D12
Biome
– a large distinct region that has similar plants,
animals, soil and climate regardless where it occurs.
KINDS OF BIOMES
 Tundra – has long harsh winters and extremely short
summers. Harsh and extreme environment.
 Taiga – less precipitation, not suitable for agrarian
 Desert – low water vapor, dry area
 Rainforest – abundant in soil moisture
 Temperate deciduous forest –has hot summers, cold
winters and soil rich in organic material
 Tropical rain forest – often located in areas with
ancient, highly weathered, mineral poor soil and
present of high temperature and abundant soil
moisture
 Lentic – standing/still water
 Lotic – flowing water
 Grassland – ideal for growing crops
 Savanna – an area with grass and few trees
Ecosystem
- A system that includes all living organisms (biotic
factors) in an area as well as its physical
environment (abiotic factors)functioning
together as a unit.
TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM
Terrestrial ecosystem
- A type of ecosystem found only on biomes
- Seven primary terrestrial ecosystems
Aquatic ecosystem
- Can be broken down into two basic regions.
 FRESHWATER
-ponds and rivers
-defined as having low salt
concentration, usually less than 1%
 MARINE
-oceans and estuaries
-a complex environment subdivided
into intertidal zone, benthic (ocean
floor) and pelagic (ocean water)
environment
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D13
Bioenergetics
- A field in biochemistry and cell biology that
concerns energy flow through living systems.
- An active area of biological research that
includes the study of the transformation of
energy in living organisms
- Three basic ways in which organism get food:
o Producers (autotrophs) - typically
plants. Plants and algae do not usually
eat other organisms but pull nutrients
from the soil or the ocean and
manufacture their own food using
photosynthesis.
o Consumers (heterotrophs)
o Decomposers- breaks down organic
matter
FOOD WEB (FOOD CYCLE)
- A natural interconnection of food chain and a
graphical representation (usually an image) of
what-eats-what in an ecological community
- Another name is “Consumer-Resource System”
FOOD CHAIN
- A linear network of links in a food web starting
from producer organism and ending at apex
predator species, detritivores (earthworms or
wood lice) or decomposer species.
TYPES OF FOOD CHAIN
1. Grazing food chain – begins with green plants
Ex. Corn – Caterpillar – Chicken
2. Detrital food chain – begins with organic debris
Ex. Dead organic matter (Chicken –
Earthworm – Chicken
ENERGY PYRAMID
Quarternary/T
erminal
Tertiary-Omnivores
Secondary-Carnivores
Primary-Herbivores
Producers
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 Autotrophs
- Can acquire energy from sunlight (through
photosynthesis) without needing to consume
nutrients and break them down
Heterotrophs
- Must intake nutrients from food to be able to
sustain energy by breaking down chemical bonds
in nutrients during metabolic processes such as
glycolysis and the citric acid cycle
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
- The main energy currency for organisms
- The main goal of metabolic and catabolic process
are to synthesize ATP from available starting
materials (from the environment) and to break
down ATP into Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP)
and inorganic phosphate by utilizing it in
biological processes.
Living organisms obtain energy from organic and inorganic
materials; ATP can be synthesized from a variety of
biochemical precursors. For example;
Lithotrophs
- Can oxidize minerals such as nitrates or forms of
sulfur such as elemental sufur, sulfites and
hydrogen sulfide to ATP
Heterotrophs
- Must consume organic compounds mostly
including carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
Autotrophs
- In photosynthesis, they produce ATP using light
energy
TYPES OF REACTIONS
Exergonic Reaction
- A spontaneous chemical reaction that releases
energy
- The entire reaction is usually catabolic
- The release of energy (Gibbs free energy) is
negative because energy is released from the
reactants to the products
Endergonic Reaction
- An anabolic chemical reaction that consumes
energy
- Is usually anabolic
- It has positive energy because it takes more
energy to beak the bonds of the reactant than
the energy of the products offered
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MAJOR BIOENERGETICS PROCESSES
GLYCOLYSIS
- The process of breaking down glucose into
pyruvate producing two molecules of ATP (per 1
molecule of glucose) in the process
- When a cell has a higher concentration of ATP
than ADP (has high energy), the cell undergo
glycolysis
GLUCONEOGENESIS
- The opposite of glycolysis when the cell’s energy
is low (the concentration of ADP is higher than
that of ATP)
- The cell must synthesize glucose from carbon
containing biomolecules such as proteins, amino
acids, fats, pyruvate
CITRIC ACID CYCLE
- A process of cellular respiration in which acetyl
coenzyme A, synthesized from pyruvate
dehydrogenase, is first reacted with oxaloacetate
to yield citrate
KETOSIS
- A metabolic process whereby ketone bodies are
used by the cell for energy (instead of using
glucose)
- Cells often turn to ketosis as a source of energy
when glucose levels are low (during starvation)
OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION &ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN
- The process where reducing equivalents such as
NADPH, FADH2 and NADH can be used to donate
electrons to a series of redox reactions that take
place in electron transport chain complexes
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
- Is the metabolic pathway used by plants in which
solar energy is used to synthesize glucose from
carbon dioxide and water
- This takes place in chloroplast
- After glucose is synthesized, the plant cell can
undergo photophosphorylation to produce ATP
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 D14 D15

Succession Evolution
- often described by the series of plant and animal – defined as a change in gene frequencies of a
communities that inhabit a region over time. population over a period of time.
– the change does not refer to changes within an
individual but to changes within populations across successive
Pioneer Species generations.

- are the plants and animals that are first to

Natural Selection
colonize a newly exposed habitat.
-the probable survival and reproduction of species
Ecological Succession with favorable conditions.

- the change in the composition of species over Mutation

time. -the change in the genetic material

Climax Community Migration

- the final succession stage of constant species -the movement of organisms from one location to
composition. another

TWO KINDS OF SUCCESSION Speciation

A. Primary Succession – occurs on substrates that never -the formation of new and distinct specoes in the
previously supported living things. course of evolution
Ex. Succession on rock, succession on sand
dunes

B. Secondary Succession – begins in habitats where

communities were entirely or partially destroyed by
some kind of damaging event (fire, floods,
overgrazing and deforestation)
Ex. Succession on abandoned cropland,
succession in lakes and ponds

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 D17 - B.
Pollution/Environmental Pollution
- It is the introduction of harmful materials into
the environment
- These harmful materials are called pollutants
- Pollutants can be natural such as volcanic ash,
can also be created by human activity such as
trash or runoff produce by factories
- Pollutants damage the quality of air, water, and
land
SOURCES OF POLLUTION
1. Point Source Pollution
- It is where pollution comes directly from one
specific location
- Ex. Sewage pipes empty the polluted water into
the river and farmland
2. Non-point Source Pollution
- It is the pollution that comes from large areas
- Ex. Gasoline and other dirt from highways and
other areas into the walls that supply drinking
water, and into lakes and rivers.
TYPES OF POLLUTION
1. WATER POLLUTION
- Reduces the quantity and quality of fresh water
that is available for drinking and other
necessities of human beings
MAJOR WATER POLLUTANTS:
INDUSTRIES
- The heated water from the power plants are
called thermal pollution
- There are two groups of industrial pollutants
which can be classified as organic and inorganic
pollutants
FARM PESTICIDES
- Animal manure, chemical fertilizer, phosphate
detergent, pollute water by supplying excess
nutrients, this pollution is known as nutrient
enrichment or eutrophication.
SEWAGE/HOME
- The sewage system carries wastes from home
and pollutes the water
- Human waste can flow into drinking water
supplies and result to some form of diseases like
cholera, typhoid fever, dysentery
2. AIR POLLUTION
TWO MAJOR SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION
A. Natural Air Pollution
- The natural impurities of air in the atmosphere
include soil particles, dust and pollen grain
particles
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-
ARTIFICIALLY CREATED AIR POLLUTION
Are main sources of air pollutants because of
growth population and industry, increased
number of automobiles
- Other examples are transportation, electric
power plant, industrial process, solid waste
disposal and miscellaneous such as chemical
sprays and forest fires
3. LAND/SOIL POLLUTION
- Occurs when the pollutants causing the pollution
reduce the quality of the soil and convert the soil
inhabitable for microorganisms and macro
organisms living in the soil
- Can occur either because of human activities or
because of natural processes but mostly is due
to human activities
- One of the most visible form of pollution is solid
waste also called as refuse or garbage
TWO TYPES OF GARBAGE
Biodegradable
- Objects that can be decomposed or can be acted
upon by microorganisms
Non-biodegradable
- Objects cannot be acted by microorganisms to
decompose
4. NOISE POLLUTION
- Random or unwanted sound
- Unwanted sound can be caused by any kind of
sound, tones or harmonic sound
- It is often concentrated where population is
concentrated
- It does not alter the environment physically or
chemically like water and air pollution
- Most noise sources are measured in terms of
intensity or decibels
- Major sources are household, transportation,
industrial/factories and military warfare
equipment
EFFECTS OF NOISE POLLUTION
1. It may affect man adversely if the noise level is high
and prolonged
2. It may cause permanent loss of hearing
3. It may cause physiological damage or psychological
and emotional stress
4. It may result to general irritability and may interfere
with sleep and may affect workers to work efficiently
5. It may affect the communication properly
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D18
The Forest
- Is a complex ecosystem consisting of mainly
trees that buffer the earth and support of life
forms.
- The trees help create a special environment
which in turn, affects the kinds of animals and
plants that can exist in the forest
The Philippine Forestry
- Almost 1/3 of Earth’s land is covered with forest
- Forest statistic in the Philippines showed that
our forests are disappearing
- 1950-1978 deforestation claimed 201,000
hectares annually
1978-1988 deforestation decreased to 199,000
hectares annually
1989-1995 the rate of forest destruction
decreased to an average of 116,328 hectares per
year
ECOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF TROPICAL RAINFOREST
 Rainforest is known as “green hell” with about 80kg
of green mass per square meter
 Acts as “gigantic sponge” or storage of moisture in
which several billions tons of water circulate in an
endless cycle of rainfall and evaporation and
transpiration
 It functions as a habitat for plants, animals and
human, houses 2/3 of all known flora and 80% of all
insects
 It stabilizes the tropical climate and protects it from
flood and drought areas far beyond their own regions
 It reduces the carbon dioxide content in the
atmosphere
FOREST ACCESS AND LOGGING
1. Clear cutting
- Cutting all trees at one time and creating an
even age stand by planting or natural
regeneration of trees
2. Seed tree cutting
- Leaving a few scattered seed-bearing trees to
reforest the area
3. Selective logging
- Removal of few mature trees repeatedly over
relatively short intervals, creating an uneven age
stand
4. Shelter wood cutting
- Removal of old stand trees in a series of cutting
Forest reserves are beneficial to wildlife and also serve as a
watershed as it is a source of water for rivers and streams, a
land for grazing and an area for recreational activities.
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TYPES OF FOREST IN THE PHILIPPINES
1. Dipterocarp – a forest made up of tall trees with
branch-less trunks. This types of forest are the major
sources of timber and other forest products
2. Pine – two types of pine forest in the Philippines: the
Mindoro Pine and the Benguet Pine
3. Molave – this classification of forest falls under the
Dipterocarp. It occupies about 165,000 hectares of
the total land forest area of the country
4. Beach – this forest is usually found in some coastal
areas. The Dungon, Agoho and Banulad trees are
common which is endemic to the Phil. Islands
5. Mangrove – forests are found on the tidal flats of the
coastal areas. They are good sources of charcoals,
firewoods, and tannin. The mangrove ecosystem
serves as a nursery ground. They serve as buffer
against typhoons and waves.
6. Mossy – known as cloud forest found throughout the
higher parts of the mountains and inhabited by many
of the endemic wildlife of the Phillippines
DEFORESTATION
- Can be defined as the large scale removal of
forest
- It is the permanent destruction of forests and
woodlands
- The term doesn’t include the removal of
industrial forests such as plantation of gums or
pines
NATURAL CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION
1. Forest fires- are started by lightning and strong winds
help to spread the flames. Drought in the forest has
increased the amount of flammable bush and debris
on the forest floor.
2. Volcanic Eruption- some of the several natural forces
capable of causing damage to forests. The ashes
emitted during the eruption cost tree leaves which
then interfere with photosynthesis.
3. Typhoon- are violent storms when fierce winds
destroy much of the island’s rain forest
EFFECTS OF DEFORESTATION
Denuded upland, degraded watershed, serious water
shortage, heavy soil erosion, flooding, destruction of corals
along the coast, illegal logging, greenhouse effect, extinction
of thousands of species, food shortage
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 D19
Biodiversity
- The presence of diverse biological life forms as
well as the ecosystem in which they live
- It can be defined as the richness of species of
living things
Levels of Biological Diversity:
1. Species Diversity – refers to the variety of living
species
2. Genetic Diversity – refers to the variety of genetic
information contained in all f the individual plants,
animals and microorganisms
Philippine Biodiversity
- In the Philippines the richness of biodiversity is
found in the numerous plant and animal species
that thrive in the topical marine, wetland, and
terrestrial ecosystems.
- This biodiversity offers vast potentials as
irreplaceable sources of food, fiber, medicine,
fuel, clear air, water, fertile soil for agriculture,
materials for industrial purposes, aesthetic and
scientific purposes.
A species is considered extinct when it is no longer found in
the past 50 years. Rare species are not endangered species;
they usually have restricted limited habitat.
ENDEMIC FLORA AND FAUNA SPECIES IN THE PHILIPPINES
Endemic species are comparatively rare and are not
widespread. They are restricted to a particular area in the
earth. Endemic species gain attention because they are
needed to conserve the biodiversity.
1. Tamaraw (Bubalus mindorensis) or Mindoro Dwarf
Buffalo
- A small hoofed mammal belonging to the family
Bovidae.
- It is endemic to the island of Mindoro
- Have once also thrived on the greater island of
Luzon
2. Pandaka Pygmea (Pandaka pygmaea) or Dwarf Pygmy
Goby
- One of the smallest fish in the world by mass and
is also one of the shortest freshwater fish.
- Mature males can reach up to 1.1cm while the
females can grow up to 1.5cm
- Average weight is from 4-5 mg
- It is known as bia and tabios in the Philippines
3. Philippine Tarsier (Tarsius syrichta) or known locally
as Maumag in Cebuano/Visayan and Mamag in Luzon
- Found in the Southeastern part of the
archipelago, particularly in the islands of Bohol
Island, Leyte Island and Mindanao.
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4. Pilandok (Tragalus nigricans) or the Philippine Mouse
Deer or Balabac Mouse Deer
- Found mainly in the island of Balabac which is
located south of Palawan
- It has a body size of a rabbit with slender legs
and an arched back that is coered by brown fur
with a white base. A dark line runs from each ear
past the eye toward the nose.
5. Philippine Eagle-Owl (Bubo pilippensis) known locally
as the “Kuwago” or “Bukao”
- A vulnerable species of bird belonging to the
Strigidae family
- Found in lowland forests on the islands of
Catanduanes, Samar, Bohol, Mindanao, Luzon,
Leyte and possibly Sibuyan.
6. Philippine Crocodile (Crocodylus mindorensis) aka the
Mindoro Crocodile and the Philippine freshwater
crocodile
- It is relatively small freshwater crocodillan
- Growing no more than 3m, they have relatively
broad snout and thick bony plates on its back
- Females are slightly small than males
7. Hoya Obscura (Hoya Obscura)
- The fastest growing hoya from the Philippines
- Characterized by medium-sized veined leaves
that range from deep green when grown in
shade to a deep reddish color when grown in
sunlight
8. Paphiopedilum Fowliei (Paphiopedilum fowlie)
- A species of plant in the Orchidaceae family
- It is native to the beautiful island of Palawan
- This is threatened by loss of habitat inhabits
tropical and subtropical forests.
9. Rafflesia Philippensis (Rafflesia philippensis)
- A parasitic plant species of the genus Rafflesia
that was named by Blanco in his Flora de
Filipinas in 1845
- Known only from a mountain located between
the provinces of Laguna and Quezon, Luzon
where it was first discovered.
10. Waling-waling (Euanthe sanderiana) aka Waling-
walingin or Sander’s Euanthe
- Endemic to Mindanao in province of Davao,
Cotabato and Zamboanga where it is found on
the trunks of Dipterocarp trees.
- The orchid is considered to be the “Queen of
Philippine FLowers” and is worshipped as a
diwata in Bagobo people
PHINMA-COC
 11. Kris Plant (Alocasia sanderina)
- An ornamental plant in the Araceae family
- It is a tropical perennial with upright shiny, V-
shaped and deeply lobed leaves
- The plant can be up to 6ft tall and large in its
native tropical area

12. Cebu Cinnamon Tree (Cinnamomum cebuense)

- A species of cinnamon endemic to Cebu Island,
Philippines
- First discovered in Cantipla, Cebu in mid 1980’s
and described by Kostermanns in 1986
- Endemic to Cebu but several trees are found in
the neigbouring islands of Camotes and Siquijor

CAUSES OF BIODIVERSITY
 Habitat alteration or destruction
 Improper use of agriculture chemicals
 Overpopulation
 Deforestation
 Over-exploitation
 Introduction of exotic (non-native) species
 Change in climatic condition

THREATS TO PHILIPPINE BIODIVERSITY

 Slow economic growth
 Increase in population
 Massive fuel wood
 Timber consumption
 Dynamite fishing
 Muro-ami
 Mining
 Clearing of agriculture
 Pollution


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