MODEL 440 SEMICONDUCTOR CURVE TRACER INSTRUCTION MANUAL (Stock No. 2490-658) ument Company sat-8080 + TWX: B1O-42T-8265 The Hickok Electrical Instr soma DUPONT AVENUE + CLEVELAND, CHI 44108 + (216)Di TABLE OF CONTENTS Section Page I INTRODUCTION .....-.---- : 1 518 SPECIFICATIONS ... ++ esse ee 2 stg OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS 3-1, Curve Tracer Set-Up... +. 4 3-2, Oscilloscope Set-Up Calibration 4 3-8, Device Connections ....... 6 Iv TYPICAL SEMICONDUCTOR TESTS 4-1. Transistor Testing ....-+:- . 9 4-2, Insta-Beta ....-- +e ee 10 4-3, FET Testing ....-..-- ret 4-4, Insta-Beta . 2... eee 12 4.5, Testing Diodes... - 1+ se 13 4.6, Zener Diodes 9... ++ 1 + + 14 4-7. Testing Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCR) ...-. ++ 14 4-8. ‘Testing Triac’s . 1... 16 4-9, Testing Unijunctions (UJT) . . - 16 4-10, Testing Tunnel Diodes ce 17 Vv APPLICATIONS 5-1, Gain Measurements ...- ++ « 18 B-2, ACBeta .... ee ee ee 20 5-3. Breakdown Voltage Measurement 20 5-4, Saturation Voltage (Vce (Sat)) . . « at 5-5. Output Admittance (noe)... . ai 5-6. Leakage Current (ceo)... « 22 5-7. Cutoff Current (Iebo) . . . . . : 22 5-8, Temperature Effects... .. ~~ 23 5-9, Tube Applications ......- 24 VI CALIBRATION - MAINTENANCE 6-1. Calibration Procedure. 1. 25 6-2. Maintenance... +--+ 0+ 25 6-3, Circuit Description... . . te 25 vit PARTSLIST ..- ee ete 28SECTION | INTRODUCTION The Semiconductor Curve Tracer is a modern piece of test equip- ment designed to display the characteristic curves of a wide variety of semiconductors. The instrument, as with all curve tracers of this type, is used in conjunction with an oscilloscope that has an external horizontal input. Virtually any oscilloscope that has this external horizontal capa- bility is usable with the Curve Tracer. The Hickok Model 511 and 512 are both excellent units to use with the instrument. Gain, transconductance, breakdown voltage, leakage, saturation voltage and zener breakdown are but a few of the parameters that can be measured, In addition, the Curve Tracer has a unique feature - INSTA-BETA and INSTA-GM. When checking transistors, just move the DISPLAY switch to the right. Instantly, a plot of collector current versus base current at a specific collector voltage is displayed. When checking field-effect transistors, a plot of drain current versus gate voltage is displayed, From this curve you can determine transconductance (GM), drain current with VGS = O (IDSS) and pinch-off voltage (VP) - all ina matter of a few seconds. The instrument was designed with reliability and ease of use in mind, The unit is entirely solid-state using discrete semiconductors, Ie operational amplifiers and state-of-the-art MOS integrated circuitry. The front panel is color-coded and the controls are grouped to minimize operator confusion,SECTION Il SPECIFICATIONS COLLECTOR SUPPLY Voltage: Continuously variable from 0 to 100 volts peak Current: Up to 100 mA peak with automatic current limiting at approximately 13 x the setting of the VERT mA/DIV switch; e.g. current limiting occurs at approximately 13 mA when VERT mA/DIV switch is set to 1 mA/DIV BASE-GATE GENERATOR Steps: variable from 1 to approximately 10 steps per family of curves Current: 11 ranges from 1 vA/STEP to2mA/STEP, accurate within +5% Voltage: 11 ranges from 1 mV/STEP to 2V/STEP, accurate within +5% Polarity: Same as collector sweep in XSTR posi- tion; inverted in FET position INSTA-BETA/INSTA-GM: In XSTR mode provides instantaneous plot of Ic vs. Ib, at fixed Vee (set by SWEEP VOLTAGE); in FET mode, pro- Vides instantaneous plot of Id vs. vG, at fixed Vds (set by SWEEP VOLTAGE) CALIBRATION Vertical: 05, 1, 2, 5,10 mA per division 45% with scope set to 0.1 V/DIV Horizontal: 1, 5, 10 volts per division +5% with scope calibrated to 1 V/DIV ~ai- odNn MISC Power Requirements: Size: Weight: Replaceable Sockets: 115/230 Vac - 50/60 Hz 4-5/8" Hx 8-1/4" W x 7-1/2"D (11,75 em x 20.96 cm x 19.05 cm) 4-1/2 Ibs (2.04 kg) ‘The transistor sockets can be replaced by removing the front panel and plugging in new sockets. (Hickok Part No. 19350-535)c Ch Hi connec” epoRte" WER SECTION ll OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS ‘The Semiconductor Curve Tracer is a precision instrument that applies test signals to a device under test, usually a semiconductor. How the device under test is affected by these signals is then visually displayed on an oscilloscope. See Figure 2 for a number of typical semiconductor curves. To get meaningful displays, the operator should become thoroughly familiar with the Curve Tracer and its capabilities. 3-1. CURVE TRACER SET-UP 1, Connect the instrument to a suitable ac power source (117 Vac or 230 Vac, 50/60 Hz, depending on how unit is wired). 2, Set the POWER switch to ON. 3. Set the HORIZ V/DIV switch and the VERT mA/DIV switch to 1. 4, Set the DISPLAY switch to NORMAL and the SELECTOR switch to OFF. 5, Rotate the SWEEP VOLTAGE and the STEPS/FAMILY controls max CCW. 6. Set the DEVICE switch to XSTR and TYPE to NPN, 7. Set the BASE-GATE GENERATOR slide switch to V/STEP and the rotary switch to .1. This completes the set-up procedure for the Curve Tracer. 3-2, OSCILLOSCOPE SET-UP CALIBRATION Virtually any oscilloscope can be used with the Semiconductor Curve Tracer; however, there are a few requirements, The vertical amplifier of the oscilloscope should be calibrated or have the capability of being calibrated for 0.1 V/DIV. It is preferable for the external horizontal amplifier to have a variable gain adjustment capable of calibrating the horizontal amplifier to 1 V/DIV sensitivity, For ease of use, a three inch or larger CRT is recommended, 4-cece, If the scope has a calibrated vertical, all that is required is that the vertical attenuator be set to the 0.1 V range. If the vertical must be calibrated, proceed as follows: VERTICAL CALIBRATION PROCEDURE (Uncalibrated Vertical Oscilloscopes) 1, Connect a lead from the SCOPE OUTPUTS GND jack on the Curve Tracer to ground on the scope. Set the scope for external hori- zontal operation. 2. Connect the vertical input of the scope to the base (B) jack on the Curve Tracer. Set the SELECTOR switch to the right or left depending on which jack is selected. Set the vertical input of the scope to DC coupled. 3, Adjust the STEPS/FAMILY control for a display of four or five dots on the scope. These dots are precisely .1 volt apart. 4, Adjust the variable gain on the scope until there is exactly one dot per division, The vertical is now calibrated. DO NOT RE- ADJUST THE VERTICAL GAIN CONTROLS AFTER THE SCOPE HAS BEEN CALIBRATED. Calibrating the horizontal of the scope follows essentially the same procedure as outlined for the vertical. HORIZONTAL CALIBRATION PROCEDURE (Uncalibrated Horizontal Oscilloscopes) 1. Leave the ground connected from the scope to the Curve Tracer. Connect a lead from the base (B) jack on the Curve Tracer to the external horizontal input on the scope. Set the SELECTOR switch to the appropriate side. DC couple the scope. 2, Set the BASE-GATE GENERATOR rotary switch to 1 v/DIV. ‘Adjust the STEPS/FAMILY control for a display of four or five dots. These dots are precisely 1 volt apart. 3. Adjust the horizontal variable gain control on the scope until there is exactly one dot per division. The horizontal is now cali- brated, DO NOT READJUST THE HORIZONTAL GAIN CONTROLS AFTER THE SCOPE HAS BEEN CALIBRATED. ‘The horizontal of the scope is now calibrated for 1 V/CM or 10 volts full scale if the scope has a 10 cm graticule. To change the sensitivity, move the HORIZ V/DIV switch on the Curve Tracer to the desired range. ‘The 6 position gives a sensitivity of 5 volts/DIV and the 10 position is 10 volts/DIV. There is no need for time consuming re-calibration when a range change is desired. -5-CALIBRATED SCOPES For scopes with calibrated vertical and horizontal inputs, connect the Curve Tracer scope outputs to the scope just as they are marked: HORIZ to horizontal, GND to ground, and VERT to vertical. 3-3, DEVICE CONNECTIONS CAUTION: WHEN THE SWEEP VOLTAGE CONTROL IS MAX CW, VOLTAGES IN EXCESS ‘OF 100 VOLTS CAN BE PRESENT ON THE JACKS AND SOCKET. TO PREVENT DAMAGE SHOCK HAZARD, ALWAYS PLACE THE SELECTOR SWITCH IN THE OFF POSITION WHEN CHANGING DEVICES. The Curve Tracer provides two complete sets of test connections. Each side of the tester contains three eolor-coded banana jacks and one Each Seket, This dual capability is especialy ‘useful when comparing good and bad devices or when attempting to match transistors. The 3 jacks and the socket are connected in parallel so only one is usable at a time. Do not attempt to plug one device into the socket and then connect a second device across fhe associated jacks. The side under test is determined by the position of the SELECTOR switch, The plug-in test socket is intended for tit with most small signal transistors, FET's and some diodes. Do not attempt to force any large Shameter lead into the test socket, You may permanently damage the pins in the socket, ‘The jacks are for any device that cannot be plugged into the socket. ‘These devices should ‘be tested using test Jeads that have banana plugs at one end. The socket and the jacks are labelled as follows: EySeeeeeeeee Emitter, Source BGlieeereee Base, Gate CDlviete eee Collector, Drain In addition, the jacks are color-coded. When testing diodes, they should be connected across the E-C ter- minals, The direction will depend on whether it is desired to check forward or reverse characteristics. Connections for special devices will be covered later in the manual._—_ Ee NAME OF DEVICE CIRCUIT SYMBOL ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS Diode ANODE ‘ANODE | Conducts easily in one or direction, blocks in the Rectifier VaNove () other ANODE (+ eATHODE ‘ ‘Avalanche ANODE Constant voltage (Zener) characteristic in Dio VaNODE.( nogative quedrent VaNooe (+ CATHODE POSITIVE ELECTRODE Tunnel Displays senate Diode 4 festanee en current txceds peak pint carent Ip VANODE (+) NEGATIVE ELECTRODE ' Thyrector ' Rapidly incre current ove tated vtge in sith direction VOLTAGE 185 mn couegior Ic tpg Constant octor Transistor Nic current for given 183 base drive BASE Tez tat 18 curren VGOLLECTOR (+) pe Somlemen “Transistor tc 181 rpen transistor 132 BASE 183 Ba te) saree | IcouLecTon ¢) rt couecron IcoLLECTOR et nan Sensor i as tase eurant of BAS the photo transistor wey leMirrer ! CE Uoiantin = eae? EB Lavy une miter ck Tanaor £ ES tnt te vaage races wm 2 leo ‘Vp then conducts SE BASE Ea So EWITTER | Figure 2. Typical ‘Semiconductor Curves (Sheet 1 of 2) -T-NAME OF CIRCUIT SYMBOL ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS DEVICE ay A Programmable ANODE Donn Progammed by 0 Uniunetion Gate GM ate fr Vp Ip Ie Tranator VALLEY Fanetion eqtaast en Pont to norma UIT nanny PEAK POINT caTHoot Vac Aone Silicon With anode voltage (+), Contates SCM canbe tare Race by Ip remsinieg im (sem) condiction unt anode cate Vis rtuced to zero caTHoDe Light Operates sma to SCR, betated tecest canals be ste tngere Into sondution itascr) by ta fang om of intone ATHODE sieos ye Mpor Cert smart SCR Cantraled e s xcept ean ao be ‘Switch a a triggered on by @ negative (ses) 3 2 signal on anode-gate. 8 2 Als soveral other specialized ia caTHODE modes of operon Seon Siniar to SOS but zener Unilateral GATE, ‘ added to anode gate to Suites trier dv nf conduction us volts Cen as bo trigeed by negate pe ates. caTHoDE Silicon ANODE 2 Symmettical bileteral Bites version ofthe SUS. Breks Sten dan In both dreesons (sBs) GAT as SUS does in forward. ANODE 1 1 ‘Tree ANGE 2 ‘Operates simitar ta SCR VANODE 2 aes tH) GATE VANODE 2 ANODE 1 Diac 1 When voltage reaches Tze Tegel (sot 35 ats, bry owes yd about 10 volts Figure 2. Typical Semiconductor Curves (Sheet 2 of 2) =8-a SECTION IV TYPICAL SEMICONDUCTOR TESTS One of the best ways to become familiar with any piece of test equipment is to take time and work with the unit, This is true of a Curve Tracer. Take a handful of semiconductors and check them with the instrument. Vary all the controls and observe how it affects the display. For ease of initial set-up, the front panel is marked with fast set-up (Y) markers, These settings provide a good starting point for most devices. 4-1. TRANSISTOR TESTING 1. If not previously completed, follow the set-up and calibration procedure outlined in the Operating Instructions portion of the manual. 2, Make the four settings indicated by the fast set-up (\/) markers. 3, Set the remaining controls as follows: DISPLAY - NORMAL, DEVICE - XSTR, TYPE - as required, BASE-GATE GENERATOR - mA/STEP, SELECTOR - OFF, STEPS/FAMILY - approximately mid-range. When checking N type devices, position the base line to start in the bottom left corner of the graticule, For P type devices, position to the top right corner. This positioning is done by adjusting the scope vertical and horizontal positioning controls. NPN TRANSISTOR PNP TRANSISTOR Figure 3 -~9-Figure 4 4, Connect the transistor to either the test socket or the banana { jacks, Set the SELECTOR switch to the appropriate side. { 5. There should now be some type of display on the CRT. If there is | . very little vertical deflection, rotate the BASE-GATE GENERATOR rotary switch CW. If there is too much vertical deflection, rotate : it CCW. A typical family of curves is illustrated in Figure 3. 6. If the transistor is shorted, any one of three different displays : is possible. See Figure 4. If the device is openonly a horizontal line 1 will appear. 4-2, INSTA-BETA One of the unique features of this instrument is the INSTA-BETA I function, When the DISPLAY switch is set to the INSTA-BETA position, | the scope presents a graph of collector current (IC) versus base current (IB), Refer to Figure 5. NPN TRANSISTOR PNP TRANSISTOR Figure 5 -10- eeFigure 6 Set the Curve Tracer to display a normal family of curves. This is described in the previous section on transistor testing. Now place the DISPLAY switch in the INSTA-BETA position. Some slight repositioning of the waveform may be necessary. If there is a droop in the waveform as shown in Figure 6, merely increase the sweep voltage until it dis- appears. You can now very easily and quickly determine both the de and ac beta of the device under test, Refer to Figure 5. 4-3, FET TESTING 1, Set up the Curve Tracer as in transistor testing with the following exceptions: DEVICE to FET and BASE-GATE GENERATOR to .5 V/STEP. 2. Connect the FET either to the banana jacks or the test socket. Set the SELECTOR switch to the appropriate side. 3. Vary the controls until the desired waveform is obtained, A typical family of curves is shown in Figure 7. N CHANNEL FET P CHANNEL FET Figure 7 -ll-PEL ace) be coe Tela SHOWN FOR N CHANNEL FET Figure 8 4, If the FET is shorted, either of 2 displays may appear. See Figure 8, Note that the display for a gate to source short is the normal Idss curve. 5. If the device is open, only a horizontal line will appear. 4-4, INSTA-BETA The INSTA-BETA function can be used to great advantage not only on bipolar transistors but also on field-effect transistors, When the DISPLAY switch is set to the INSTA-BETA position, the scope will display a graph of drain current (ID) versus gate-source voltage (Vgs). Refer to Figure 9. Set the Curve Tracer to display anormal family of curves as described in the previous section, N CHANNEL FET P CHANNEL FET Figure 9 -12-Place the DISPLAY switch in the INSTA-BETA position, It may be necessary to reposition the waveform to the far right side of the grati- cule, See Figure 9 for a typical waveform. ‘Note how easy and fast it is to determine Idss, GM and VP of the device under test. 4-5, TESTING DIODES Diodes have the property of allowing current flow in one direction and blocking it in the opposite direction, When the anode is positive with respect to the cathode, the diode is forward biased and current will flow. When the anode is negative with respect to the cathode, current flow will be blocked except for a small leakage current, In most cases, the leakage current of a good diode is so small that it cannot be detected using a Curve Tracer. When testing diodes only the E and C terminals are used on the Curve tracer, The BASE-GATE GENERATOR has no effect on the display. The DISPLAY switch must be in the NORMAL position. In order to protect the device under test it is best to always start with the SWEEP VOLTAGE set to 0. To check the diode in the forward direction, set the DEVICE switch to XSTR, TYPE to NPN and connect the cathode of the device to E and the anode to C. set the HORIZ V/DIV switch to 1. This is sufficient sensitivity for most applications. However, if greater resolution is desired, the hor yontal of the scope may be re-calibrated, The resolution obtainable is directly related to the horizontal sensitivity of the scope. Accurate voltage steps are available at the base jack when the BASE-GATE GENERATOR is in the V/STEP position. Follow the scope calibration procedure previously outlined, substituting whatever sensitivity you desire. After the diode is properly connected, check to see if the SELECTOR switch is in the proper position, For testing signal diodes, the 1 mA position of the VERT mA/DIV switch is usually sufficient. For testing veetifier diodes, you may want to use the 10 mA/DIV position. Slowly increase the SWEEP VOLTAGE. A display similar to Figure 10 should be obtained, It is usually not necessary to go beyond full screen, From this waveform the forward voltage of the diode at any specified current can be determined, To check the diode in the reverse direction, simply set the TYPE switcn to PNP and reposition the trace. Any tilt in the base line indi- cates leakage. If the reverse breakdown of the diode is less than 100 volts, it can be checked on the Curve Tracer. See Figure 10 for a display of reverse breakdown, 7. -13-aaa stayin Figure 10 Figure 11 4-6, ZENER DIODES Zener diodes are checked in essentially the same manner as signal and rectifier diodes. In fact, tests in the forward direction are identical. Usually the main concern with zener diodes is the reverse break- down or zener voltage. In the breakdown voltage region, a considerable change in reverse current may occur while the zener voltage remains nearly constant. This characteristic makes zener diodes very useful as voltage regulators, Refer to Figure 11 for a typical zener diode display. 4-7, TESTING SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS (SCR) Basically, the SCR consists of four alternating layers of P and N type semiconductor material, three junctions, and three’ external ter- minals, These terminals are Anode, Cathode, and Gate, The terminals ! labelled Anode and Cathode perform the same function as their counter- parts in a rectifier. Current will pass in the SCR only from Anode to Cathode as in a diode, but it may exist only when a bias current is applied to the Gate terminal. Once conduction begins, the Gate loses control of the current. Anode current will stop only when the source is disconnected or goes to zero or reverses the voltage on the device. The SCR initially blocks both negative and positive. However, by applying a suitable Gate bias the device can be turned on at any point on a positive voltage waveform at the Anode. The Curve Tracer is capable of measuring the following SCR char- acteristics: 1) Blocking voltage - forward and reverse 2) Leakage current 3) Holding current Connect the SCR as follows: Cathode to E, Gate to B, and Anode to C. -14- LTFORWARD BLOCKING VOLTAGE This parameter can only be checked if the forward blocking voltage of the device is 100 volts or less. Forward blocking voltage is the maximum Anode to Cathode voltage in the forward direction that the SCR will withstand before conducting. This is measured at zero Gate current, With the SCR connected as previously described, short the Gate to the Cathode, This assures zero Gate current, Make the following settings on the Curve Tracer: DISPLAY to NORMAL, DEVICE to XSTR, and TYPE to NPN. Set the SELECTOR switch to the proper side. Slowly increase the SWEEP VOLTAGE until the SCR fires. At this time the Anode current will suddenly increase and the Anode voltage will drop back near Zero. The maximum excursion on the base line indicates the forward blocking voltage. See Figure 12. Any current indication before the SCR fires indicates leakage current. This leakage current can be read directly. REVERSE BLOCKING VOLTAGE The procedure for measuring reverse blocking voltage is the same as for measuring forward blocking voltage. The only difference is that the TYPE switch is set to PNP. Again, blocking voltages up to 100 volts can be measured. Reverse blocking voltage is the maximum Anode to Cathode reverse voltage that the SCR can stand without reverse breakdown. This is also measured at zero Gate current. Leave the SCR connected as described for the forward test, including the short from Gate to Cathode. Set the TYPE switch to PNP and reposi- tion the trace, Slowly increase the SWEEP VOLTAGE until the SCR just breaks over. This is the reverse blocking voltage. Any current indi- cations before breakdown is leakage and can be read directly. HOLDING CURRENT Once the SCR has been turned on, aminimum amount of Anode current must flow in order to keep the SCR on. This minimum current is referred to as holding current. Generally, holding current can only be measured with a curve tracer on high power SCR's, This is because the holding current for most general purpose SCR's is so low as not to appear on a scope display. Figure 12 shows how the waveform would appear if the holding current was sufficiently high to display. 15 -= FORWARD BLOCKING E VOLTAGE HOLDING CURRENT Ve Figure 12 Figure 13 4-8, TESTING TRIAC'S A Triac is the equivalent of two SCR's connected in parallel but in opposite directions. A Triac has the same characteristics in both directions, The three terminals of a Triac are: main terminal 1, main terminal 2, and Gate, Triac's are tested in the same manner as SCR's except that forward tests are conducted in both directions. There are no reverse blocking measurements on a Triac. 4-9, TESTING UNIJUNCTIONS (UJT) The UJT has, as the name implies, only a single P-N junction. For this reason the characteristics of the UJT are quite different'from those of a conventional transistor. The three terminals of the UJT are labelled base 1, base 2, and emitter. In the absence of emitter current, conduction from base 2 to base 1 is strictly resistive. However, a small value of trigger current applied to the emitter causes a negative resistance condition. Figure 13 shows a typical UJT display. Set the Curve Tracer as follows: DISPLAY to NORMAL, DEVICE to XSTR, SWEEP VOLTAGE to 0 and TYPE to NPN, Connect the UJT emitter to C, base 2 to B, and base 1 to E, Set the SELECTOR switch to the appropriate side. Set the STEPS/FAMILY to mid range and the BASE GENERATOR for mA/STEP. Slowly increase the SWEEP VOLTAGE to approximately 10 volts, Now vary the base current until a display similar to Figure 13 is obtained. The resistance from base 1 to base 2 can also be measured, This is known as interbase resistance (Rbb). To do this use only the -16 -RBB = VB2B1/If Figure 14 Figure 15 E and C terminals. Connect base 1 to E and base 2 to C, Increase the SWEEP VOLTAGE. to any convenient value. The display should now be similar to Figure 14. The slope of the line indicates the interbase resistance and Rbb can be calculated by: Rbb = Vbb. If 4-10, TESTING TUNNEL DIODES Tunnel diodes are used primarily for their negative resistance characteristics. They make very fast low-power switches and oscillators. Tunnel diodes are normally operated at low current and voltage levels. The characteristics of a tunnel diode may be examined with the aid of a Curve Tracer. See Figure 15 for the characteristic curve of a tunnel diode, To observe this curve, first turn the SWEEP VOLTAGE to 0, Connect the diode with the Cathode to E and the Anode to C, Set the SELECTOR switch to the appropriate side. Slowly increase the SWEEP VOLTAGE and observe the waveform. Several things can be measured directly from the curve. Ip and Vp are the peak current and voltage at the start of the Tunnel region, Iv and Vv are the valley current and voltage at the end of the Tunnel region. Switching from the peak point to the valley point occurs so rapidly that no trace appears on the scope during this time, From these measurements the average negative resistance can be calculated. Average negative resistance = Vv-Vp. -17-SECTION V APPLICATIONS ‘Although the Semiconductor Curve Tracer has many and varied uses, by far the most common application is in the measurement of two parameters - current gain and breakdown voltage. In addition, there is a long list of other parameters that can be checked. These include: Saturation voltage Saturation resistance Output admittance Leakage current Cutoff current Temperature effects Tube applications ‘The following material deals primarily with the interpretation of the various curves obtainable with the Curve Tracer. It is assumed that the previous portions of the manual have been read. The semi- conductors discussed are primarily NPN devices; however, the informa- i tion is equally applicable to PNP devices if the necessary polarity changes are taken into consideration. 5-1. GAIN MEASUREMENTS Current gain is probably one of the most useful measurements that can be made on a transistor, It gives a good indication of the general condition of the device. Current gain is further divided into two types - static and dynamic. Static current gain is usually referred to as DC beta and its symbol is HFE, Dynamic current gain is commonly referred to as AC beta and its symbol is hfe. The static forward current transfer ratio, HF, of a transistor (DC beta) is simply the ratio of its collector current to its base current. ‘This measurement is made at a specific collector voltage and current, For the measurement to be valid, it is important that this point be within -18- LLIe Te DC beta = DC beta = ib b ‘hima _ Sma, - 44m “oamA ‘OimA : HFE = 147 HFE = 167 Figure 16 Figure 17 the normal operating range of the transistor. For example, on the spec sheet for a 2N2218 the following is given: Ic - 10mA, Vee = 10V, minimum HFE = 35 The test conditions are clearly described, With a collector current of 10mA and a collector voltage of 10V, the minimum current gain (DC beta) of an acceptable device is 35, ‘These test conditions can be easily set up on a Curve Tracer and the beta of the device can then be determined. Refer to Figure 16, DC beta can also be determined very easily by using the INSTA-BETA function. Set up the proper collector voltage with the DISPLAY switch in the NORMAL position, Then change to the INSTA-BETA position and determine the beta as shown on Figure 17. For an FET the gain parameter of interest is GM. GM is defined as the change in drain current caused by a change in gate voltage. Again, the device should be set up in its normal operating range. The curves obtained for an FET are similar to those for a transistor and the GM can be determined in a similar manner, As with a transistor, the INSTA-BETA function is useful in deter- mining GM. For DC and AC GM set up the Curve Tracer with the switch in the NORMAL position, then switch to INSTA-BETA, The AC and DC GM are determined from the curve in the same manner as beta for a transistor. -19-Ale ele : AC beta = ab AC beta = Tb | _ 1,9mA _ 24m | = TdimA ~ 03mA | hfe = 190 hfe = 60 | | Figure 18 Figure 19 5-2, AC BETA ‘The dynamic or AC beta of a transistor is defined as the ratio of the | change in collector current to the change in base current, Again, this | is usually measured at a specified collector current and voltage. Refer : to Figure 18 for an example of AC beta determination, The INSTA-BETA function is also very useful in determining the AC beta of a transistor. It is much easier to work with a single line than with a whole family of curves. Refer to Figure 19. Simply draw a line tangent to the curve obtained and measure the change in Ic and the change ! in Ib over the interval used for the Je measurement, 5-3. BREAKDOWN VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT | ‘The Semiconductor Curve Tracer is capable of checking devices with breakdown voltage up to 100 volts, Collector breakdown is charac- terized by an abrupt increase in collector current as sweep voltage is inereased, If the current were not limited, the device would soon destroy itself, Even though the Curve Tracer has internal current limiting it | is possible to damage low current devices if care is not taken, Therefore, | it is best to always turn the SWEEP VOLTAGE to zero and set the VERT mA/DIV to .5. ‘To check the breakdown characteristics of any particular device, first start with the family of curves, Then slowly increase the SWEEP VOLTAGE until an abrupt change in collector current is observed, = 20- neFigure 20 Figure 21 Then read the voltage from the scale. Refer to Figure 20, Some tran- sistors break down much more abruptly than others. Try to keep the test as short as possible to prevent excessive temperature rise of the device from causing damage. 5-4, SATURATION VOLTAGE (VCE (SAT)) The collector to emitter saturation voltage is the minimum voltage required to maintain the transistor in full conduction, Under saturation conditions, a further increase in forward bias produces little or no corresponding increase in collector current. Saturation voltages are very important in switching applications, On a graph of a transistor showing collector current versus collector voltage for a particular base current, the saturation voltage is the collector voltage at a point near or below the knee. See Figure 21, From this family of curves it can be seen that the knees occur at almost the same collector voltage for different collector currents. Measurement of VCE (SAT) can easily be accomplished by using the Curve Tracer. For the greatest accuracy, it is best to calibrate the scope at its maximum sensitivity. If the purpose of the measurement is to verify a specification, it is best to remember that both the base current and the collector current should be specified. From Figure 21 the saturation resistance can also be easily cal- culated. Saturation resistance is the collector voltage divided by the collector current for any given base current in the saturation region. The formula is ree (SAT) = Ve/Te. 5-5, OUTPUT ADMITTANCE (hoe) Admittance is the reciprocal of impedance. Therefore, measurements of output admittance are similar to measurements of output impedance. A low admittance is equivalent to a high impedance, - 24 -Output admittance = hoe = AE Figure 22 ‘The output admittance of a transistor describes the effect a change in collector voltage will have on the current through the device with no change in base current, Any curve which is a plot of current versus voltage has a slope which is equivalent to some admittance. ‘Above the knees of the curves, the slope represents output admittance. See Figure 22, The more nearly horizontal a section of a curve is, the less the output admittance it represents, The formula for output admittance is: hoe = ale/aVe, The output impedance is merely the reciprocal or 4Vc/alc. 5-6. LEAKAGE CURRENT (Iceo) Ieeo is the collector to emitter current that flows with the base open. In other words, it is current flow when the transistor is supposed to be off. When checking a device against the data sheet, the tests should be made at the specified voltage and temperature. Leakage can be read directly from the family of curves by observing the tilt in the base line. This is the line of zero base current, Any slope in this line indicates either leakage or a tilted CRT. Be sure not to mistake a misaligned CRT for transistor leakage. 5-7. CUTOFF CURRENT (Icbo) Icbo is the collector to base current that flows with the emitter open. ‘As with Iceo, the cutoff current measurements should be made ata specified collector voltage. = 22-Figure 23 ‘The transistor under test is connected as follows: collector to C, base to E, and emitter open. The TYPE switch is set to the polarity of the device under test, Set ‘the SWEEP VOLTAGE to the specified test voltage. Read Icbo directly, Any tilt in the base line is indicative of leakage. 5-8. TEMPERATURE EFFECTS Knowing how to recognize the symptoms of excessive heat is important. ‘Any time current is passed through a transistor, heat is generated. ‘The amount of heat increases with an increase in collector voltage and/or current, Probably the best procedure to follow is to increase the SWEEP VOLTAGE slowly while observing the resulting curves. Usually when an increase in temperature becomes significant, the curve will drift toward a different set of collector current values. Refer to Figure 23. Notice the prominent loop in the curve. This loop indicates a significant change in junction temperature during the time of each sweep. Collector capacitance can also cause loops in the curves. However, for a temperature loop, the loop size decreases and disappears when the base current or the collector voltage is reduced. Excess current should not be allowed to the point of thermal runaway. Thermal runaway is a regenerative process; that is, more current causes more heat and more heat causes more current, etc. This can be seen on the scope as curves start to roll in the direction of increasing current, If not stopped immediately, permanent damage to the device may result, - 23 -5-9, TUBE APPLICATIONS With the use of an external filament power supply and a socket, the Semiconductor Curve Tracer can also be used to display the character~ istics of vacuum tubes. Connect the plate to C, grid to B, and Cathode to E. Set the BASE GENERATOR for V/STEP and the TYPE switch to NPN. Set the DEVICE switch to FET. Connect a proper voltage to the filament pins of the tube and trace curves in a similar manner to FET's. ~24-ee SECTION VI CALIBRATION-MAINTENANCE 6-1. CALIBRATION PROCEDURE Energize the Curve Tracer from the proper power source (see volt/frequency requirements), Set the controls as follows: DISPLAY NORMAL DEVICE XSTR TYPE NPN STEPS/FAMILY MIN BASE GENERATOR, .5V/STEP Connect a calibrated scope between the E and B banana jacks. Set the scope for a vertical sensitivity of 1V/DIV and a sweep speed of l0ms/DIV. Set the STEPS/FAMILY control for the maximum number of steps without clipping at the top of the staircase. Adjust.R28 for exactly 2 steps per division as shown on the scope. 6-2, MAINTENANCE The Circuit Description section of this manual, along with a thorough understanding of the operation of the Curve Tracer, will allow the ex- perienced technician to troubleshoot most problems. Should difficulty be encountered, Hickok maintains a complete service facility to render accurate, timely, and reliable service of our products, 6-3, CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION The Curve Tracer can be divided into three basic sections: Power Supply, Collector Sweep, and Base Generator. Refer to the schematic diagram. POWER SUPPLY The power supply consists of transformer T1, rectifiers CR1, CR3, CRY, transistors Q4, Q5, and their associated components, The 415 volt supplies are derived from simple series pass regulators, CR5 and CR6 provide the reference voltage for the regulators. COLLECTOR SWEEP The high voltage secondary of Tl energizes the full wave rectifier, CR1. This provides a 120 Hz signal whichis used for the collector supply regulator, This regulator consists of Ql, Q2, Q3, and their associated = 25 -components. Ql and Q2 are Darlington connected and form the series pass element, Q3 and resistors R4 through R7 provide current limiting in over-current conditions. R1 is the front panel SWEEP VOLTAGE control which provides collector sweep from 0 to approximately 100V peak. Switch $3A provides polarity reversal of the collector sweep. Resistors R10 through R14 and op amp ARIA form the current sense network. Depending on the setting of the VERT mA/DIV switch, all collector current must flow through one of these five resistors. ARIA is a unity gain, inverting buffer amplifer which is driven by the signal appearing across the sense resistor. The signal output of ARIA is delivered to the VERT scope jack. The collector sweep signal is fed into the HORIZ V/DIV switch $4 and op amp ARIB. S4 provides three ranges of horizontal sensitivity. This eliminates the need for time consuming scope re-calibration every time a different sensitivity is desired, With the DISPLAY switch in the NORMAL position, the output of ARIB, a voltage follower, is connected to the HORIZ, scope jack. BASE GENERATOR The output of the full wave rectifier, CR7 (negative-going 120 Hz alternations) is applied to the shaper circuitry, comprised of Q7 and Z1A, The square wave output of Z1A is then differentiated and fed into the monostable multivibrator Z1B, Z1C and Z1D, The output of the monostable is then inverted by Z2A and Z2B, AR2A and C10 form an integrator, The short duration pulses from Z2A and Z2B are used to charge the integrating capacitor, C10, Diode CR9 prevents the integrating capacitor from discharging between pulses. For every pulse into the integrator the capacitor charges to some voltage level. This level is dependent on the value of the integrating capacitor, the charging current and the time the capacitor is charged. Since the capacitor does not discharge, each pulse charges the capacitor to a new, higher voltage level, The result at the output of AR2A is a staircase waveform, It is obvious that the capacitor would soon charge up to the supply voltage and then nothing further would happen. However, such is not the case. The output of AR2A is coupled toa comparator, AR2B. A reference voltage is set at one input to the comparator by R33 the STEPS/FAMILY front panel control, The higher the reference voltage, the higher the capacitor is allowed to charge. When the output of the integrator reaches the threshold set by R33, the comparator switches from a low to a high state. This triggers the discharge circuitry made up of Z2C, Z2D, and Q6, When Q6 turns on, it presents a low resistance path, typically around 60 ohms, for the capacitor to discharge. = 26 -ce The staircase is also routed to differential amplifier AR3B by way of two polarity reversal switches. One switch, S3B, reverses the polarity for N type and P type devices. The other switch, 8, reverses polarity for transistors and FET's, AR3B drives range resistors R44 through R54 to provide base current steps. Amplifier AR3A senses the turn-on voltage required by the device under test and feeds it back to ARSB as a correction signal. This method provides for constant current base steps regardless of turn-on voltage. In the INSTA-BETA position of the DISPLAY switch, the time con- stant of the monostable multivibrator is changed by switching in C8. This action produces a pulse, having a much longer time duration, which is then fed to the integrator. The net result is that the integrating capacitor ramps to the comparator threshold instead of stepping up in staircase fashion. This ramp is then processed through the same circuitry as the stair- case and then fed to the device under test, The DISPLAY switch, S6A, switches the HORIZ output jack to the output of AR3B, The scope now displays a curve of collector current versus base current or instant beta, = 27 -SECTION VII PARTS LIST SEMICONDUCTOR CURVE TRACER When ordering parts be sure to give the reference designation, description, and the Hickok part number as listed in the following table. Also include the model and serial number of the equipment, There is a minimum billing charge of $5.00 for all parts orders. REF HICKOK DESIG. | NOTES DESCRIPTION PART NO. ARL INTEGRATED CIRCUIT: 9800-136 RC4558DN dual OP amp AR2 Same as ARI AR3 Same as AR1 cL CAPACITOR, FIXED, CERAMIC: 3111-525 3000 pF, disc type C2 CAPACITOR, FIXED, CERAMIC: 3111-520 470 pF, dise type C3. CAPACITOR, FIXED, ALUMINUM | 3085-505 ELECTROLYTIC: 470 uF, -10% | - +100% c4 Same as C3 cB CAPACITOR, FIXED, METAL- 3090-101 LIZED MYLAR: .01 uF, 10%, 250 volts Same as C5 Same as C2 Same as C5 co CAPACITOR, FIXED, CERAMIC: | 3111-522 1000 pF, disc type c1o-feg pees CAPACITOR, FIXED, METAL- 3090-102 LIZED MYLAR: .047 LF, 10% 250 volts cll Same as C5 c12 Same as C5 = 28 -qT HICKOK DESIG. NOTES DESCRIPTION PART NO. cis Same as C5 CRI SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE: .59 3870-355 50W04M full wave bridge YO" CRA. SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE: diode | 3870-309 \ INST40B Zener (04 0% we hoe CRS SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE, 3870-356 50W02M full wave bridg cR4 SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE: diode | 3870-175—| 1N914 CRS Same as CR2 CR6 Same as CR2 CRT Same as CRS CR8 Same as CRA—\ eh cro Same as CR4 CR10 Same as CR4 CRI SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE: 3870-354 15 volts, 410%, 1N4469 CRI2 Same as CR11 Dsl LAMP: LED, red diffused 12270-1830 Fl FUSE: 1/2 amp, SLO-BLO, 6900-80 250 volts, pigtail type a JACK: banana, red 10300-84 2 JACK: banana, black 10300-83 33 Same as J1 a4 Same as J1 55 Same as J2 36 JACK: banana, yellow 10300-94 av Same as J1 38 Same as J2 39 Same as J6 510 SOCKET: 6 pin 19350-458 PI CORD: line, grey 3675-49 - 29 - FeshekepsREF HICKOK DESIG, | NOTES DESCRIPTION PART NO. a TRANSISTOR: MJE3738 NPN 20861-389 fr a2 TRANSISTOR: MPSA43 NPN _‘| 20861-388 ha Q3 Same as Q2lre 6% Tears cer ep ic free ere | Qe TRANSISTOR: MPSA14 NPN 20861-372 85 ‘TRANSISTOR: MPSAG5 PNP 20861 -373-| 6 TRANSISTOR: FET 2N5639 20861-310 Q7 TRANSISTOR: 2N5139 PNP-)™\"\" | 20861-181 RL RESISTOR, VARIABLE: 100k 16925-844 ohms, 30%, BD taper R2 RESISTOR, FIXED, COMPOSITION: | 18423-222 22k ohms, 10%, 1 watt R3 RESISTOR, FIXED, DEPOSITED 18470-104 CARBON: 100k ohms, 5%, 1/4 watt R4 RESISTOR, FIXED, DEPOSITED 18470-390 CARBON: 39 ohms, 5%, 1/4 watt RS RESISTOR, FIXED, DEPOSITED 18470-200 CARBON: 20 ohms, 5%, 1/4 watt R6 RESISTOR, FIXED, DEPOSITED 18470-100 CARBON: 10 ohms, 5%, 1/4 watt RT RESISTOR, FIXED, DEPOSITED 18555-219 CARBON: 5.1 ohms, 5%, 1/4 watt RB RESISTOR, FIXED, DEPOSITED 18470-820 CARBON: 82 ohms, 5%, 1/4 watt RO RESISTOR, FIXED, COMPOSITION: | 18423-122 12k ohms, 10%, 1 watt R10 Same as R6 Ril Same as R5 R12 RESISTOR, FIXED, DEPOSITED 18470-510 CARBON: 51 ohms, 5%, 1/4 watt ~ 30 - aEREF HICKOK DESIG. | NOTES DESCRIPTION PART NO, R13 RESISTOR, FIXED, DEPOSITED 18470-101 CARBON: 100 ohms, 5%, 1/4 watt R14 RESISTOR, FIXED, DEPOSITED 18470-201 CARBON: 200 ohms, 5%, 1/4 watt RIS RESISTOR, FIXED, DEPOSITED 18470-1083 CARBON: 10k ohms, 5%, 1/4 watt R16 Same as R15 RIT RESISTOR, FIXED, DEPOSITED 18470-102 CARBON: 1k ohms, 5%, 1/4 watt R18 RESISTOR, FIXED, DEPOSITED 18470-125 CARBON: 1.2 megohms, 5%, 1/4 watt R19 RESISTOR, FIXED, DEPOSITED 18470-304 CARBON: 300k ohms, 5%, 1/4 watt R20 RESISTOR, FIXED, DEPOSITED 18470-244 CARBON: 240k ohms, 5%, 1/4 watt R21 Same as RIS R22 Same as R17 R23 Same as R17 R24 Same as R15 R25 Same as R15 R26 Same as R3 R27 Same as R19 R26 RESISTOR, VARIABLE: 500k 16925-843 ‘ohms, 30%, linear taper R29 RESISTOR, FIXED, DEPOSITED 18470-623 CARBON: 62k ohms, 5%, 1/4 watt R30 Same as R3 R31 Same as R13 R32 | Same as R17 al - -31-= 32- REF HICKOK DESIG. | NOTES DESCRIPTION PART NO. R33 RESISTOR, VARIABLE: 10k 16925-845 ohms, 30%, linear taper R34 RESISTOR, FIXED, DEPOSITED 18470-511 CARBON: 510 ohms, 5%, 1/4 watt R35 Same as R3 R36 Same as R3 R37 Same as R3 R38 Same as R15 R39 Same as R15 R40 Same as R15 R4L Same as R15 R42 RESISTOR, FIXED, DEPOSITED 18470-243 CARBON: 24k ohms, 5%, 1/4 watt R43 Same as R17 R44 Same as R34 R45. Same as R17 RAG RESISTOR, FIXED, DEPOSITED 18470-202 CARBON: 2k ohms, 5%, 1/4 watt RAT RESISTOR, FIXED, DEPOSITED 18470-512 CARBON: 5.1k ohms, 5%, 1/4 watt R48 Same as R15 R49 RESISTOR, FIXED, DEPOSITED 18470-203 CARBON: 20k ohms, 5%, 1/4 watt R50 RESISTOR, FIXED, DEPOSITED 18470-513 CARBON: 51k ohms, 5%, 1/4 watt RSL Same as RS R52 RESISTOR, FIXED, DEPOSITED 18470-204 CARBON: 200k ohms, 5%, 1/4 watt “hREF ‘| HICKOK DESIG, | NOTES DESCRIPTION PART NO. R53 RESISTOR, FIXED, DEPOSITED 18470-514 CARBON: 510k ohms, 5%, 1/4 watt R54 RESISTOR, FIXED, DEPOSITED 18470-105 CARBON: 1 megohm, 5%, 1/4 watt R55 Same as R50 sl SWITCH: slide, dpdt 19911-159 S2 SWITCH: rotary, vertical sensi- 19912-700 tivity, 1 section, 5 positions 83 SWITCH: slide, 4pdt 1991-162 84 SWITCH: slide, dptt 1911-160 $5 Same as S1 86 SWITCH: slide, Spdt 19911-161 s7 Same as 84 88 Same as S1 89 SWITCH: rotary, base, 1 section, | 19912-701 11 positions slo SWITCH: circuit breaker 19913-17 sil Same as S10 TL TRANSFORMER: power 20800-429 12 TRANSFORMER: filament 20800-443 XL SOCKET: transistor 19350-535 | -%2 Same as X1 Z1 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT: 4001 9800-96 CMOS quad 2, input positive NOR Za Same as Z1 = 33 -WVHDVIG NOILV901 SLUWda SCHEMATIC WIRING DIAGRAM Model 440