the dominant virtue. There is
a need to reinstate compassion
in Buddhist practice at least to
an extent equal to that given to
mettā.
Another aspect of Mahāyāna that
is important is the greater role
given to the lay community in
contrast to that of monks. Early
Buddhism had denoted by the
Sangha the community of all
Buddhists who had made some
progress in the Dhamma. This
Sangha included both monks and
lay persons, but Theravada
 time he encountered the famous
four signs, that of an old man,
CHAPTER 2
of a sick man, of a corpse and
The Life of the Buddha of a religious recluse, and that
these led him to question the
The founder of Buddhism was an
unsatisfactoriness of life and
historical person, Siddhatta
the need to find a way of escape
Gtama who lived in North India
from its travails. The misery
from 563 BCE to 483 BCE. (8) His and brevity of human existence
father was Suddhodana the ruler struck him with force, and also
of the Sākyas a people the desire to find a solution to
inhabiting a country which lay the problems of life. But the
on the border between modern critical event was the birth of
Nepal and India. At the time of his first child, a son who was
his birth his mother Mahāmāyā named Rāhula. When the child was
was on a journey and he was born born Gotama realised that if he
in a park at Lumbini on the full were to assume the role of a
moon day of the month of April- parent he would never leave the
May in the year 563 BCE. A household life in this quest for
commemorative pillar was erected the meaning of life, and
on the spot by King Asoka some accordingly he decided to
three centuries later. renounce the household life.
Several legends are attached to Fearing that a public
the birth of Sidhatta, including announcement would bring
a prophecy by the brahmin Asita pressure to change his mind, he
that he would either be a great left his palace with only his
("universal") ruler or a fully charioteer accompanying him,
enlightened teacher. It is said donned the garments of a recluse
that Suddhodana wanted his son and went into the homeless life.
to become a monarch rather than Gotama thus became a samana
a great religious teacher, and [sramana] or religious
accordingly brought him up in mendicant. The samanas were
the lap of luxury with the people who devoted their entire
training befitting a future time to the search for religious
king. But very little is known truth. They did not adhere to
of the early life of Sidhatta. the prevailing religious
No indication of his future orthodoxy of the day, the
destiny is recorded other than a Brahmanical religion based on
reference to an incident when as the ancient Vedas. They were
a child he went into a highly individualistic and
meditative trance while seated engaged in a variety of
in an open field watching an practices. The next seven years
agricultural festival. When he of Gotama's life were devoted to
was sixteen Sidhatta was married his quest. He became the pupils
to Bhaddakaccānā (also known as of the leading religious
Yasodarā). teachers of his day, such as
The events that forced his ālāra Kālāma and Uddaka
decision to renounce the life of Rāmaputta. They were the leading
luxury he was leading and take exponents of meditation of the
to the religious life occurred day, and Gotama mastered all the
when he was about 29 years of meditation techniques they could
age. It is claimed that at this teach including the development
of the jhānas. Since these did became the first members of the
not provide the solution he was Buddhist Sangha (or Community of
seeking he continued in his disciples) which has survived to
search. this day in unbroken succession.
By this time his wandering had The exact chronology of the
taken him south of the Ganges Buddha's ministry has not been
river. He now formed an recorded and cannot be
association with five other reconstructed. His more
samanas, who were more inclined important discourses are
to the practice of austerities. preserved, but while they
But even these did not satisfy indicate the circumstances
Gotama. He now continued his leading to each discourse, and
search alone. His search finally often the place of its delivery,
ended on the full moon day in there is generally no indication
the month of Vesākha (April-May) of the date or even year of the
in the year 528 BCE when he discourse. From the places
meditating under an Asattha or mentioned in the discourses it
Pippala tree (ficus religiosa) is possible to reconstruct the
near Uruvelā (now known as area of the Buddha's travels.
Buddha-Gayā). He had become the This was confined mainly to the
Buddha (a term meaning the middle Gangetic plain with
"Enlightened One"), by which Kapilavatthu to the North,
title he was henceforth to be Uruvelā to the South, and Campa
universally known. The tree has to the East. The Western extent
come to be known as the Bodhi is not certain, some suttas
(or Bo) tree, and is regarded as being delivered not far from the
a symbol of the Buddha's modern Delhi. This area
enlightenment. straddled the Ganges river, and
included parts of two important
After considerable thought he
kingdoms in the Buddha's time.
decided to proclaim his
These were Kosala which was
discovery for the benefit of
located North of the river
mankind. His hesitation arose
Ganges with Sāvatthi as its
from the complexity of the
capital, and Magadha which was
system he had discovered, and
to the South of Kosala with
its opposition to the
Rajagaha as its capital. The
comfortable beliefs which then
Buddha became well known in both
as now appeared to offer an
these kingdoms and their capital
easier solution to the spiritual
cities. There are legendary
needs of people. The first
accounts of visits of the Buddha
proclamation of the Dhamma took
to places as far away as Sri
place at the deer-park in
Lanka, and even to heavenly
Isipatana close to the city of
domains, but these have no
Sarnath (near modern Benares) to
historical basis.
the five former ascetic
companions, who became the The Buddha and his followers
Buddha's first disciples. From initially followed the wandering
that day on until his death some life of the samanas, but soon
45 years later the Buddha developed the habit of staying
travelled around Northern India at least part of the year in a
tirelessly proclaiming his monastery. The period of
message. The five ascetics monastic sojourn came to be
known as the "rains retreat" discoveries have been
(vas) because it coincided with archaeological remains
the Indian monsoon. The authenticating the birthplace of
monasteries were donated by the Buddha as Lumbini.
wealthy lay followers. In the
There is a detailed account of
early years the Buddha spent his
the last days of the Buddha in
rains retreats south of the
the Mahāparinibbāna sutta, but
Ganges river mainly at Rājagaha,
no such detailed information is
but gradually moved north. In
available for any other part of
the later years the most
his life. After his death the
frequently visited location was
relics of the Buddha was
Sāvatthi, where the Buddha spent
distributed and stupas were
23 of the last 25 rains
built over them.Go to Contents
retreats. The very last rains
retreat was spent at Vesali when
the Buddha was on his last
CHAPTER 3
journey from Rājagaha to
Sāvatthi. (9) The Buddha's death The Basic Teaching of the Buddha
(parinibbāna) took place at a Buddhism recognises no creeds
place called Kusināra mid-way whose uncritical acceptance is
between Vesāli and Sāvatthi. expected of its followers.
While some debate may attach to Instead the Buddha enunciated
the exact dates of the Buddha's certain basic laws and truths
life there can be no doubt about whose veracity he invited his
the historicity of the Buddha followers to test for
(10). The Buddha's teaching, themselves. One of the
unlike that of many other traditional epithets of the
founders of religious systems, Dhamma is "ehipassiko" (meaning
was so unique, original and literally "come and see") which
consistent that it could only is an appeal to the empirical
have been the work of a single verification of the Dhamma.
person. The Buddha did not In his very first discourse the
appropriate on himself the role Buddha identified Four Noble
of a God or of a prophet of God, Truths as forming the core of
in order to validate his the Dhamma. These four Truths
teachings. His teachings were have since become a convenient
derived from his own unaided way of stating the fundamentals
efforts. (11) of the Dhamma. They are often
regarded as the most basic
Recently discovered
teaching of the Buddha. The
archaeological evidence
Buddha also identified three
corroborate the accounts in the
fundamental characteristics
texts. These include the
(tilakkhana) of the Dhamma.
discovery of urns with
These basic tenets the Buddha
inscriptions indicating that
presented in several ways. Two
they were the receptacle for the
such presentations have become
relics of the Buddha. King
well known. These are the Three
Asoka's pillars, though a few
Signata (tilakkhana), perhaps
centuries after the death of the
better rendered as the three
Buddha also identify the places
basic laws, and the Four Noble
associated with the life story
Truths. The acceptance of the
of the Buddha. The most recent
validity of these laws and exists. The dynamic nature of
truths, if only in the first phenomena is today a commonplace
instance as a working of science. But until quite
hypothesis, is the sin qua non recently many physical features
of a Buddhist. In addition the of the universe were considered
Buddha proclaimed several other immutable, and in the human
doctrines, the most important plane the belief in enduring
being those of karma and re- states or characteristics is
birth. The validity of such still an article of faith in
doctrines is more difficult for many religious systems. The law
an ordinary person to verify, of anicca establishes
but their dogmatic acceptance is impermanence as the basic
not expected as a fundamental universal law.
requirement of those who go for
(2) Dukkha. The law of dukkha
refuge to the "Three Gems" of
states that all complexes of
Buddhism (12). phenomena, are in the final
The three signata and the four analysis unsatisfactory. It
truths form the core of the means that no compounded thing
Dhamma. They are at the same or state could be considered as
time both alternatives and a universal norm of goodness or
complements to each other. It beauty. It imparts the normative
may however be appropriate to dimension into the consideration
consider them separately. of objective reality which is
the hallmark of the Dhamma. The
The Three Fundamental Laws of law of dukkha is usually
the Buddha considered in relation to the
The three signata refer to the human situation, and here
three essential marks or unsatisfactoriness manifests
characteristics of all itself as "suffering", which is
"compounded" things, animate or the popular rendition of the
inanimate, microscopic or term. It is in this sense that
macroscopic. Because of the it constitutes the first of the
universality of their four Noble Truths.
applicability they could be (3) Anatta. The third law states
considered as having the force that there is no permanent
of universal laws. These essence, "self", ego, or soul in
characteristics are impermanence phenomena. The term originates
(anicca), unsatisfactoriness as the negation of the concept
(dukkha), and insubstantiality of atta (ātman) which was the
(anatta). As these translations equivalent in the old
of the basic Pāli terms are only Brahmanical religion of the
approximate, a further Buddha's day to what other
elaboration of these basic religions have called the
concepts of the Dhamma is "soul". The Buddha advanced
necessary. psycho-physical explanation of
(1) Anicca. The law of the individual which leaves no
impermanence asserts that all room for a soul. The Buddha
phenomena are subject to recognised that the delusion of
constant change, to rise and self or ego was one of the most
fall, and no permanent states, powerful of human instincts, and
either physical or animate, at the same time one of the most
potent sources of ignorance and applicable to the human
wrong action. In applying the condition:
anatta doctrine to the phenomena
of the external world some care "Birth is
mush be exercised. Early suffering, decay
is suffering,
Buddhism did not deny the death is
reality of the external world. suffering;
It argued that the phenomena of sorrow,
the external world could be lamentation,
broken down into its constituent pain, grief, and
components, and that nothing despair are
else other than these components suffering. To be
separated from
existed. It was only in this the pleasant is
sense that the phenomena of the suffering; to be
external world were declared to in contact with
be empty (suñña). Some schools the unpleasant
of Mahayāna Buddhism have taken is suffering; in
the doctrine of emptiness short the five
aggregates of
(suññātā) to imply a denial of existence
the reality of the external connected with
world. This interpretation is attachment are
foreign to early Buddhism. Early all suffering".
Buddhism only asserts that there
is no fixed essence or being in The validity of the
phenomena, but only a process of truth of suffering need
becoming (bhāva). not be belaboured here;
it is essentially a
The Four Noble Truths matter for personal
verification. The truth
The four noble truths result of dukkha refers not to
from the application of the the on-existence of the
three basic laws to the human pleasurable and the
condition. The Buddha frequently joyful, but to the very
asserted that he was interested incompleteness and
finitude of that
in the problem of the enjoyment. The
alleviation of human suffering: imputation of pessimism
"Only one thing do I teach, sometimes made of early
suffering, and how to end it". Buddhism is without
His approach to the problem of foundation; suffering in
suffering was similar to that of the Buddhist sense
encompasses what is
the physician to his patient. He usually termed "evil" in
first diagnoses the malady, then other religo-
seeks the cause of the malady, philosophical systems,
next finds out whether a cure is and the existence of
possible. Finally he prescribes evil, caused either by
the medicine. The four truths chance events or by
correspond to the four steps of deliberate ill-will is
not seriously denied.
this diagnostic-curative
procedure. (2) The Truth of the Cause of
(1) The Truth of Suffering. Suffering.
This truth affirms that The proximate cause of
the law of dukkha is suffering is craving
(tanhā), but the root
 cause of ignorance Middle Path (majjima
(avijjā). The objects of paipadā) because it is a
craving are manifold: via media between the
sensual pleasure, extremes of self-
material possessions, indulgence and self-
glory, power, fame, ego, mortification. Both
craving for re-birth, extremes of practice
even craving for nibbāna were common in the
(nirvāna). There are Buddha's day (as indeed
various degrees of they are in out own).
craving from a mild wish The Buddha calls such
to an acute grasping extremes vain,
(upādāna). Craving is profitless and ignoble.
the proximate cause of The path of the Buddha
suffering and is itself avoids two kinds of
caused by other activity usually
conditioning factors. considered essential for
The full formula of salvation by many
causation is contained religious systems. These
in the Buddhist formula are: (1) prayer to supra
of dependent human powers and
origination, where the agencies, and (2)
causes for existence and elaborate rites and
suffering are traced rituals. On the contrary
back through a chain of these are considered as
twelve links, back to being positive
ignorance. impediments on the path
to the cessation of
(3) The Truth of the Cessation suffering and the
of Suffering. gaining of insight and
wisdom.
This growth constitutes
the "good news" of While the Four Noble Truths and
Buddhism. The cause of the Three Laws of Existence
suffering could be contain the kernel of the
counteracted. This truth
affirms that a way out Buddha's teaching, and were
of suffering exists, proclaimed by the Buddha in his
which if followed will very first discourse, there are
lead the individual to a many other doctrines that are
state of non-suffering central to a philosophical
called nibbāna, perhaps system which is as deep as that
better known by the of Buddhism. A few of these
Sanskrit form of the
term, Nirvāna. If the aspects of the teaching will be
first truth could be mentioned here and a few of
considered to have a these will be considered in
taint of "pessimism", detail elsewhere.
this truth has the full
flavour of "optimism". The Goal of Buddhism and the
Meaning of Life
(4) The Truth of the Path to The Buddhist goal is the
Enlightenment. achievement of human perfection,
The Buddhist path to which should be the real purpose
enlightenment is that of life. It is in this sense
discovered by the Buddha that life has meaning, and which
through his own personal should inform the most salient
effort and practice. It
has been called the aspects of human activity. A
person who has made good The Buddhist theory of causation
progress along the Buddhist path should be distinguished from the
would have reached a high degree theory of the "First Cause"
of happiness, contentment and which is often used by theists
freedom from fear. Sometimes to prove the existence of God.
material affluence is seen as The theory of the first cause
the goal of many persons, but asserts that since God is
these do not necessarily bring identified as the first cause
about the happiness which the (all others being "created" by
Buddha sought to promote. God) there is no need to explain
the existence of God. Buddhism
Many religions look upon the
does not agree with this
present life as a ground for
position and considers it as
laying the foundation in a
another instance of sophistry
future life after physical
("eel-wriggling") to which
death. Some Buddhists also adopt
theists resort to sustain their
this attitude and try to secure
a good rebirth or even Nibbāna absurd views. (13)
without residue. Exhortations The Doctrine of Dependent
from the Buddha could be Origination
produced to this effect. But the
Buddha also affirms that we must This is one of the cardinal
make use of the present life, of discoveries of the Buddha during
which we are sure, and that the his enlightenment. It is
pursuit of the Noble Eightfold presented as a list of twelve
Path is the best way of doing so bases which are causally linked
regardless of any consequences to each other. Since the links
that may happen after death. from a closed circle we can
break into the chain at any
The Theory of Causality point. The order in the
One of the central doctrines of traditional list is as follows:
Buddhism is that all phenomena (1) Ignorance, (2) Volitional
owe their origin and existence formations (sankhāra), (3)
to pre-conditioning factors. consciousness, (4) mind-and-
Everything is the result of a form, (5) sense-bases, (6)
some cause or other working on contact, (7) feeling, (8)
the thing concerned. This is a craving, (9) clinging, (10)
view that is also shared by becoming, (11) birth, (12) old-
modern science, for without the age-and-death.
operation of systematic causes There are various ways of
much of the achievement of interpreting this chain, but we
modern science may not be shall not deal with they here.
possible. But whereas science The traditional interpretation
generally restricts this of this is that it represents
principle to physical phenomena three phases often interpreted
and events, in Buddhism the as lifetimes. The first phase
theory of causation considers (the past) is comprised of links
causation as a central 1 and 2; the second (the
characteristic of all phenomena, present) of links 3 to 10, and
even non-physical ones which do the third (the future) of links
not form the subject matter of 11 and 12. In the ongoing
scientific enquiry. process what if the present
becomes and past and what is the
future becomes the present. A
detailed explication of this
famous formula is not attempted
here.
Emptiness and non-Self
The doctrine of "emptiness"
(unyātā) is more associated with
Mahayana than with Theravada. If
it represents another term for
the anatta doctrine described
earlier it presents no new
problem. However some Mahayana
interpretations tend towards
philosophical idealism and
towards the Hindu notion that
the world is an illusion (māyā)
but such an interpretation
cannot be entertained by Basic
Buddhism.
Humanism and Rationalism
Basic Buddhism has some affinity
with Western notions of humanism
and rationalism. However these
terms are used in a variety of
contexts, with humanism
associated with theistic notions
on the one hand and extreme
secular-materialist notions on
the other. But if humanism means
what it should mean, that is the
primacy of the human as against
the Divine, then it conforms to
the Buddhist approach.
With rationalism as the
application of reason and the
scientific method to
investigation there is much in
common. One of the basic sutta
of the Buddha, the Kālāma Sutta
given in the Anguttara Nikāya is
rightly regarded as the Buddhist
charter for free inquiry.Go to
Contents
 cultivation of right
modes of speech. These
CHAPTER 4 have been described as
The Buddhist Path avoiding falsehood and
adhering to the truth;
The Buddha's path of practice is abstaining from tale-
called the Noble Eightfold path. bearing and instead
promoting harmony;
The eight components of this refraining from harsh
path, as presented in language and cultivating
traditional order, could be gentle and courteous
briefly described as follows: speech; avoiding vain,
irresponsible and
1. Right View (Understanding). foolish talk, and
This is the right way of speaking in reasoned
interpreting and viewing terms on subjects of
the world. It involves value. Naturally right
the realisation of the speech includes in the
three signata in all modern context right
phenomena, and of the ways of communication
Four Noble Truths as whatever the medium
being applicable to the used.
human condition. More
generally it involves 4. Right Action.
the abandonment of all This refers to wilful
dogmatically held wrong acts done by a person,
views. whether by body or mind.
Under the former it
2. Right Intention (Thought). involves such forms of
The Buddha argued that ethical conduct as not
all human thought and killing (or harming)
action spring from basic living beings, theft,
"intentions", sexual wrong-doing, etc.
(14) On the positive side
"dispositions", or
"roots", which are right action, also
capable of deliberate called wholesome deeds
cultivation, training (kusalakamma), involves
and control. The three acts of loving-kindness
roots of wrong, (mettā), compassion
unwholesome or (karunā), sympathetic
"unskilful" action are: joy (mudita), generosity
Greed, Aversion and (cāga), etc.
Delusion. The right
intention which the 5. Right Livelihood.
Buddhist path requires,
is an intention which is This involves not
free from these roots. choosing an occupation
The Buddha called the that brings suffering to
intention "that is free others, e.g. trading in
from greed and lust, living beings (including
free from ill-will, free humans), arms, drugs,
from cruelty". poisons, etc.;
slaughtering, fishing,
soldiering, sooth-
3. Right Speech. saying, trickery, usury,
Since speech is the most etc. This provides the
powerful means of economic blueprint for a
communication, the truly Buddhist society.
Buddha emphasises the
6. Right Effort. indicated by the
achievement of the
This has been described different levels of
as "the effort of "absorption" (jhānas).
avoiding or overcoming (15)
evil and unwholesome
things, and of
developing and Of these eight components of the
maintaining wholesome Path, the first two have usually
things" (Ñyānātiloka). been grouped under wisdom
Right effort enables an (paññā), the next three under
individual to cultivate morality (sîla), and the last
the right frame of mind three under mental development
in order to accomplish
the ethical requirements (bhāvanā). This classification
under right speech, is not quite satisfactory, but
right action and right it does present a broad grouping
livelihood. It is that is useful in many contexts.
generally presented as a
factor of mental The first of these components
training, enabling (right view) is generally
individuals to develop considered the most important,
the sublime states of but there is no particular order
loving-kindness (mettā) of importance when it comes to
compassion (karunā), the others. However different
sympathetic joy
(mudita), and equanimity traditions and exponents have
(upekkha). However it put different degrees of stress
has a general on the different components. It
applicability and the will be seen that there is no
effort could be directed single component of the path
to all wholesome that can be called "meditation".
activities.
However in course of time the
component of mental development
7. Right Mindfulness.
came to be regarded as
This is the basic meditation. In view of the
Buddhist technique of importance attached to
cultivating awareness. meditation, particularly in
The classic sutta on the Western practice it is necessary
subject is the
satipahāna sutta which to examine this subject in the
will be considered special subsection. This is done
briefly in the next in the following section.Go to
chapter. Although viewed Contents
as a meditation
component in fact right
awareness has a wider
applicability.

8. Right Concentration.
This is the
concentration of mind
associated with
wholesome consciousness
which could be achieved
through the systematic
cultivation of
meditation. Progress
along this line is
 "progress" is probed and special
instructions given. The teacher
CHAPTER 5
is very often looked upon as a
The Role of Meditation "guru" as in the Hindu
tradition. This type of
We have seen that the Buddhist
meditative exercise is often
path consists of
represented as the exclusive way
wisdom/knowledge, ethical
to "practice" Buddhism. We shall
conduct, and mental development.
use the term "stylised
Some teachers put an almost (17)
exclusive emphasis on the last meditation" to designate this
of these (calling it kind of meditation.
"meditation") as the route to Meditation on the other hand has
the other two. Because of the always been a valid part of
widespread propagation of this Buddhist practice (note however
view in the West it is worth that is a part, nor the whole of
considering it in some detail(16) it). The task is then to
. differentiate genuine Buddhist
meditation from stylised
The widely held picture of
meditation. Buddhist mediation
meditation in the West is one
is the practice of the last two
where the meditator sits in
components of the eightfold path
silent company, usually in the
(sati and samādhi) in the
"lotus position", and is engaged
"right"(sammā) manner. The Pali
in inward contemplation. The
term that is used to denote
session may last from a half-
stylised meditation is bhavanā.
hour to several hours. It is
This term is not used with great
generally a congregational
frequency in the Pali Canon and
activity but it is usually
when used is associated with
presided over by a teacher who
mental development from whatever
determines the duration of the
kind of activity that will
session and may give directions
improve the mind.
as to how the activity is to
proceed. Practitioners are Stylised meditation is derived
encouraged to engage in the from meditation practices in the
activity individually at home if principal Asian Theravada
congregational meditation is not countries, viz. Sri Lanka, Burma
possible. Often special and Thailand each of which has
meditation retreats are held developed their own meditation
lasting from 3 to 14 days in traditions. In spite of the
which up to 12 hours a day may diversity within each country a
be devoted to meditation few broad generalisation may be
activities. Because of the long possible. In Sri Lanka the
periods involved sitting primary focus of Buddhist
meditation is alternated with practice has been on the
"walking meditation", sometimes cultivation of paññā and in the
also with yogic exercises. Often development of ethical practice
silence is enforced during the (sîla). Meditation has not
retreat (called the Rule of occupied great prominence and
Golden Silence), and the teacher has been undertaken on an
has individual meetings with individual basis, rarely
each participant during which performed in a congregational
the individual practitioner's setting. In this the Sri Lankan
Buddhists have generally is indisputable. In fact it is
followed the instructions on for this reason that it is also
meditation given in the adopted by some non-Buddhist
Visuddhimagga of Buddhaghosa schemes such as Hinduism and
which was composed in that "transcendental meditation". But
country. Where meditation has its use as a method of achieving
been used as the principal focus insight into reality it may be
in Sri Lanka it has been questioned. True insight comes
practised by reclusive forest only we understand that the
monks with little contact with three signata underlie all
the rest of the Bhikkhu-sangha phenomena. In meditation one may
or the laity. The country from come to the realise this within
where stylised meditation was in the ambit of ones own
introduced into the West is experience, but it will not lead
Thailand. Here the "forest" one understand the universality
orders have enjoyed much more of these traits. Thus meditation
status than elsewhere. They tend has to be supplemented by other
to look on stylised meditation methods such as the first two
as the key to the entire components of the Buddhist path.
Buddhist practice including the
The classic discourse on which
achievement of wisdom and
the theory of meditation is
morality. This system attaches
based is the Satipahāna Sutta,
much importance to the jhānas
which occurs twice in the Canon.
which is considered almost
Here the Buddha identifies four
indispensable to enlightenment.
methods (or foundations) of
There is little attempt at
meditation. These are the
sutta-study except those
contemplation of the body
relating to meditation. While
(kāyānupassanā), of feeling
this kind of meditation may suit
(vedanānupassanā), of the mind
the lifestyle of forest monks it
(cittānupassanā) and finally
is their importation into the
that of the dhammas
general community, especially of
(dhammānupassanā). Some
lay persons, that is
preconditions are laid down in
questionable. If the Sri Lankan
the Sutta before these
and Thai modes of meditation can
contemplations are attempted.
be taken as occupying two ends
One is that the practitioner
of a spectrum the meditation
should have "overcome in this
practice of Burma occupies an
world covetousness and
intermediate position. Here
discontent" (vineyya loke
meditation is taken more
abhijjā domanassa). In the case
seriously than in the Sri Lankan
of lay persons this does not
tradition but some of the
require complete withdrawal from
excesses of the Thai forest
the world, but the development
tradition are avoided(18) . of a sufficient degree of
Buddhist meditation of whatever detachment from it. The
type takes two principal forms - Satipahāna cannot be attempted
the cultivation of calm and by those completely given to
tranquillity (samatha bhāvanā) greed. The second is that the
and the cultivation of insight contemplations should be done in
(vipassanā bhāvanā). The an empty room (suññāgāra) or if
efficacy of meditation in outdoors at the root of a tree.
promoting calm and tranquillity This rules out the
congregational sessions in which training. It could be used to
stylised meditation takes place. calm the mind, to instil
tranquillity, and to set the
The contemplation of the body,
stage for the realisation of
with the initial focus on the
true insight. In fact
breath, is the initial
fascination with meditation can
contemplation that is taught by
be a distraction from the true
most teachers. The Buddha used
path. A capable exponent of
it purely as the starting point
early Buddhism David Maurice
of his sequence of
puts this quite well: "There is
contemplations, and he even
meditation at the very beginning
recommends the "lotus position"
of the practice but the practice
in which to undertake the
is to get away from meditation"
contemplations, which is a (20) .
classic yogic stance. The Buddha
extended the traditional Vedic Even though stylised meditation
meditation concerns by extending may not be necessary it is
the contemplation to other necessarily harmful. It could
physical postures and awareness suit the temperament of some
of other bodily actions, and people, especially those who
finally to the contemplation of desire a strict discipline. On
the foulness of the body. The the other hand what we have
progress of the meditation from termed Buddhist meditation is
the body to feelings is also something that anyone can do
relatively easy for many with profit. It may not lead to
practitioners. The next stage of the final goal in itself, but it
the contemplation of the mind is could be a great help in the
relatively more difficult. The fulfilment of the other
objective here is to achieve components of the path.
one-pointedness of mind. This is Go to Contents
relatively difficult because of
the propensity of the mind to
shift quite fast.
The last one requires
contemplation of the Dhammas. In
the Buddha's time when the
corpus of dhamma was memorised,
this contemplation was the only
way of acquiring the knowledge
of the dhamma. Today the
situation is somewhat different
and this particular foundation
of mindfulness could be acquired
by discursive study.
The view that the awakening of
wisdom can only come through
intense meditation is not only
found in schools like Zen but is
also held by some teachers of
Theravāda(19) . However
meditation in Buddhism is
primarily a method of mental
CHAPTER 6
The Buddhist Attitude to God
It is first of all necessary to
establish what is meant by the
term "God". This term is used to
designate a Supreme Being
endowed with the qualities of
omnipotence and omniscience, who
is the creator of the universe
with all its contents, and the
chief law-giver for humans. God
is generally considered as being
concerned with the welfare of
his human creatures, and the
ultimate salvation of those who
follow his dictates. God is
therefore a person of some kind,
and the question whether such an
entity exists or not is
fundamental to all theistic
systems.
In contrast to this notion of a
personal God some modern
theologians have interpreted the
term "God" as representing some
kind of abstract principle of
good (or "ground of being").
This view was first developed in
the ancient Indian Upanishads
where God is equated with an
abstract principle (Brahman).
The ancient Indian philosophers
could entertain such a view
because they also had a theory
of karma which really does away
with the need for a personal
God. Buddhists too have a theory
of karma, which is different
from that of the Hindus, and
which even more unequivocally
dispenses with the need for a
Deity. The use of the term "God'
to denote an abstract reality by
monotheistic theologians who
have no theory of karma is
difficult to justify; one
suspects that this is merely a
device to explain away the
contradictions that arise from
the notion of a personal God. In Father of all that is and will
fact the actual practice of be." (Dgha Nikya, II, 263).
theistic religion proceeds as if
The Buddha dismisses all these
God is a real person of some
claims of Mahā Brahmā as being
kind or other.
due to his own delusions brought
Just as Buddhism rejects the about by ignorance. Mahā-Brahmā
notion of a Supreme God it also is seen simply a deva
rejects the notion of an unenlightened and subject to the
abstract God-principle operating samsric process as determined by
in the universe. The notion of his kamma (cf the Brahmajla and
Brahman (in the neuter) is not the Aggañña Suttas). In the
discussed at all in the Buddhist Khevadda Sutta he is forced to
texts, and even in India it may admit to an inquiring monk that
well be a post-Buddhist he is unable to answer a
development resulting from the question that is posed to him,
attempt to reconcile the belief and advises the monk to consult
in God(s) with the powerful the Buddha. This clearly shows
critique of the Buddha. It is the Brahm acknowledges the
therefore the attitude of superiority of the Buddha.
Buddhism to the notion of a
In the West a number of
supreme personal God animating
"arguments" have been adduced to
the Universe that we must
prove or disprove the existence
consider.
of God. Some of these were
One popular misconception of anticipated by the Buddha. One
Buddhism must be dismissed at of the most popular is the
this point. This is view that "first cause" argument according
the Buddha is some kind of God to which everything must have a
figure. In the Theravada cause, and God is considered the
tradition the Buddha is regarded first cause of the Universe. The
as a supremely enlightened human Buddhist theory of causation
teacher who has come to his last says that every thing must have
birth in samsra (the Buddhist preconditions for its existence,
cycle of existence). Even and this law must also extend to
Mahayana traditions which tend "God" should such an entity
to think in terms of exist. But while the "first
transcendental Buddhas do not cause" claims that God creates
directly make a claim for Buddha everything, it exempts God from
as God. Thus the Buddha cannot the ambit of this law. However
be considered as playing a God- if exemptions are made with
like role in Buddhism. respect to God such exemptions
could be made with respect to
In the Buddhist texts Mahā
other things also hereby
Brahmā is the equivalent of God
contradicting the principle of
and is represented as claiming
the first cause.
the following attributes for
himself: "I am Brahmā, the Great But the argument which the
Brahmā, the Supreme One, the Buddha most frequently uses is
Mighty, the All-seeing, the what is now called the "argument
Ruler, the Lord of all, the from evil" which in the Buddhist
Maker, the Creator, the Chief of sense could be stated as the
all appointing to each his argument from dukkha (suffering
place, the Ancient of days, the or unsatisfactoriness). This
states that the empirical fact omniscient being who is also all
of the existence of dukkha good. The following verses from
cannot be reconciled with the the Bhûridatta Jataka bring this
existence of an omnipotent and out clearly:
If the creator of the world sace hi so issaro
entire sabbaloke
They call God, of every being be Brahmā bahûbhûtapati
the Lord pajāna
Why does he order such ki sabbaloke
misfortune vidahîalakkhi
And not create happiness but ki sabbaloka na sukhi
only discord? akāsi
   
If the creator of the world sace hi so issaro
entire sabbaloke
They call God, of every being be Brahmā bahûbhûtapati
the Lord pajāna
Why prevail deceit, lies and
māyāmusāvajjamadena c'api
ignorance
And he such inequity and loka adhammena
injustice create? kimatthaksi
   
If the creator of the world sace hi so issaro
entire sabbaloke
they call God, of every being be Brahmā bahûbhûtapati
the Lord pajāna
Then an evil master is he, (O
adhammiyo bhûtapatî Ariha
Aritta)
Knowing what's right did let dhamme satî yo vidahi
wrong prevail! adhamma
[Translated by the Author]
The Buddha argues that the three of Buddhism which has sometimes
most commonly given attributes of been described as a psychological
God, viz. omnipotence, system. Given the meaning
omniscience and benevolence normally attached to Psychology
towards humanity cannot all be this is too narrow a description
mutually compatible with the of psychology. Buddhism deals
existential fact of dukkha.(21)Go with many other matters which are
to Contents not normally included in
psychology.
But there is a psychological
CHAPTER 7
dimension to Buddhism. This is
The Buddhist Attitude to Man because of the great concern
which Buddhism has with the mind
In considering the Buddhist view
and with the training of the
of man we are essentially looking
mind. In this sense Buddhism is
at the psychological postulates
unique amongst the world
religions. The first stanza of
the well-known book of Buddhist
monopubbagamā dhammā
manosehā manomayā
manasā ce paduhena
bhāsati vā karoti vā
Tato na dukkhamanvet
cakka va vahato pada
Mind is the forerunner of
all states, mind-based
and mind-made are they
If one speaks or acts
with an evil mind
Suffering results, just
as the wagon wheel
follows the ox drawing it
Similarly good thoughts
lead to good actions.
Most religious systems
decompose the individual
into a body and a soul.
In this division the body
includes what Buddhists
(and modern
psychologists) would
regard as the mind. Very
often in this scheme the
mind is located in the
heart. There is no
location given for the
soul. It is in fact a
mysterious entity created
by God. While the
physical body perishes at
death the soul goes
either to Heaven or to
Hell where it is reunited
with a body (perhaps
similar to the old one)
and continues its
existence as one of
sensuous conform or of
torment depending on the
destination.
The Buddha dispensed with
this scheme which was
aphorisms the Dhammapada sums up
very well the primacy that
Buddhism gives to the mind:
similar to the system
advocated in the old
Vedas(22) . Instead the
Buddha identified five
constituents of the
empirical person, the
first of which (rûpa) was
physical and the last
four (collectively called
nāma) were mind
components. These five
components have been
called Groups of
existence or Five
Aggregates
(pañcakkhandā). These
are:
1. Corporeality (rûpa).
This is the physical
basis of existence. The
five sense organs (eye,
ear, nose, tongue and
body) are especially
important in generating
the various signals which
are processed by the mind
(which is also recognised
as an organ in is own
right).
2. Feeling (vedanā).
Feelings are a by-product
of the contact between
the organs of the
physical body and the
external world. They are
classified in various
ways - wholesome and
unwholesome, gross and
subtle, painful and
pailful, etc.
3. Perception (saññā).
This is how the mind
processes the feelings
that its sense organs
transmit. No two
individuals have the same
perception of the same
feelings they may
experience.

4. Formations (sankhārā).
The formations are the
deliberative acts of the
individuals. it is often
referred to as karmic
formations.

5. Consciousness
(viññāna). This is the
condition of being aware
of the environment in
which the individual
exists.

While corporeality is
readily understood the
other four components are
more subtle. Three of
these, viz. feeling,
perception and
consciousness, are known
to modern psychological
science, and the Buddhist
interpretation does not
differ substantially from
the scientific one. But
the concept of
"formations" is not known
to modern psychology. At
the same time there is
nothing in conventional
psychology that denies
its existence. Here the
Buddhist view transcends
that of the conventional
analysis of mental
components. Go to
Contents
 or because of its
methods, or in
CHAPTER 8 consideration of
plausible reasoning, or
Knowledge, Wisdom and by tolerating views based
Enlightenment on speculation, or
because of its appearance
The Buddha traced the of its possibility and
root cause of suffering because `your teacher is
to ignorance; so the venerable'. But when you,
search for enlightenment Kālāmas, realize by
is the supreme activity yourself that views are
for the Buddhist (23). The unwholesome, faulty,
activity proceeds at both condemned by the wise,
the intellectual and the and that they lead to
intuitive levels. Pure harm and misery when
intellectual practised and observed,
understanding is not then Kālāmas, you should
sufficient, although it reject them"
is often a very good
starting point. When This is the criterion of
enlightenment is attained acceptability which the
pure intellectual Buddha wanted to apply to
understanding is all claims, including his
transcended by an own. In Buddhism there
intuitive grasp of the cannot be room for blind
truths of the Universe. faith, and all
propositions, religious
If knowledge is the or otherwise should be
outcome of "intellectual" subjected to analysis and
activity, a person's fund practice. The reference
of knowledge at any to "mere logic" and
moment of time is made up "plausible reasoning" in
of a number of beliefs the quotation given
that he considers valid. serves as a caution
The Buddha was quite concerning some extreme
clear on what he forms of "rationalism"
considered legitimate to which argue that "pure
believe in. In his reason" is sufficient to
discourse to the Kālāmas establish the truth of
(a people who were metaphysical propositions
confused by the diversity (like that of the
of viewpoints they were existence of God).
confronted with) the Deductive methods are
Buddha said: useful, but as they can
only bring out what is
"Come, O Kālāmas, do not already contained in the
accept anything from mere premises of the argument,
hearsay, or from what you they cannot be used as a
have been told, or vehicle for the discovery
because it is mentioned of new truths. Rightly
in sacred teachings, or has the Kālāmasutta been
because of logic merely,
termed the Buddhist useful, and is not
charter of free enquiry. discouraged; but it alone
will not lead to
As a result of the enlightenment. This is
Buddha's rational and clearly seen in the case
tolerant attitude early of many eminent
Buddhism never had scientists, who have
concepts like heresy, progressed far in the
apostasy and blasphemy acquisition of particular
(and this is true of all kinds of knowledge, but
subsequent Buddhist have not been able to
schools). In many outgrow the dogmatic
theistic systems views inculcated in early
imprisonment, torture and childhood.
death have been inflicted
on people who have P>True enlightenment can
refused to bow before arise out of the third
dogma. kind of knowledge,
consisting of wisdom
In Buddhist epistemology (bodhi) and insight
three levels of (vipassanā). This results
understanding are from the intuitive
recognised. These are realisation of the
(using the Pali Buddhist laws and truths
terminology): dii after the successful
("views"), ñāna traverse of the Middle
("science"), and bodhi Path. The enlightenment
("wisdom"). Dii refers to process involves the
views accepted more or breaking of the ten
less dogmatically. Not fetters (sayojanā) that
all such beliefs are bind people to the
necessarily harmful, phenomenal world. These
because some people could are the five lower
be motivated to act fetters of personality
wholesomely even though belief, sceptical doubt,
motivated by incorrect clinging to rite and
views. But more usually ritual, sensuous craving
such "views" can be and ill-will, and the
extremely harmful(24) . five higher fetters of
The Buddha did not craving for "fine
consider knowledge material" existence,
consisting of dii to be craving for "immaterial
useful in the longer existence", conceit,
term. Dii is often restlessness, and
contrasted with ignorance. (25)
scientifically based Go to Contents
knowledge, which results
from thinking, from
learning and from mental
development. This is
usually terms ñāna or
paññā. The acquisition of
this kind of knowledge is
 mental factors which
accompany the commission
CHAPTER 9 of deed that determines
its consequences or
The Doctrines of Karma "fruits" (vipāka). All
and Rebirth negative kamma (i.e.
those leading to bad
The Buddhist doctrine of consequences) arise from
kamma [karma] ("deeds", the three roots of
"actions"), and the unwholesomeness. These
closely related doctrine are greed (lobha),
of rebirth, are perhaps aversion (dosa), and
the best known, and often delusion (moha).
the least understood, of Accordingly good kammic
Buddhist doctrines. The results follow from deeds
matter is complicated by that spring from
the fact that the other generosity (caga),
Indian religious loving-kindness (mettā)
traditions of Hinduism and wisdom (vijjā). The
and Jainism have their Buddha emphasised that it
own theories of Karma and is the mental factors
Reincarnation. It is in involved, rather than the
fact the Hindu versions deeds themselves, that
that are better known in determine future
the West. The Buddhist consequences. Thus the
theory of kamma (to give same deed committed with
the Pali word) and different mental factors
rebirth are quite will have different
distinct from their other consequences. Likewise
Indian counterparts. purely accidental deeds
may have neutral
In Buddhism the law of consequences; however if
kamma is the moral law of the accident occurred
causation - good actions because insufficient
give good results and mindfulness was exercised
vice versa. It is the it could have adverse
quality of an act which results for the person
determines its responsible for it.
consequences. But what
determines the karmic The theory of kamma
quality of a deed? In presupposes that
Hinduism it is the individuals have "free
correct performance of a will". Everything that
person's "duty", happens to an individual
especially his caste is not the fruit of some
duties that counts. Early past kamma. In fact the
Buddhism, which experiences that involve
recognised no caste an individual may be of
distinctions, evaluates three kinds: some are the
the karmic quality of an result of past action,
act in terms of moral and some are deliberately
ethical criteria. In committed free acts; and
particular it is the the remainder could be
due to chance factors newly born individual
operating in the needs not only the
environment. The doctrine genetic blueprint derived
of kamma is not a theory from the genes of the
of predestination of any natural parents, but also
kind. One common a kammic blueprint
misunderstanding is not derived from the
to distinguish between volitional acts of a
the action and its deceased person.
results - between kamma
and vipāka. It must also The question has been
be mentioned that the posed whether the new
fruiting of an act may be individual is the same as
postponed, and that it is the old individual whose
possible to reach kamma it has inherited.
enlightenment - the goal The Buddha's answer to
of the Buddha's path - this question was
before all the previous somewhat enigmatic: "It
kammas have yielded their is not the same, yet it
results. is not another" (na ca
so, na ca añño). To
The Buddhist theory of understand the Buddha's
rebirth asserts that the reply we have to
fruits of some kamma may investigate the criteria
manifest themselves in which establish personal
"future lives". This identity. Is the child
brings us to the Buddhist the same as the adult it
theory of rebirth. later becomes? In the
Similar concepts occur in Buddhist sense we are
other religious systems - making two observations
e.g. the Platonic theory at two points of time in
of the "pre-existence of a constantly changing
the soul" and the Hindu- psycho-physical entity.
Jain theory of re- For legal and
incarnation. Such conventional purposes
reincarnation theory some arbitrary criteria
involves the are used, such as
transmigration of a soul. physical continuity over
In Buddhism, however, it time, or the retention of
is the unripened karmic memory. These define only
acts outstanding at the a conventional person.
death of an individual Just as it is a
which conditions a new conventional or
birth. The last moment of "fictional" persons who
consciousness too is also lasts continuously from
a conditioning factor, birth to death, so it is
but it is the store of just such a conventional
unripened kamma generated person who persists from
by volitional acts (the one life to another. In
sankhāras) of previous the Buddhist view of
existences which rebirth the only links
generates the destiny of between two successive
the new individual. A lives is the karmic
residue carried over and lives, whether
an element of spontaneously or under
consciousness, called the hypnosis, which have been
re-linking consciousness: reported from all parts
(paisandhi viññāna), of the world. While many
which momentarily links such reports may be
the two lives. In mistaken or even
Buddhism there is no fraudulent, some are
conception of a undoubtedly genuine.
transmigrating soul which According to Buddhism
inhabits successive individuals can develop
material bodies until it the power of
unites with God. "retrocognition" (i.e.
the ability to recall
Buddhism uses the Pali past lives), but the
term sasāra to denote the development of such
"round of births" in supernormal powers is
various planes of usually the accompaniment
existence governed by the of progress along the
law of kamma. The spiritual path of
acceptance of the enlightenment. IT may be
validity of the possible that some karmic
hypothesis of sasāra is factors may predispose
very difficult for some some individuals towards
people, while for others such experiences. However
it is the most natural of parapsychological
hypotheses. Some features experimentation is still
of the observable world in its early stages, and
suggests it. In the many people have no
Culakammavibhanga Sutta personal recollection of
the Buddha is asked: their own previous lives.
"What is the reason and For such individuals the
the cause for the dogmatic acceptance of
inequality amongst human the doctrines of kamma
beings despite their and rebirth is not
being human?" (the expected.
context making it clear
that it is inequality at The central tenets of
birth that is meant). The Buddhism relate not to
Buddha answered: "Beings any abstract theories
inherit their kamma, and about rebirth or karma
it is kamma which divides but to the interpretation
beings in terms of their of human experience which
inequality". The theistic is within the capacity of
hypothesis cannot give a every person to verify.
rational answer, except This verification can be
in terms of an iniquitous undertaken, not in terms
and unjust "God". of an abstract cycle of
lives, but also in terms
Some support for the of the one life we are
theory of rebirth comes all familiar with. The
from reports of Buddhist sasāra is to be
recollections of past seen in every moment of
existence, as well as the doctrines of karma and
whole "cycle of births". rebirth) would find that
the Buddha-Dhamma would
One would expect that in not have lost its
the Kālāma Sutta, the rationale. He can aspire
discourse in which the to the second confidence
Buddha decries the of the "noble person" and
acceptance of theories on make the one life that he
the basis of authority is sure of, a happy one.
(which was quoted (26)
earlier), that he would Go to Contents
address himself to the
question of belief in the
doctrine of kamma and
rebirth. This he does.
Referring to the "four-
fold confidences" which
the "noble person" (āriya
puggala), i.e. the person
who follows the path of
the Buddha, attains to,
the Buddha states:

" `If there is the other

world and if there is the
fruit and result of good
and bad deeds, then there
is reason that I shall be
reborn into the state of
bliss, the celestial
world, on the dissolution
of the body, after
death.' This is the first
confidence that he
attains.

" `If, however, there is

no other world and if
there is no fruit and no
result of good and bad
deeds, then I shall
myself lead he a happy
life, free from enmity,
malice and suffering in
this very life'. This is
the second confidence
that he attains."

Thus even the extreme

rationalist who would
suspend judgement on the
truth of the sasāric
hypothesis (i.e. the
 existence are mentioned.
These are:
CHAPTER 10
1. The sensuous realm
Buddhist Cosmology and (kāma lāka). This is the
Nibbāna physical world as
accessible to be person
The Buddhist scriptures who entirely on the
contain a cosmology of physical stimuli, without
the Universe which subjecting these stimuli
provide an interesting to a refined degree of
contrast to the conscious mental
cosmologies of other processing.
religions (e.g. that of
the Bible) and even the 2. The fine-material
modern scientific realm (rpa lāka). This is
cosmology (on which there the same physical world
is no complete as it is perceived by the
agreement). The active meditator.
cosmological claims in
the Buddhist scriptures 3. The immaterial world
should not be seen as an (ārpa lāka). Is the
accurate description of physical world as it is
the physical universe, apprehended by the
but as establishing the advanced meditator who
stage on which the great realises the "emptiness"
sasāric drama is enacted. of the phenomena that
While considering this assail the senses of the
cosmology we may also ordinary person.
consider the important
concept of Nibbāna which The last two realms of
is the state of final existence are meditative
release. The latter term stages. In the Buddhist
is better known in its literature there are
Sanskrit version as other ways of classifying
"Nirvana". We shall use meditative states,
the Pali term because the including some such as
concept of Nirvana is those that are induced by
also used in other Indian vipassanā (insight)
religions notably meditation which differ
Jainism. is some details from the
ārpa-lāka, but we need
We may first consider the not be concerned here;
planes of existence which they are dealt with fully
form the arenas for in manuals dealing with
samsaric existence. The Buddhist meditation. The
number of planes two contemplative states
recognised depends on the of existence are
fineness with which they subjective and would not
are classified. In the fall into what is
earlier more succinct considered by cosmology
listing only 3 states of in the modern scientific
sense. Some consider the
realm of Nibbāna as also In the Pali literature
falling into the five "planes of
"meditative states", but existence" characterised
this is regarded as in varying degrees of
something completely unsatisfactoriness are
outside all planes of recognised. These are (in
existence. increasing order of
"suffering"): (1) the
The first realm, the sphere of the plane of
kāma-loka, clearly deals the devas ("shining
with actual realms of beings" often translated
existence, which is the as "gods"); (2) humans;
only realm for those not (3) The spirit world; (4)
subject to some degree of the animal world; (5) the
enlightenment, and even lower world (duggati,
in the case of the latter niraya) often translated
still provides the as "hells". According to
physical dimension of the law of kamma beings
existence. It is this could be born into any of
realm that could be these planes of
compared to other existence, but the
cosmologies, whether held sojourn in any of these
by scientists or destinations is never
religionists or ordinary permanent. There is no
people. necessary "progression"
from the lower to the
A word may be said about higher levels. The cycle
the Buddhist views on the of rebirth in these
phenomenal worlds which various states of
constitute the arenas of existence could be
sasāric existence, and of terminated only on the
the concept of nibbāna achievement of nibbāna
[Nirvāna] (the state of (which itself is not
final release) which is included in the sasāric
the antithesis of sasāra. planes). Nibbāna, the
These views contained in final liberation, can
early Buddhist writings only be achieved by
should not be looked upon beings in the first two
as dogmas whose planes of existence, but
acceptance is expected of more usually only by
Buddhists. Many of them humans.
are beyond the capacity
of unenlightened people In some of the earliest
to verify. Some of them strata in the Pali Canon
are burrowed from the only three spheres of
prevailing cosmological existence are recognised.
views in the India of the These are: (1) the
Buddha's time, and would sensuous world (kāma
have been used by the loka); (2) the fine
Buddha as illustrations material world (rûpa
to clarify his own loka); and (3) the
theories. immaterial world (ārûpa
loka). Here the "sensuous
world" comprise all the located anywhere in the
realms of physical Universe. That the
existence, and the other Buddhist view of the
two correspond to states physical world is not
of meditation. In the much different from that
later literature of modern science is
(especially in the brought out clearly in
Abhidhamma), the "planes this quotation:
of existence" are further
subdivided, and some 32 "As far as these suns and
planes of existence are moons revolve shedding
recognised. There are their light in space, so
three ways of far extends the thousand-
interpreting these fold universe. In it
"planes of existence": there are thousands of
suns, thousands of moons,
(1) They could be actual thousands of inhabited
physical locations worlds of varying
somewhere in the physical sorts. ... This is the
universe. thousand-fold minor world
system (culanika
(2) They could be forms lokadhātu). Thousands of
of psycho-physical times the size of the
existence which could be thousand-fold minor world
reached from any given system is the twice-a-
physical location thousand Middling World
depending on mental System (Majjima
disciplines exercised. lokadhātu). Thousands of
times the size of the
(3) Some states belong to Middling World System is
the first type, and the thrice-a-thousand
others to the second Great Cosmos (mahā
type. lokadhātu)."

The earliest With such a multiplicity

interpretation leans of inhabited worlds it is
towards the second given possible to interpret the
above (27), but the 32- planes of existence in
fold classification realistic terms. But the
favoured by many modern interpretation in terms
exponents of Buddhism of psychological and
leans towards the third, meditation states may be
which of course implies the more appropriate.
that some states must Heavens and hells are not
correspond to the first. specific locations with
This raises the question pleasant or unpleasant
of Buddhist cosmology on experiences, but they
which something needs to could be experienced even
be said. in the human earthly
form. (28)
In terms of physical
location the planes of The claim that "devas"
existence could be exist should not be taken
as a concession to Unformed"; it is the
theism. Even though this complete annihilation of
term is commonly all defilement; it is the
translated as "gods" it complete destruction of
does not imply the the five components of
existence of divine beings; it is a situation
authority. The devas are where no kammas are being
a category of beings, formed or previous kammas
subject to their own fruited; it is the
kammas formations and extinction of the three
reverting to human or roots of unwholesome
other form after the action (greed, aversion
expiry of their kammas, and delusion); it is the
and quite incapable of end of rebirth itself.
granting concessionary Two misconceptions of
prayers addressed to nirvāna may be mentioned
them. In the Buddhist - one, entertained by the
scheme all of the leading materialist, is that it
deities of the Hindu implies nothingness; the
pantheon, including Mahā other, entertained by the
Brahmā, the "creator" of theist, is that it
the universe in the Hindu involves merger with a
scheme, are reduced to higher entity. The Buddha
the status of devas with answered both questions
only a transient "Does the arahant exist
existence in the deva- after death?" and "Does
sphere. This treatment of the arahant not exist
the powerful Gods of the after death?" (where an
Brahmanical system, to arahant is a person who
whom the sacrifices and had attained to the
prayers of the system status of Nibbāna) in the
were directed, instead of negative. It is only the
being a support of theism limitation of our
was a powerful critique conceptualisation process
of this system.(29) that leads us to pose
such questions.
As against the varied
planes of sasāric Sometimes a distinction
existence the Buddha is made between "sasāric
postulated the existence Buddhism" and "nibbānic
of a state called nibbāna Buddhism" (30) . It is
[nirvāna] which serves as claimed that in the
the summum bnonum of former the aim is
Buddhism. This, the most improvement in sasāra,
difficult of Buddhist while in the latter it is
concepts, cannot really the attainment of
be grasped unless some nibbāna. It is also
considerable progress has claimed that the former
been made on the Buddhist should be the aim of the
path. It is usually lay Buddhist and the
described in negative latter that of the
terms. It is the "Unborn, Buddhist monk. However
Unoriginated, Uncreated, even in the Buddha's day
many monks did not attain
nibbāna, while there was
never advanced the claim
that a lay person could
not attain to the
nibbānic state. The true
position is that each
person should proceed
along the Buddhist path
according to his own
capacities and
priorities. The lay
person is neither at a
disadvantage nor at an
advantage relative to the
monk (Bhikkhu) when it
comes to the question of
progress along the path.
The lay Buddhist and the
Bhikkhu, because of their
differing life styles,
will apply the Dhamma to
different areas. In
particular the lay person
can engage in activity
aimed at the social and
economic upliftment of
suffering humanity to a
greater extent than the
Bhikkhu, while the latter
will concentrate more on
personal advancement
through the development
of meditation and the
keeping of the strict
moral code expected of
the Bhikkhu Sangha.
Go to Contents
 to impose dominion over
those of another.
CHAPTER 11
In the modern world the
Buddhism and the Modern bulk of the people owe
World formal allegiance to
Christianity and Islam,
The Buddha delivered the religions which arose
fundamental principles of long after the death of
Dhamma some 2500 years the Buddha. They are
ago. Initially it spread offshoots of another
over most of Asia in some religion Judaism which
form or other, but since has remained confined to
then it has been a small ethnic group. All
declining until it now three religions affirm
has much less adherents the existence of an all-
than the other main powerful creator God .
religions (31) . There has The Buddha had long ago
also been many changes in repudiated the notion of
several other areas and a supreme creator God.
it might to appropriate The Buddhist views of the
to consider the Buddhist subject of God has
position with regard to already been dealt with
some of them. in an earlier chapter.

The Dhamma and Theistic Both Christianity and

Religion Islam have been
fundamentally intolerant
Theism essentially means religions dedicated to
the service of an unseen the goal of converting
God. Since this God never others, and persecuting
addresses individuals those of different
directly, but through faiths. In the last
"prophets" there has century or so
never been a shortage of Christianity has been
the latter. And when the forced to give up some of
rival prophets make its traditional methods
irreconcilable and of persecution, but it
conflicting claims, and has not abandoned its
impose mutually evangelical zeal. Islam
inconsistent rites, continues very much in
rituals, and codes of the way it has even
behaviour on their though conquest by the
followers, it is not sword is becoming less
difficult to see in these easy. As a result of
a potent cause of these attitudes Buddhism
conflict. Indeed a large has not been able to
part of the violence and penetrate into those
crimes we see in history countries where
has been caused by the Christianity and Islam
attempt of the followers have established
of one "prophet of God" themselves historically.
Buddhists should seek to goodness, truth and
spread its message of justice.
religious tolerance and
the peaceful dialogue The increase in the
between religions. materialist motivation of
Whether it will succeed people has been seen even
in this has still to be in people who would
seen. consider themselves as
being religious. Where
The Dhamma and this leads to an increase
Materialism in greed it would reduce
the ability of these
The great development in people to practice
the last century has been Buddhist values. However
the rise of materialism. Buddhism is not against
Quite apart from the growth of material
philosophical system that affluence provided that
have extolled materialism it results from the
there has also been a pursuit of right
growth of materialist livelihood. But much of
objectives in many the pressures that result
people. from the scamble to reach
the top of the economic
Philosophical materialism pile often lead to an
may not be very abandonment of the
detrimental to Buddhism principles of right
because much of the livelihood.
argument which
materialists have The growing conflicts of
directed at religion have the modern world arise
been against theistic from a continuous
religion. However proliferation of greed
political movements which and craving. The ethical
have formally proclaimed systems of both the
materialism as their leading forms of theism
creed have acted against and materialism encourage
religions, and Buddhism and endorse this tendency
has suffered perhaps by giving a license to
relatively more from such humans to prevail over
movements. other forms of life, and
encouraging the "prudent"
What is unsatisfactory if and ceaseless
philosophical materialism accumulation of material
is that it often denies wealth as an individual
the existence of and social blessing.
absolute, objective moral While such ethical
standards. Buddhism of systems may have given a
course insists on the measure of material
existence of such a moral affluence to their
code. The failure of followers, this material
materialism is been gain has been at the cost
mainly due to its lack of of seriously heightening
a universal norm of conflict within these
societies as well as in An outstanding feature of
the world at large, even the modern world has been
endangering the very the triumph of science
future of mankind itself. and the explosion of
The Buddhist ethic, which knowledge. These have
involves the pursuit of a posed a serious challenge
middle policy, by to theistic religion.
dampening the acquisitive Many of the dogmas that
instinct, could offer lie at the basis of
mankind with a viable and revelatory religions have
more appropriate been exploded by
alternative. scientific developments.
While one section of
The Dhamma and Science theists have been busy in
reinterpreting the old
The Dhamma is closely dogmas in "metaphysical"
related to what is terms (a hopeless task as
understood by Science or it has proven to be), and
Philosophy. Science other group of
investigates the nature "fundamentalists" have
of phenomena, and some of turned their backs on
the latest discoveries in scientific discovery and
the areas of the physical by boldly using modern
and the psychological methods of propaganda and
sciences are in psychological
conformity with Buddhist conditioning have tried
principles. However to reassert the old
Science has a self- dogmas in all their
imposed limitation - it simplicity. These
has no procedure to move developments have raised
from the positive to the the real possibility of a
normative. The Dhamma can return to the "dark
make this transition, and ages". Materialism seems
thus has the ability to to have been better in
transcend Science. It is coping with scientific
also in this sense that discovery, but has been
the Dhamma can be totally helpless in
considered a Philosophy. evaluating correctly the
However a substantial uses to which such
part of philosophy in the discovery has to be put.
west since the time of Buddhism on the other
Aristotle has been hand has been able to
concerned with reconcile scientific
metaphysical speculation. discovery with its basic
The Buddha however looked laws, and the path of
on most such metaphysical practice that Buddhism
speculations as being proclaims has provided a
baseless and norm for the optimal use
unprofitable, and very of man's ever increasing
often a cloak for knowledge. For the
ignorance. Buddhist there is no
conflict between the
claims of science and
religion (as there is for Another aspect of
the theist), nor a Buddhist humanism is that
quandary as to how it makes an individual
knowledge could be the master of his own
applied for the destiny. On his death-bed
betterment of man (as it when asked by his
is for both the followers as to whom they
materialist and the should follow when he was
theist). gone, the Buddha replied:
"Be ye a lamp (dîpa) unto
Buddhism and Humanism yourselves; work out your
own salvation with
The primary appeal of diligence". The Pali word
Buddhism was to the dîpa also means an
dignity of man, not the island, and the Buddha's
glory of God. In this final exhortation could
sense the Dhamma is also be rendered as "Be
primarily a humanistic ye an island unto
philosophy. In describing yourselves..." etc. In
Buddhism as a humanism either case the
some care must be taken fundamental idea is that
in defining the latter of self-reliance rather
term. Theists have than reliance on an
defined humanism broadly external agency. The
as embracing "any Dhamma, as could be
attitude exalting man's reconstructed from the
relationship to God, his Pali Canon remains the
free will, and his source of the Buddha-
superiority over nature". word. The follower of the
Such definitions leave Buddha would need to
out an essential quality understand this, if need
of humanism, viz. the be with the help of a
primacy of man and the teacher but be alone has
inconsequence of God. to practice it. In this
There is no implication respect it may be
in Buddhism that human mentioned that the
beings have some prior Mahāyāna Schools of
claim over other forms of Buddhism have introduced
living beings, or for the notion of salvation
that matter over by the grace of beings
"nature", as is implied called "Bodhisattvas",
in the definition of i.e. beings who have
humanism quoted. achieved enlightenment
Buddhists however hold but postponed their entry
that of all forms of into Nirvāna in order to
existence possible, the help others to get there
human form is the one through their grace. This
most conducive to notion is foreign to
deliverance. These early Buddhism or to
aspects of Buddhist present-day Theravada
humanism make the Dhamma Buddhism.
once again unique.
The Relevance of Buddhism
In the modern world resources to the extent
Buddhism has to contend that eco-systems have
with two broad been destroyed beyond
alternatives to itself. repair, and has put into
These are theism and question the long-term
materialism. possibility of survival.
Paradoxically the Buddha
had to contend with the The lack of tolerance of
very same ideologies in diverging viewpoints has
his own day. And now as been one of the most
then Buddhism offers the potent causes of misery
better alternative for and war. Even though we
the realisation of the would like to think that
greater happiness of all the worst excesses of
beings inhabiting the sectarian conflict are
world (and not just behind us, we have no
humans alone). real ground to such
optimism. The world meeds
The relevance of Buddhism a measure of Buddhist
for the contemporary era tolerance. It has been
would depend on its said that the flavour of
ability to meet the the Dhamma is the flavour
challenges posed by the of freedom (vimutti). The
contemporary world better freedom that is meant
than the rival ideologies here is primarily the
of theism and materialism freedom of the mind
and very often a unburdened by crippling
combination of the two. dogma (be they of ego or
of God); but such mental
The unbridled freedom is the basis of
exploitation of the all other freedom, even
earth's resources, almost those of the more
amounting to a rape of "worldly" kind, like
these resources, has been political, social or
another example of this economic freedom. In a
greed. Buddhism teaches world where freedom is
that man should live in constrained in many ways
harmony with the the liberating effect of
Universe. We have seen the Dhamma is sorely
the extinction of many needed.
species of birds, animals
and fish, and the threat True freedom cannot be
of extermination of many attained until the mind
more, because of the is set free. The Dhamma
dominance of theistic and actually provides a
materialistic ethics, therapy for the freeing
which have consistently of the mind from mental
refused to conceded the defilement. Modern
"right to life" to non- society seems to have
human forms of existence. aggravated rather than
It is only a step from lessened the need for
this position to the mental purification and
exploitation of natural calm. The pace of change
has quickened, and that the traditional
external pressure on practices of Buddhism in
individuals increased. A several of its schools,
balanced mind, created by including to some extent
a true understanding of in the Theravāda
the world and man's place tradition, departs
in it, coupled with the considerably from the
practice of the Buddha's principles enunciated by
path, could serve as a the Buddha. Here too what
radical new therapy. is needed is a return to
the principles and
The importance of the practice of basic
Buddhist principle that a Buddhism.
person should be free to
believe according to
one's freely formed and
informed opinions, can
hardly be overstated. The
current practice of
indoctrinating children
with the religious views
of their parents is one
that comes to mind. Many
religious organisations
carry this process into
formal schooling, and
reinforce it later by
using the latest
technology of the
information revolution.
It then becomes a
veritable "brain-washing"
no less insidious because
it has the full approval
of the establishment. The
right of a child to have
its mind free of
religious indoctrination
until it can made a
decision on this vital
matter in full maturity
with all the information
at its command, is a
right that is rarely
mentioned, but one in
which Buddhists can take
a lead.

Basic Buddhism is
relevant for the problems
of modern society in
several other ways. But
it must be remembered
 APPENDICES tatiyam pi For the third
dhammam time I go for
Appendix A: On Becoming a saranam refuge in the
Buddhist gaccāmi Dhamma.
tatiyam pi For the third
It is possible for a sangam time I go for
person to live as a lay saranam refuge to the
Buddhist without any gaccāmi Sangha
formal ceremony, This need not be a public
declaration or rite. utterance, but could be a
However the traditional self-administered
formality associated with declaration. The person
identifying oneself as a making this choice should
Buddhist is to recite the have a clear
formula of Going to the understanding of what the
Threefold Refuge Dhamma of the Buddha is.
(tisarana gamana) (32) This booklet is meant to
This involves the formal provide such an
utterance of the understanding.
following statements with
full understanding as to Buddhists repeat this
their import: formula periodically, as
occasion permits, in
> order to re-dedicate
buddham I go for themselves to the
saranam refuge to the Buddhist goal.
gaccāmi Buddha
dhammam I go for Appendix B: The Five
saranam refuge to the Precepts
gaccāmi Dhamma
sangam I go for The Going for Refuge
saranam refuge to the formula is very often
followed by the formula
gaccāmi Sangha (33)
of Taking of the Five
    Precepts (pañca sîla).
dutiyam pi For the These precepts constitute
buddham second time I the basic ethical norms
saranam go for refuge Buddhists hope to follow,
gaccāmi to the Buddha i.e. forms the layman's
dutiyam pi For the code of conduct. They
dhammam second time I define the ethical rules
saranam go for refuge which a lay Buddhist must
gaccāmi to the Dhamma follow in daily life.
dutiyam pi For the They are not commandments
sangam second time I but "rules of training"
saranam go for refuge (sikkhāpada). It is
gaccāmi to the Sangha customary to formally
state these rules either
   
daily or on formal
tatiyam pi For the third occasions but it is not
buddham time I go for the recitation of the
saranam refuge in the rules that matter but
gaccāmi Buddha their observance. In many
Buddhist countries the abstaining from sexual
precepts are wrongdoing). Misconduct
"administered" formally here means not only overt
by monks, but this is not acts of sexual violence
necessary. like rape, but also
adultery in general. It
In the following we give must be remembered that
the precept in Pali, its Buddhism does not endorse
approximate translation, any particular kind of
and a few explanatory marriage, so this precept
comments: requires that sexual
relations should be
1. Non-Destruction of confined to what is
life. pānātipāthā socially and legally
veramanî sikkhā pada acceptable as a marriage
samādiyāmi (I agree to relationship.
follow the precept of
abstaining from the 4. Abstention from Wrong
taking of life). This Speech. musāvādā veramanî
involves not contributing sikkhā pada samādiyāmi (I
to the death of any agree to follow the
living being. This means precept of abstaining
not only the actual from wrong speech). Wrong
killing but also "causing speech involves a great
to kill". However this many things apart from
rule does not require one uttering falsehoods. It
to be a vegetarian, only includes insulting
that meat consumed should speech, malicious speech,
not have been "specially even gossip.
killed" for direct,
personal consumption. 5. Refraining from
Meat purchased in the Intoxicants. surāmeraya
market does not come majja pamā dahānā
under the "specially veramanî sikkhā pada
killed" category. samādiyāmi (I agree to
follow the precept of
2. Abstention from Theft. abstaining from the
adinnādānā veramanî liquor and spirits that
sikkhā pada samādiyāmi (I cause inattention). This
agree to follow the is generally taken to
precept of not taking mean avoiding alcohol,
that which is not given). drugs, etc. which tend to
Theft is interpreted "confuse the mind". Some
widely as taking that people interpret this
which is not given. It precept not as an
includes fraudulent absolute prohibition of
behaviour generally. alcohol (as in Islam) but
only against intoxication
3. Avoidance of Sexual and inebriation through
Misconduct. kāmesu the use of alcohol or
miccācārā veramanî sikkhā drugs.
pada samādiyāmi (I agree
to follow the precept of
While the five precepts the eight precepts. These
are usually stated in two additional precepts
negative terms they have are:
their positive
counterparts (e.g. the 9. Abstaining from
principles of non-injury luxurious beds
and loving-kindness,
honesty, sexual 10. Abstaining from
propriety, truthfulness accepting gold and silver
and sobriety.
The third precept is also
Appendix C: Higher expanded to a rule
Precepts and Meditation enjoining chastity.

Some Buddhists observe The extreme step along

the Eight Precepts once a this line of renunciation
month (usually on the is to become a Buddhist
Full Moon Day, which has monk (which involves
traditionally been a day following some 220
of religious observance rules). This will suit
amongst Buddhists). The only a very few persons
three additional precepts in any given Buddhist
are: community. Since monks
live on the charity of
6. Abstaining from eating lay Buddhists only a very
after mid-day small proportion of
Buddhists can be monks.
7. Abstaining from
dancing, singing, music For lay Buddhists the
and shows keeping of the five basic
moral precepts of
8. Abstaining from Buddhism, is quite
garlands, scents, adequate. It must however
cosmetics and adornment be kept in mind that
keeping these precepts in
It will be seen that their totality is quite
these three additional demanding, but it is a
precepts do not involve goal that lay Buddhists
weighty moral principles should aspire to.
like the 5 basic
precepts. They are of use Buddhists should also
for those who are desire seek to engage in short
some degree of withdrawal periods of meditation as
from lay life but are not a regular activity (e.g.
prepared to make a full- 15 - 30 minutes every
time commitment. A day). Chapter V has given
further step in this some information about
direction is to take two the types of Theravāda
additional precepts meditation that are
making 10 in all, which available in the West.
are often taken for a
longer time than the Appendix D: The Three
once-a-month practice of Gems of Buddhism
The formula for Going for Even amongst those
Refuge involves the drawing inspiration from
recognition of the the Pali sources there
Buddha, the Dhamma and are several practical
the Sangha as the three orientations, three main
highest entities in orientations may be
Buddhism often referred identified:
to as the Three Gems
(tiratana) of Buddhism. 1. Ethnic Buddhism. This
is practised by migrants
Salutation to the three from Asian countries.
gems could be turned into There is a heavy
a formula for meditation. admixture of cultural
Many Buddhists perform practices associated with
this meditation, either Buddhism in the native
in their own home, or in countries and these are
visits to Buddhist imported along with the
temples and monasteries. Dhamma. This stream of
Three standard stanzas is Buddhism gives great
often used in this emphasis to faith,
meditation. These stanzas worship, rite and ritual.
enumerate the qualities This is seen in such
of the Buddha, the Dhamma practices as the Buddha-
and the Sangha. The pujās (ritual offering of
stanzas are given below, food and other things
both in Pali and in before statues of the
English. (It must be Buddha), worship of
remembered that the relics, chanting of
English translation is suttas as magic
only approximate and each incantations,
term could be discussed transference of merit to
at length). deceased persons, etc.
Such Buddhism is usually
Appendix E: Main Buddhist practised in Temples set
Tendencies in the West up according to Asian
cultural archetypes.
In the West there are
several modes of 2. Meditational Buddhism.
Buddhism. The main This is he kind of
distinction is still meditation that we have
between Pali Buddhism and called stylised
the Mahayana. This meditation in Chapter 5.
booklet is written from
the Pali Buddhist 3. Rationalist-Humanist
perspective which is Buddhism. Here the
closest to Basic Buddha's message is seen
Buddhism. But it is as being in conformity
always advisable to study with the scientific-
other Buddhist tendencies humanistic spirit of the
which may contain useful West. This sprit had a
insights. long struggle to liberate
itself from the anti-
scientific attitude of
Christianity and its the search for
subordination of man to enlightenment and with it
God. Until Buddhism the elimination of the
arrived in the West there roots of unwholesome
was no framework within action.
which these Western
tendencies could be Appendix F: Glossary of
rationalised. An Pali Terms
important focus of this
kind of Buddhism is its abhidhamma Higher Dhamma
secularism and ethical akusala unwholesome
orientation. Monks are
seen as Buddhist anatta no-self, non-ego
professionals who could anicca impermanance
devote their time to the ārûpa formless
intellectual and moral ārya noble
uplift of people and to atta soul, self
advance Buddhist thinking
into new areas not ignorance,
avijjā
considered traditionally. nescience
But lay persons can play bhāva becoming
an equally (or even more) bhāvanā mentaldevelopment
active role. This kind of bhikkhu Buddhist monk
Buddhism is usually
bodhi wisdom
practised in secular
Buddhist Societies in the Buddha Enlightened One
West and dispenses with cāga generosity
the need for temples and culanikā minor, small
ritual. deva celestial being
Dhamma Law, Norm
Of these three tendencies
Basic Buddhism is most at digha long
home with the last dîpa lamp, island
mentioned, i.e. the ditti view, dogma
ethico-rationalist- dosa aversion
humanist tendency. But
dukkha unsatisfactoriness
the essence of Buddhism
is that it is a middle come-and-see,
ehipassiko
path, not advocating verifiable
unthinking adherence to absorptive
jhāna
any particular extreme. meditative state
While Basic Buddhism in kāma sensuality
the West should emphasis kamma action, deed
the ethical, scientific,
karunā compassion
and humanistic aspects it
should not neglect khandā aggregates
anything that is good and kusala wholesome
useful in other lobha greed
tendencies. It is for the lokadhātu world system
individual groups to
mahā great
strike the right balance
keeping in mind that the "Great Vehicle"
mahāyāna
essence of Buddhism is School
majjima middle with the following
mettā loving-kindness exceptions. The vowel u
is like `oo' in look.
delusion,
moha Long vowels are ā, î and
ignorance
û; e is intermediate; the
muditha sympathetic job other vowels are short.
non-physical Consonants and are
nāma
component dentals (tongue touching
extinction of the teeth); d and t are
nibbāna palatals (tongue touching
defilements
paññā wisdom, insight palate). is nasalised and
ñ is pronounced as in
paipadā precepts
Spanish. c is like `ch'
paisandhi relinking in child. h after a
pitaka basket, section constant aspirates that
puggala person consonant.
rûpa physical form
1. The earliest Indian
samādhi concentration
Buddhist texts were
samana religious ascetic maintained in the Pali
sammā right, appropriate language, and these now
sasāra round of births constitute the
samyojana fetter authoritative texts of
the Theravada school of
saññā perceptions Buddhism. Subsequently
sangha Buddhist community Buddhist texts were
volitional composed in the Sanskrit
sankhāra
formations language, these being
suñña empty favoured by the non-
suññatā emptiness Theravada schools of
Buddhism. Most Buddhist
sutta discourse terms thus have a Pali
sati mindfulness and a Sanskrit form. In
tanhā craving this work the Pali form
Theravāda School of Elders will be used unless the
tilakkhana Three signata Sanskrit form is better
known. A glossary of the
tipitaka The Pali Canon principal Pali terms used
upādāna grasping is given in Appendix F.
upekkhā equanimity The Sanskrit term dharma
vedana feeling is also used to denote
Hindu and Jain
vijjā science, knowledge
scriptures. The Pali term
vimutti freedom dhamma is used only in
vinaya discipline Theravada Buddhist
vipāka fruit, result teachings.
vipassanā insight
2. Note that "scientific
view" does not
necessarily mean the view
Guide to Pronounciation. of people generally
Vowels and consonants are considered to be
pronouned as in English scientists. There is a
tendency now current for later than the Theravāda
certain scientists to school. In fact they
propagate metaphysical dissented in some areas
views which are contrary from the Theravāda
to the methodology of position and composed
classical science. their scriptures in
Sanskrit translating the
3. No Buddhist has been parts of the Pali Canon
killed, tortured, or they agreed with and
imprisoned by another on introducing their own
account of his innovations.
interpretation of
Buddhism. This tolerance 6. This is because some
has been extended to Theravadins regard not
other religions and only the Pali Canon as
philosophical system as authoritative but also
well. later works composed in
the Pali Language like
4. The Common Era is the the Commentaries and work
era now in general use. of the great medieval
Dates before its scholar Buddhaghosa. We
commencement will be shall use the term Pali
referred to as B.C.E. Buddhism to refer to the
(Before the Common Era. Buddhism contained in the
The terms B.C. (Before Pali Canon.
Christ) and A.D. (Anno
Domini) are specific to 7. The classic Mahayāna
Christianity and should text extolling the
not be used to refer to position of the layman
historical dates vis-a-vis the Bhikkhu is
generally. the Vimalakirthinirdesha
Sutra. Here a layman
5. The Hinayāna term is Vimalakirthi is seen as
now used only by some expounding the Dhamma
unrepentant Mahayanists even to Sāriputta the
and by some Buddhist famous arahant who in
scholars who want to Theravāda is considered a
refer to the early foremost exponent of the
schools. There were many doctrine.
non-Mahayana schools
(such as Sarvāstivāda, 8. There is considerable
Dharmaguptikas, etc) in debate on the actual
the early centuries of dates of the Buddha. It
the Buddhist era. Their is generally accepted
scriptures were composed that the Buddha's death
in the Sanskrit language occurred some 180 years
and are now lost in their before the coronation of
original form. Some of King Asoka. The
these were translated traditional dates, based
into Chinese and Tibetan on the Sri Lankan
and some of it is still chronicles dates Asoka's
available. But these coronation at 363 BCE and
schools are distinctly therefore the Buddha's
death at 543 BCE, which have occurred on a couple
is 60 years earlier than of years of a person's
the date given in the life it is more difficult
text. However modern to do so where an
historians place the extended period of time
coronation at 303 BCE, is involved.
and the dates given in
the text are based on 11. Most other religious
this. There are some teachers (including Jesus
Western scholars that and Mohammad) gave
puts the dates about a teachings which were
century later. However substantially similar to
the evidence for this is what others had given,
not convincing, and we validating them by
shall use the dates given claiming that they had a
in the text as the special relationship with
approximate dates of the God. The charge that the
Buddha. Buddha merely reformed
the Vedic religion of his
9. The other cities where day cannot be maintained
the Buddha is recorded to because of the
have spent the rains fundamental differences
retreat include Vesāli, with the Vedic religion.
Kosambî, Pārileyya, Nālā,
Verañja, Kapitalvatthu, 12. The three gems or
and Alāvi. He also spent jewels are the Buddha
rains retreats in (the discoverer), the
mountainous areas such as Doctrine (the content of
Cālika and Mankula. the discovery) and the
Sangha (the community of
10. Some early writers, followers). A formal
mainly Christian, have affirmation of "going for
cast doubt on the refuge" is generally
historicity of the taken as a formal mark of
Buddha. They were no adherence to Buddhism.
doubt trying to extend to
the Buddha the doubts 13. The so-called "proof"
that have been raised of the existence of God
about the historicity of based on the first cause
Jesus. It is well-known runs as follows:
that contemporary records everything must have a
are silent about Jesus, cause, therefore there
and some references have must be a cause for the
been shown to be later origin of the world, and
forgeries. But while we this cause is God.
have only details of a However if everything
only a couple of years of must have a cause then
the life of Jesus there God also must have a
is much fuller cause. The question
information on the career immediately arises: Who
of the Buddha. While it created God? Naturally
may be possible to theists are incapable of
manufacture what would answering this question;
in effect they abandon 18. Amongst contemporary
their own premise that teachers of these Asian
"everything" must have a meditation traditions in
cause. This is not the the West we may mention,
case with the Buddhist for the Sri Lankan
theory or causation. tradition, Bhante
Henepola Gunaratana in
14. These are usually America; for the Burmese
detailed in the tradition Goenka who has
"precepts" of Buddhism. established centres in
See the Appendix B for many countries; and for
the layman's code of the Thai tradition the
ethics. pupils of Ajahn Chah and
others who established
15. The term jhāna is centres in the U.K.
often translated as (Chithurst, Amarawati)
"trance", and might and later in other
indicate some kind of countries. Of all these
hypnotic state. While the present writer
accomplished meditators considers Bhante
may be able to reach such Gunaratana to be the most
psychic stages they are suited to a Western
neither necessary nor audience. He has written
sufficient to reach an excellent monograph on
enlightenment. his technique Mindfulness
in Daily Practice.
16. Our comments will be
confined to meditation 19. The "exclusive
related to the Pali meditation" school of
Buddhism. In Mahayana too Theravāda belongs to the
some schools have laid a so-called "forest
great deal of emphasis on tradition". This may suit
it. The best known of the temperament of a
these are Zen and Tibetan small number of recluses,
Buddhism. We shall not be but it is not the normal
considering these forms way to practice the
of Mahayana meditation Dhamma which could be
here. adequately done by lay
persons living ordinary
17. Alternative terms lives in the real world.
that could be used are The personal example of
"ritualised meditation" the Buddha is very
and even "meditationism". relevant here; he was no
None of these is mere forest recluse but
suitable, including the lived and taught in the
one used in the text. But great urban environments
at the same time there is of his day. The real
a need to distinguish author of the forest
this practice from what tradition with its
we shall refer to as associated austerities
Buddhist meditation. (dhutāngas) was
Devadatta, the Buddha's
schismatic cousin, whose
views were rejected by possible to be
the Buddha. enlightened in the second
sense without being
20. See his work What the enlightened in the first
Buddha Really Taught. sense. A supreme Buddha
Maurice was a westerner (sammā-sambuddha) of
who developed a profound course is enlightened in
understanding of both senses of the term.
Buddhism, and the work In this section the word
mentioned here is a very is used sometimes in the
good resume of Buddhism one and sometimes in the
for Westerners (and other sense.
indeed others).
24. Harmful views are
21. The stock answer to called miccā-dii ("wrong
this is that man's "free view") in contrast to
will" leads him to which the correct Dhamma
disobey God and bring view is called sammā-dii
down disaster. But if man ("right view"). In the
is complete creature of modern world the
God then the grant of fundamentals of the mono-
free will too is the theistic religions, as
responsibility of God, as well as extreme forms of
his "omniscience" would materialism would fall
have told him that free- into the wrong category.
will would be abused.
25. The enlightenment
22. The Hindu notion of resulting from the
the soul going through elimination of the
several incarnations fetters is the
inhabiting different enlightenment in the
kinds of bodies until it higher sense identified
finally reaches Moksha is in the previous note. The
actually a later Pali terms for the 10
development in Hinduism fetters and a brief
and is not seen in the description of them are
early Vedic texts. as follows: (1) sakkāya-
dii, elimination of the
23. In Buddhism we can ego-belief and
distinguish two meanings realisation of the third
of the term law of anatta; (2)
"enlightenment". The vicikiccā, development of
lower one is replacing total confidence in the
ignorance (in the more accuracy of the Buddhist
prosaic sense) with analysis of reality; (3)
knowledge. The higher one sîlabbata-parāmāsa, not
is the supreme performing ritual and
enlightenment associated rite and a method of
with the realisation of spiritual activity; (4)
nibbāna through the kāma-rāga, liberating
extinction of craving and oneself from sensuality;
other roots of (5) vyāpāda, elimination
unwholesome action. It is of animosity towards
others, (6) rûpa rāga, (Hoyle). The support for
not seeking rebirth the Big Bang theory comes
material realms; (7) from those who are biased
arûpa-rāga, not seeking towards the Christian
rebirth in "immaterial" theory of creation (e.g.
realms; (8) māna, Paul Davies). Buddhists
elimination of conceit in should contest this
oneself, (9) uddhacca, interpretation of the Big
developing full control Bang theory which asserts
over one's actions, and a definite beginning to
(10) avijjā, the final the universe, a
elimination of residual proposition which the
ignorance. Buddha contested.

26. Strictly speaking the 29. The best way of

Buddha claims that interpreting devas in
knowledge of the working modern terms is to view
of kamma can only be got them as extra-terrestrial
by an enlightened person. beings. While this is a
Hence all opinions common view especially in
expressed on this subject science fiction the
will have to be current scientific views
tentative. of the formation of life
on the planet is that it
27. This is the is not a unique process
interpretation which most (as religions like
Buddhists in the West Christianity would have
will be comfortable with. it) by a physical process
It takes the problem of that could go on in the
cosmology out of the billions of stellar
concern of the systems which comprise
religionist and places it the universe. Furthermore
on the lap of the life need follow the same
scientist where it should evolutionary pattern that
properly rest. Also the has taken place on the
view that suffering is earth. Thus beings in
the creation of our own these other planets could
mind is well established be considered devas,
in some schools of modern having a different
psychology. physical appearance to
humans. The Buddhist
28. Care must be taken in theory of karma would add
interpreting Buddhism in a further dimension that
terms of Buddhist might give them different
cosmology. The dominant psycho-physical powers to
theory amongst humans. But such
cosmologists today is the speculations are not
"Big Bang" theory. really necessary because
Against this are ranged of the inconsequence of
the theories of the the devas to human
oscillating universe existence even if they
(Hubble, James-Jeans) and exist at all.
the steady-state universe
30. These terms are new as a supremely
but the idea is quite enlightened teacher, with
old. There is a tradition respect to the Dhamma
that the Buddha spoke in that the teaching is
terms of heavens and fundamentally correct,
hells when preaching to and with respect to the
ordinary people (who in Sangha the recognition
the Buddha's time would that one is a part of a
have had little wider community seeking
education) and spoke in to practice the Buddha's
the more abstract teaching.
terminology of nibbāna
only in discourse with 33. The word "Sangha" has
more learned persons. different connotations.
In its original meaning,
31. The Encyclopaedia and the one used in this
Britannica claims that formula, it means those
about half of the world's persons who have made
5 billion people adhere some progress on the
to the main religions. Of Buddhist path (at least
this 40% are Christians to the level of sātapanna
and 20% are Muslims. or "stream winner"). It
Buddhists number about is also used in two other
247 million (9.6%) almost meanings: (1) the body of
all of them in Asia. ordained persons and (2)
the body of Buddhist
32. "Refuge" in this disciples both monk and
context means with lay irrespective of
respect to the Buddha the actual level of
acceptance of the Buddha accomplishment.