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fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TIA.2017.2680409, IEEE
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Standards and Guidelines for Grid-connected Photovoltaic Generation Systems: a

Review and Comparison

Yuan-Kang Wu Jhih-Hao Lin Huei-Jeng Lin

IEEE Member
National Chung-Cheng University National Taiwan University National Taiwan University
Chiayi 62102, Taiwan Taipei 10617, Taiwan Taipei 10617, Taiwan
allenwu@ccu.edu.tw d98525008@ntu.edu.tw hjlin@ntu.edu.tw


Abstract -- Motivated by concerns about the environment and
energy shortages, considerable progress has recently been made
in the development of photovoltaic (PV) and other forms of
distributed generation. These developments have contributed
greatly to awareness of the importance of renewable energy and
governmental policies to revise energy priorities to ensure the
adoption and significant growth of renewable energy. Safely and
reliably interconnecting various photovoltaic generators is a
major challenge in the development of modern power systems
and the interconnection of PVs may have effects that require
close attention. Standards or guidelines for grid-connected
photovoltaic generation systems considerably affect PV
development. This investigation reviews and compares
standards and guidelines for distributed generation, and
especially for PV integration. Pertinent standards and guidelines
that ensure the successful operation of PV systems are presented.
This investigation serves as a reference for improving standards
for grid-connected photovoltaic generation systems.
Keywords -- Photovoltaic, Standards, Guidelines, Distributed
Generation, Integration
I. INTRODUCTION
The number of applications of solar, wind and other
renewable energy will increase rapidly as governments
aggressively promote them and premium feed-in tariffs are
globally established. Solar photovoltaic systems represent
one of the fastest growing sources of renewable energy that
are integrated into distribution systems. As the penetration of
distributed generation resources increases in the grid, certain
technical aspects of renewable energy integration must be
considered. Since renewable energy sources are intermittent,
their large-scale connection to power grids may dramatically
influence the operation of distribution systems. Accordingly,
appropriate preventative measures and protective equipment
must be developed to ensure the safety and reliability of the
power supply [1-3].
Standards and guidelines for PV integration should cover
operational safety, warning signals, limiting access,
insulation, protection against islanding, grounding, and other
considerations. Various international organizations and
countries have developed various standards or guidelines to
ensure system reliability and safety. Some guidelines concern
only PV integration while others concern the integration of
general distributed generators, including PV sources [4-6].
This investigation discusses the effect of large PV
penetration on the system operation, and, more importantly,
examines numerous standards and guidelines associated with
the interconnection of PV systems; it covers general
principles, power quality requirements, general technical
requirements, power control, voltage regulation, the
responses of a system to abnormal conditions, safety and
protection. This investigation also compares specifications of
PV inverters to provide a reference for developing domestic
guidelines for PV integration. Various standards or guidelines
that govern the interconnections of distributed generators
with power systems may influence the development of
distributed power generation. Of these international standards,
the most widely recognized and used are IEEE 1547 and IEC
61727. The IEEE 1547 standard includes technical
specifications and tests for the interconnection of distributed
resources (DR) below 10 MVA; IEC 61727 applies to utility-
interconnected photovoltaic power systems with a rated
capacity of below 10 kVA that are connected to a low-voltage
utility network, and thus concerns the compatibility between
photovoltaic systems and public networks. Another
international standard, IEEE 929, was developed specifically
for photovoltaic systems. It provides practical guidelines for
the operation of compatible small photovoltaic systems below
10 kW when connected to a power system, covering
personnel safety, the protection of equipment, power quality,
and the operation of the utility system. In addition to the
aforementioned international standards, there are also
numerous national standards and guidelines concerning the
interconnection of PV systems.
Some standards set general requirements for distributed
generator (DG), DR, or PV integration only. These standards
do not apply to particular regions or countries. For instance,
IEEE 1547, IEC 61727 and IEEE Std 929 are international
regulations. Many countries, including the US, have
incorporated or modified these international regulations into
their national standards. Currently, the most widely applied
standard for the interconnections of all types of DR is IEEE

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1547. However, many countries have released various other IEEE and IEC standards [7-9], the state guidelines of
standards for PV integration. For example, Germany is a California and Texas in the U.S [10-11], the national
dominant PV market so the German VDE-AR-N 4105 is an guidelines of Canada [12-13], UK [14], Germany [15-16],
important guideline for PV integration. Many European Spain [17], Australia [18-20], China [21-23], Taiwan [24-25],
countries and power generation companies apply VDE-AR-N South Korea [26] and Japan [27].
4105 for PV integration, sometimes with modifications. The previous work [28] has reviewed most of the standards
These published standards or guidelines provide general and guidelines for grid-connected photovoltaic generation
requirements for PV integration, and local power generation systems. This paper provides additional materials on
companies in a particular country can modify them to make synchronization, grounding, flickers, prevention of
them applicable to their local regions. Table I presents the electromagnetic interference, isolation and switching, and
aforementioned standards and guidelines for integrating DR short circuit protection. Additionally, this paper addresses the
(including PV systems) into power grids, along with the future potential trends for improving the existing standards
countries or regions to which they apply. This table for the interconnection of PV systems.
summarizes common international standards such as the
TABLE I
VARIOUS INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES FOR INTEGRATING DR (INCLUDING PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS) WITH POWER GRIDS
Standard No. Title of Standard Publication
IEC 61727-2004 Photovoltaic (PV) systems - Characteristics of the utility interface International
Electrotechnical
Commission
IEEE Std 1547TM -2003 (R2008) IEEE Standard for Interconnecting Distributed Resources with Electric Power The Institute of Electrical
(including amendment IEEE 1547a- Systems and Electronics Engineers
2014)
IEEE Std 929-2000 Recommended Practice for Utility Interface of Photovoltaic (PV) Systems The Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers
Rule 21-2014 Generating Facility Interconnections California of America
- Texas Distributed Generation Interconnection Manual Texas of America
CSA C22.3 No. 9-08 (R2015) Interconnection of distributed resources and electricity supply systems Canada
CAN/CSA-C22.2 No. 257-06 Interconnecting inverter-based micro-distributed resources to distribution Canada
(R2015) systems.
ENA Engineering Recommendation Recommendations for the Connection of Type Tested Small-scale Embedded UK
G83 Issue 2-2012 (EREC G83) Generators (Up to 16A per Phase) in Parallel with Low-Voltage Distribution
Systems
DIN V VDE V 0126-1-1 (VDE V Automatic disconnection device between a generator and the public low- German
0126-1-1) -2013-08 voltage grid
VDE-AR-N 4105 -2011-08 Power generation systems connected to the low-voltage distribution network－ German
Technical minimum requirements for the connection to and parallel operation
with low-voltage distribution networks
RD 1663/2000 Interconnection of PV installations to the low voltage grid Spain
AS 4777.1-2005 Grid connection of energy systems via inverters Australia
AS 4777.2-2005 Part 1: Installation requirements.
AS 4777.3-2005 Part 2: Inverter requirements
(including the new version of AS Part 3: Grid protection requirements
4777)
GB/T 19939-2005 Technical requirements for grid connection of PV system China
GB/T 19964-2012 Technical requirements for connecting photovoltaic power station to power China
system
GB/T 20046-2006 Photovoltaic (PV) systems - Characteristics of the utility interface China
CNS 15382 Photovoltaic (PV) systems - Characteristic of the utility interface Taiwan
TPC Technical Guideline Taiwan Power Company Technical Guideline for integrating renewable energy Taiwan
with the grid
KEPCO Technical Guideline Korea Electric Power Corporation Technical Guideline for integrating Korea
distributed resources with the grid
JEAC 9701-2012 Grid-interconnection Code Japan

Some of the interconnection standards and guidelines
concern the applicable capacities of DRs. For instance, IEEE
1547 requires that the applicable capacity of the DR is
smaller than 10MVA at the PCC. IEC 61727, CNS 15382 and
GB/T 20046 set an applicable capacity of 10KVA or less.
Some standards or guidelines specify the applicable capacity
in more detail. For example, EREC G83 requires that the
applicable capacity of a small-scale embedded generator
(SSEG) is up to 16 A per phase. Accordingly, the applicable
capacity of a single-phase or three-phase SSEG system is
3.68kW or 11.04kW, respectively. AS 4777 defines the
applicable capacity of both single-phase and three-phase
systems. However, some standards specify the applicable
capacity of the DR system in terms of the voltage level. For

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example, CAN/CSA-C22.2 specifies an applicable voltage of GB/T 20046 concerns the low-voltage PV systems, whereas
no more than 600V; VDE-AR-N 4105 specifies the low- GB/T 19964 concerns the high-voltage PV systems. Table II
voltage side of power generation systems. China applies two summarizes the applicable capacity or voltage in various PV
standards to PV integration based on the integrated voltage; interconnection standards and guidelines.
TABLE II
THE SCOPE OF THE INTERCONNECTION STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES
Standards Scope Applicable capacity Network
IEEE 1547 DR Aggregate capacity of 10 MVA or less at the PCC -
CSA 22.3 No. 9-08 DR Aggregate capacity of 10 MW or less at the PCC, up to 50kV Distribution system
CAN/CSA-C22.2 No. Micro-DR 600 V (nominal) or less Low Voltage (LV)
257-06
KEPCO Technical DR 20 kW or less for LV LV/UHV
Guideline 3000 kW or less for ultra-high voltage (UHV)
EREC G83 Type Tested Small- SSEG is a source of electrical energy rated up to and including LV
Scale Embedded 16 Ampere per phase
Generators (SSEGs) 3.68kW (Single-phase)
11.04kW (Three-phase)
*
VDE-AR-N 4105 Power generation - LV
systems
IEC 61727 PV 10 kVA or less LV
CNS 15382 PV 10 kVA or less LV
IEEE 929 PV 10 kW or less -
GB/T 20046 PV 10 kVA or less LV
GB/T 19964 PV 35kV or more HV
RD 1663/2000 PV less than 100 kVA (PV) LV
less than 1kV (Voltage level)
AS 4777 Inverter-based energy up to 10 kVA for single-phase units; Electricity distribution
systems up to 30 kVA for three-phase units network
*
Power generation systems include: water-power systems; photovoltaic systems; generators mechanically coupled with thermal engines, e.g. in
combined heat and power units (CHP); fuel cell systems.

 Malfunction of over-current and over-voltage

II. EFFECTS OF LARGE PV INTEGRATION INTO POWER GRID
Connecting a massive PV system to a power grid may
affect the reliability of the distribution system, during either
steady-state or dynamic operations. Owing to the large and
instantaneous variation that is caused by PVs, as well as the
reverse power flow from PVs to the grid, over/under voltage
problems in low-voltage distribution systems occasionally
occur, especially in high-impedance branches of the power
system. Furthermore, frequency regulation may suffer from a
problem when the load demand is less than a particular level
owing to the short-term fluctuation and unpredictability of
PV output.
The effects of connecting PV generators to the grid may
include the following [1, 2]:
 Voltage fluctuation and voltage regulation problem.
 Changes in feeder voltage profiles, including voltage
rise and unbalance.
 Changes in feeder loading, including overloading of the
system components.
 Malfunctioning of the voltage regulation equipment,
including load tap changers (LTCs), line voltage
regulators and capacitor banks.
 Variation of reactive power flow upon the operation of
switched capacitor banks.
 Variation of the power factor in a grid.
 Current and voltage harmonics.
 Injection of DC current.
protection devices.
 Islanding detection and islanding operation.
 Reverse power flow.
 Reliability and security of distribution systems.
 Planning and dispatch of distribution systems.
The severity of these effects varies with the PV
penetration, the location of the PV generation, and other
electrical characteristics of the distribution system. Of these,
overvoltage on feeders is the most generally problematic
effect of PV integration. In addition to the active and reactive
power controls by distributed generators, grid voltage control
appliances can be installed on the side of the grid to deal with
power flow congestion and problematic voltage variations;
these include a static Var compensator (SVC), a step voltage
regulator (SVR), and a loop power controller (LPC) [29].
III. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS AND SPECIFICATIONS
A. Voltage Fluctuation
Voltage quality in distribution systems is easily affected by
the intermittency of PV power output. Moreover, load
variations and the regulation of power devices cause voltage
variation in a low-voltage grid. Consistent with the IEC
61727 and IEEE 1547 (2003) standards, the voltage of a PV
system is generally not regulated. Nonetheless, the system
voltage following PV integration must not exceed the
relevant limit. IEEE 1547a (2014) requires that the active

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participation of distributed generators to regulate the voltage
by changing the real and reactive power [30].
Most standards require that voltage variations at the Point
of common coupling (PCC) following the integration of
distributed generators must not exceed a certain value, which
is typically between 3 % and 5 %. Standards such as IEEE
1547, Rule 21, CSA C22.3 No. 9-08, CAN/CSA-C22.2 No.
257-06 and RD 1663 specify that the voltage fluctuation must
be within ±5 %. EREC G83 specifies that the voltage
fluctuation must be within 4 %. VDE-AR-N4105 specifies
that the voltage fluctuation must not exceed 3 %, and a
fluctuation of 3 % may not occur more than once every 10
min.
GB/T 19964 specifies the voltage fluctuations that comply
with the requirements of GB/T 12326. The Korea KEPCO
Technical Guidelines require that the long-term (mean value
over 10 min) and the instantaneous (2s) voltage fluctuations
in low-voltage distribution lines are less than 3% and 4%,
respectively, and that the long-term and instantaneous voltage
fluctuations in ultra-high voltage distribution lines are less
than 2%. These requirements concern not only the amplitude
but also the duration of the voltage fluctuation.
B. Power Factor
Most interconnection standards require that the power
factor exceeds 0.9, and three conditions are specified. The
first condition is that the output power must exceed 50 % of
the rated inverter output power, as in IEC 61727, GB/T
20046 and CNS 15382. The second condition does not
specify output power at all, as in GB/T 19939, CSA C22.3
No. 9-08, KEPCO Technical Guidelines, TPC Technical
Guidelines and RD 1663. The third condition is that the
output is the rated power, as in Rule 21 and EREC G83.
VDE-AR-N4105 differs from all of the above standards in
requiring that the power factor exceeds 0.9 only when the
output exceeds 20 % of the rated power. Standards IEEE 929,
AS 4777.2, CAN/CSA-C22.2 No. 257-06 and JEAC 9701-
2012 all permit a power factor of less than 0.9. For instance,
IEEE 929 specifies that if the inverter output exceeds 10% of
the rated output, then the power factor must exceed 0.85. AS
4777.2 specifies that when the inverter output exceeds 20 %
of the rated output, the power factor must be between 0.8
leading and 0.95 lagging. CAN/CSA-C22.2 No. 257-06 and
JEAC 9701-2012 require that the power factor exceeds 0.85.
The new version of AS 4777 requires that an inverter
operates between 0.95 leading and 0.95 lagging if its rated
current is no more than 20A per phase, and between 0.90
leading and 0.90 lagging if its rated current exceeds 20A per
phase [31].
C. Synchronization
Before generation facilities can be interconnected with a
grid, issues of synchronization must be considered to protect
all equipment from damage. International standards such as
IEC 61727, IEEE 929, RD 1663 and Chinese GB
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photovoltaic standards, are designed specifically for
photovoltaic systems and they impose no requirements on
synchronization. In the IEEE 1547 standard, synchronous
interconnection to a distribution system is required and the
distribution system is within the synchronization limits that
are stated in Table III.
Other standards that impose the same requirements as
IEEE 1547 include California Electric Rule 21, Canadian
CSA C22.3 No. 9-08 and Korea KEPCO Technical Guideline,
but the limiting voltage fluctuation in the KEPCO Technical
Guideline is ±4 %. The Texas Distributed Generation
Interconnection Manual does not impose synchronization
limits, but suggests that synchronizing equipment should be
used. Taiwan TPC Technical Guideline requires the
installation of automatic synchronizing equipment and
protective equipment. The VDE-AR-N 4105 standard
requires that a synchronization device is installed in a
position that enables synchronous generators to be coupled
directly to the grid, and the same connection conditions apply
for both asynchronous and synchronous generators.
TABLE III
SYNCHRONIZATION PARAMETER LIMITS FOR SYNCHRONOUS
INTERCONNECTION
Aggregate Frequency Voltage Phase angle
capacity (KVA) difference (Hz) difference (%) difference (°)
0-500 0.3 10 20
> 500-1500 0.2 5 15
>1500 0.1 3 10
D. Grounding
GB/T 20046 and CNS 15382 directly incorporate the
provisions of the IEC 61727, and both require that utility
interface equipment is grounded in accordance with IEC
60364-7-712 [32], which in turn requires the installation of
protective equipotential bonding conductors that are parallel
to, and in as close contact as possible with, DC cables, AC
cables and accessories. Chinese standard GB/T 19939
requires that the use of lightning protection and grounding
that comply with Chinese standard SJ/T 1112-1997 －
Overvoltage Protection for Photovoltaic (PV) Power
Generating Systems.
Spanish Royal Decree RD 1663 requires that grounding
schemes are implemented without modifying the conditions
of grounding that are set by the electric company, to ensure
no-fault transfer to the distribution network. International
standard IEEE 1547 requires that grounding does not cause
over-voltages that exceed the rating of the equipment that is
connected to the grid and does not disrupt the coordination of
the ground fault protection; it also states that protection
against voltage and current surges must be employed and
consistent with IEEE C62.41.2-2002 or IEEE C37.90.1-2002.
The grounding requirements in California Electric Rule 21,
Korea KEPCO Technical Guideline, and Taiwan TPC
Technical Guideline are the same as those in IEEE 1547.
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The Canadian standards CSA C22.3 No. 9-08 and B. Harmonic Distortion
CAN/CSA-C22.2 No. 257-06 specify that micro-DR systems Photovoltaic systems are connected to power systems via
and interconnection systems must be grounded in accordance power converters, causing harmonic distortion. Although
with the manufacturers’ recommendations, the Canadian such distortion is not significant at all harmonic currents, it
Electrical Code, Part I, and the standard practices of the may still affect the power quality of distribution feeders.
owner of the wires. Additionally, transformer grounding Various interconnection standards concerning harmonic
systems in three-phase distribution systems shall not cause current distortion are quite similar, with the exception of
voltage disturbances or disrupt distribution-system ground VDE-AR-N4105 and EREC G83, which are particularly strict.
fault protection. Most countries adopt IEEE 1547. Tables IV-VII provide
For a photovoltaic system that is connected to a information related to harmonic current distortion limits.
distribution network via an inverter, UK EREC G83 allows
one pole of the DC side of the inverter to be connected to the TABLE IV
ground terminal of the distribution grid if the insulation HARMONIC CURRENT DISTORTION LIMITS OF PV SYSTEMS
between the AC and DC sides of the inverter satisfies the Standard No. IEC 61727 IEEE 929
GB/T 19939 IEEE 1547
requirements for at least simple separation. UK EREC G83 GB/T 20046 CSA C22.3 No. 9-08
also requires that the grounding of all exposed conductive CNS 15382 Rule 21
parts complies with BS 7671. The IEEE 929 standard makes AS 4777.2 TPC Technical Guideline
no requirements concerning lightning, surges, and grounding KEPCO Technical Guideline
Odd 3≤h≤9 < 4.0 % < 4.0 %
protection, but it requires that photovoltaic systems and harmonic 11 ≤ h ≤ 15 < 2.0 % < 2.0 %
interface equipment are grounded in a manner consistent with 17 ≤ h ≤ 21 < 1.5 % < 1.5 %
the applicable codes. 23 ≤ h ≤ 33 < 0.6 % < 0.6 %
33 < h -- < 0.3 %
IV. REQUIREMENTS FOR POWER QUALITY Even 2≤h≤8 < 1.0 % Less than 25 % of the odd
harmonic 10 ≤ h ≤ 32 < 0.5 % harmonic limits
A. Flickers TDD(%) or THD(%) <5% <5%
Flicker is regarded as objectionable when it causes either a *h: harmonic order
modulation of the light level of lamps that is sufficient to *TDD: total demand distortion
*THD: total harmonic distortion
irritate humans, or causes the malfunctioning of equipment.
The IEEE 1547 standard and the Canadian CSA standards TABLE V
state that the DR shall not create objectionable flicker. IEEE HARMONIC CURRENT DISTORTION LIMITS OF PV SYSTEMS
(CAN/CSA-C22.2 NO. 257-06)
929 requires that voltage flicker must satisfy the requirements
Odd 3 ≤ h ≤ 9 11 ≤ h ≤ 15 17 ≤ h ≤ 21 23 ≤ h ≤ 33 33 < h
of IEEE 519, and IEC 61727 requires that the operation of a harmonic 4.0 2.0 1.5 0.6 0.33
PV system should not cause voltage flicker in excess of limits
Even 2≤h≤8 10 ≤ h ≤ 14 16 ≤ h ≤ 20 22 ≤ h ≤ 32 34 ≤ h
that are specified in the relevant sections of IEC 61000-3-3 harmonic 1.0 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.1
(system current ≤ 16 A) and IEC 61000-3-5 (system current>
16 A). TABLE VI
The VDE-AR-N 4105 standard requires that if the rated HARMONIC CURRENT DISTORTION LIMITS OF PV SYSTEMS (EREC G83)
Odd h=3 h=5 h=7 h=9 h = 11 h = 13 15 ≤ h ≤ 39
current is 16 A or less, then voltage flicker must not violate harmonic 2.30 1.14 0.77 0.40 0.33 0.21 0.15×(15/h)
the DIN EN 61000-3-3 (VDE 0838-3) limit; if the rated Even h=2 h=4 h=6 8 ≤ h ≤ 40 Limits in BS EN 61000-3-2
current is between 16 A and 75 A, then voltage flicker must harmonic 1.08 0.43 0.30 0.23×(8/h) Class A (equipment input
current ≤ 16 A per phase)
not violate the DIN EN 61000-3-11 (VDE 0838-11) limit.
UK EREC G83 requires that short-term and long-term flicker TABLE VII
do not exceed 1.0 and 0.65, respectively. U.S. California HARMONIC CURRENT DISTORTION LIMITS OF PV SYSTEMS (VDE-AR-N 4105)
Electric Rule 21 and the Texas Distributed Generation Permissible related harmonic current ivzul in A/MVA
Odd harmonic h=3 3
Interconnection Manual require that the voltage flicker is
h=5 1.5
consistent with IEEE 519. Taiwan’s CNS and China’s GB h=7 1
standards concerning voltage flicker for photovoltaic systems h=9 0.7
are the same as those specified by IEC 61727, which requires h = 11 0.5
that voltage flicker does not exceed the IEC 61000-3-3 and h = 13 0.4
IEC 61000-3-5 limits. The Australian AS 4777 standard was h = 17 0.3
h = 19 0.25
not developed for PV in particular, but the requirements h = 23 0.2
concerning voltage flicker are identical to those in IEC 61727. h = 25 0.15
25 < h < 40 0.15-25/h
42 < h 178 4.5/h
Even harmonic h < 40 1.5/h

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42 < h < 178 4.5/h D. Voltage Unbalance

Limits in DIN EN 61000-3-2 (equipment input current ≤ 16 A per phase)
The interconnection standards of three countries -
C. DC Injection Germany, Canada, and China – specify voltage unbalance.
Interconnecting a photovoltaic system with a grid through GB/T 19939 and GB/T 19964 set a voltage unbalance limit of
an inverter may cause the injection of DC current into the 2% and an instantaneous limit of 4 %. CAN/CSA-C22.2 No.
grid. However, DC injection may adversely influence 257-06 sets a voltage unbalance limit of 2 %, except during
transformers and other network devices, causing the unbalanced loading or single-phase voltage regulation, when
asymmetrical magnetization and consequent overheating of 3 % is allowed. Standard CSA C22.3 No. 9-08 imposes a
the distribution transformers. limit of 3 % under all conditions. The new version of AS
DC injection in a PV system is invariably limited to within 4777 requires that the unbalance between any two phases is
1%, 0.5% or 0.25% of the rated output current. For example, less than 20A or 2% of the voltage in a three-phase system. In
EREC G83 allows the maximum injected DC current to be Germany, the limit is 2 % under normal conditions but 3 %
0.25 % of the rated output current. IEEE 929 sets the same under particular conditions. Accordingly, most standards set a
limit as IEEE 1547, which is 0.5% of the rated output current. general limit of 2 %.
IEC 61727, CNS 15382 and GB/T 19939 require that, for PV
systems, DC injection does not exceed 1 % of the rated V. SAFETY AND PROTECTION
output current. Table VIII presents the limits on the injected A. Abnormal Voltage Trip
DC current under various standards or guidelines.
An extreme voltage at the connection point for an extended
period reduces system safety and operating efficiency, and
TABLE VIII
LIMITATION OF DC INJECTION FROM DR therefore requires an abnormal voltage trip. In most
Standard No. Limitation of DC injection interconnection standards, abnormal voltages fall into four
IEC 61727 No more than 1% of rated output ranges, which are less than 50 %, between 50 % and 88 %,
CNS 15382 current
between 110 % and 120 %, and above 120 % of the rated
GB/T 19939
IEEE 1547 No more than 0.5% of rated output voltage, for which maximum allowable trip times of 0.1s, 2s,
IEEE 929 current 2s and 0.16s, respectively, are specified. The new version of
CSA C22.3 No. 9-08 AS 4777 requires that an inverter be disconnected from the
Rule 21 grid within 3s when the average voltage over a 10 min period
TPC Technical Guideline
KEPCO Technical Guideline exceeds the maximum nominal voltage, which is 255V for
EREC G83 The limit of DC injection is 0.25 % of Australia and 246V for New Zealand. Tables IX-XI present
AC current rating per phase the requirements of responses to abnormal voltages.
VDE V 0126-1-1 The power generation system must be
isolated within 0.2s while the DC
current is more than 1 A

TABLE IX
RESPONSE TO ABNORMAL VOLTAGE OF PV SYSTEMS - PART 1
IEC 61727 Voltage V < 50% 50% ≤ V < 85% 110% < V < 135% 135% ≤ V
GB/T 19939
GB/T 20046
CNS 15382 Maximum trip time 0.1s 2s 2s 0.05s
IEEE 929 Voltage V < 50% 50% ≤ V < 88% 110% < V < 137% 137% ≤ V
Maximum trip time 6 cycles 120 cycles 120 cycles 2 cycles
KEPCO Technical Guideline Voltage V < 50% 50% ≤ V < 88% 110% < V < 120% 120% ≤ V
Clearing time 0.16s 2s 2s 0.16s
EREC G83 Voltage V < 80% V < 87% V > 114% V > 119%
(184V) (200.1V) (262.2V) (273.7V)
Trip time 0.5s 2.5s 1s 0.5s
Texas Distributed Generation Voltage V < 70% 70% ≤ V < 90% 105% < V ≤ 110% 110% < V
Interconnection Manual delay 0.166s delay 30s delay 30s delay 0.166s
Trip time 0.166s 0.166s 0.166s 0.166s
AS 4777.3 Voltage V < 200 (single-phase system) V > 270 (single-phase system)
V < 350 (three-phase system) V > 470 (three-phase system)
Trip time 2s 2s
RD 1663 Voltage V < 85% V > 110%
Clearing time 0.5s 0.5s
VDE-AR-N 4105 Voltage V < 80% V > 110%
Trip time 0.1s 0.1s
VDE V 0126-1-1 Voltage V ≤ 80%
Trip time 0.2s 0.2s

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TABLE X
RESPONSE TO ABNORMAL VOLTAGE OF PV SYSTEMS - PART 2
IEEE 1547 IEEE 1547a
Rule 21
Voltage Clearing time Voltage Clearing time Clearing time: adjustable
up to and including
V < 50% 0.16s V < 45% 0.16s 0.16s
50% ≤ V < 88% 2s 45% < V < 60% 1s 11s
-- -- 60% < V < 88% 2s 21s
110% < V < 120% 1s 110% < V < 120% 1s 13s
120% ≤ V 0.16s 120% < V 0.16s 0.16s

TABLE XI
RESPONSE TO ABNORMAL VOLTAGE OF PV SYSTEMS - PART 3
CAN/CSA-C22.2 No. 257-06 CAN/CSA-C22.2 No. 257-06 CSA C22.3 No. 9-08
(rated ≤ 30kVA) (rated > 30kVA)
Voltage Maximum trip time Voltage Maximum trip time Voltage Clearing time
V<50% 6 cycles V<50% 6 cycles V<50% 0.16 s
50%<V<88% 120 cycles 50%≤V<88% 120 cycles 50%≤V<88% 2s
-- -- 106%<V<110% (Field adjustable) 106%<V≤110% 0.5s~2 min
110%<V<137% 120 cycles 110%≤V<120% 120 cycles 110%<V≤120% 2 min
-- -- 120%≤V<137% 120 cycles* 120%<V<137% 2s
137%<V 2 cycles 137%≤V 2 cycles 137%≤V Instantaneous
*Time to trip can be verified for field adjustable devices

large capacity, no trip action is required within a very short

B. Abnormal Frequency Trip
period. IEEE 1547a sets the maximum trip time as adjustable
A photovoltaic power system ceases to energize the utility up to 300s, but it does not specify the corresponding DR
line when the utility frequency falls outside the allowed range. capacity. The new version of AS 4777 requires that an
If the frequency returns to the normal continuous operating inverter operates at 47-50.2 Hz. If grid frequency exceeds
range within the specified trip time, then the PV system does 50.2 Hz, then the current through an inverter shall be reduced;
not cease to energize. The purpose of the allowed time delay if it exceeds 51.5Hz, then the current through an inverter
is to enable short-term disturbances to be ridden-through to must cease to flow. Among all standards, German VDE V
prevent nuisance tripping. With respect to an abnormal 0126-1-1 is the strictest with respect to over-frequency
frequency trip, for a DR capacity less than 30 kVA, the tripping, specifying an over-frequency of 50.2Hz. Tables XII
maximum trip time is 0.2s for most interconnection standards, and XIII show the limits on operating frequency and the
but it is as high as 2s in AS 4777.3 and CSA C22.3 No. 9-08. maximum trip times that are allowed by various
For DR capacities above 30 kVA, standards IEEE 1547, Rule interconnection standards.
21, CSA C22.3 No. 9-08 and CAN/CSA-C22.2 No. 257-06
allow a trip time of up to 300s. Consequently, for DR with a
TABLE XII
RESPONSE TIME TO ABNORMAL FREQUENCY OF PV SYSTEMS - PART 1
Standard No. DR size Frequency range Maximum trip time
IEC 61727 ≤ 10 kVA ±1 Hz 0.2s
CNS 15382
GB/T 19939 -- 50 ±0.5 Hz 0.2s
GB/T 20046 ≤ 10 kVA
IEEE 929 ≤ 10 kW f > 60.5 Hz 6 cycles
f < 59.3 Hz
Texas Distributed Generation -- f > 60.5 Hz 0.25s
Interconnection Manual f < 59.3 Hz
AS 4777.3 ≤ 10 kVA f > 55 Hz 2s
(single-phase units)
≤ 30 kVA f < 45 Hz
(three-phase units)
EREC G83 -- f > 52 Hz 0.5s
f > 51.5 Hz 90s
f < 47.5 Hz 20s
f < 47 Hz 0.5s
TPC Technical Guideline >100kW f ≥ 61Hz --
f ≤ 58Hz
VDE-AR-N 4105 -- f > 51.5 Hz 0.1s

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-- f < 47.5 Hz
VDE V 0126-1-1 -- f > 50.2 Hz 0.2s
f < 47.5 Hz
IEEE 1547 ≤ 30 kW f > 60.5 Hz 0.16s
Rule 21 f < 59.3 Hz
> 30 KW f > 60.5 Hz
f < {59.8 ~ 57} Hz 0.16-300s
(adjustable set point)
f < 57 Hz 0.16s
CSA C22.3 No. 9-08 ≤ 30 kW f > {60.7~61.7 } Hz 0.1-2s
(adjustable set point)
F < {59.3~57 } Hz
(adjustable set point)
> 30KW f > {60.7~63.5} Hz 0.1-180s
(adjustable set point)
f < {59.3~55.5} Hz 0.1-300s
(adjustable set point)
CAN/CSA-C22.2 No. 257-06 ≤ 30 kVA f > frated + 0.5 Hz 6 Cycles
f < frated – 0.5 Hz
> 30 kVA f > 60.5 Hz 6-10800 cycles
f < {59.8 ~ 57 Hz} 6-18000 cycles
> 250 kVA f > 60.5 Hz 6-10800 cycles
f < {59.8 ~ 56.4 Hz} 6-18000 cycles
(Frequencies as low as 55.5
Hz are required on some
systems)

TABLE XIII include third harmonic voltage variation, rate of change of

RESPONSE TIME TO ABNORMAL FREQUENCY OF PV SYSTEMS (IEEE 1547a)
Default settings Ranges of adjustability
frequency (ROCOF) and three-phase voltage monitoring.
Frequency Clearing Frequency range Clearing time: The UK EREC G83 standard suggests the use of the
range time adjustable up to and ROCOF method or the vector shift method for islanding
including detection. Moreover, if other methods are used, the standard
f > 62 Hz 0.16s f > {60 ~ 64} Hz 10 requires that the sum of the protection operating time,
f > 60.5 Hz 2s f > {60 ~ 64} Hz 300
f < 59.5 Hz 2s f < {56 ~ 60} Hz 300
disconnection device operating time and set trip delay does
f < 57 Hz 0.16s f < {56 ~ 60} Hz 10 not exceed 1s. IEEE 929 requires the prevention of islanding
using a non-islanding inverter, which ceases to energize the
utility line within ten cycles when the real power load is
C. Islanding Protection and Reconnection either less than 50 % or more than 150% of the power output
Most interconnection standards or regulations require that of the inverted, or the islanded-load power factor is less than
a photovoltaic system detects islanding and ceases to energize 0.95 (leading or lagging).
the utility system within a specified period following the With regard to islanding protection, most standards require
system’s switching to an islanding operation in response to a that islanding is detected within 2s and that the supply to the
malfunction. Furthermore, following a system disturbance, power grid is then cut off. Additionally, restoration of the
the PV system may not energize the utility line for some time grid connection must consider the loading characteristics of
after the utility service voltage and frequency have recovered the grid. IEC 61727 and IEEE 1547 require that a PV or a DG
to within the specified ranges. system restores the grid connection within a given period of
The German VDE-AR-N 4105 requires either an active the power system’s voltage and frequency returning to the
method or a passive method for islanding detection. allowable ranges. Table XIV shows the response times for
Australian AS 4777.3 requires that grid protection devices islanding protection and reconnection.
apply at least one method of active anti-islanding protection.
The Chinese standard GB/T 19939 requires at least one active TABLE XIV
protection device and at least one passive protection device. RESPONSE TIME OF ISLANDING PROTECTION AND RECONNECTION FOR
INTEGRATING DR SYSTEMS
The Taiwan TPC Technical Guideline requires that if a DR is Standard No. Operating time of Operating time
connected to a low-voltage system via a power conditioner islanding protection of reconnection
and it generates reverse power, then both active and passive IEEE 1547 2s ≥ 5 min
detection devices shall be installed in the DR. The CAN/CSA-C22.2 No. 257-06
IEEE 929 10 cycles ≥ 5 min
aforementioned active methods include frequency shift, IEC 61727 2s 20s-5 min
power variation and current injection. Passive methods GB/T 19939

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GB/T 20046
CNS 15382
VDE V 0126-1-1 5s
VDE-AR-N 4105 5s
Texas Distributed Generation - ≥ 2 min
Interconnection Manual
Rule 21 2s
AS 4777.3
KEPCO Technical Guideline 0.5s
D. Reverse Power Protection
Few standards address reverse power protection. Chinese
standard GB/T 19939 requires that if the reverse power
exceeds 5 % of the rated output of the inverter, then the
photovoltaic system must be cut off within 0.5s to 2s. The
Taiwan TPC Technical Guidelines also set a maximum delay
of 2s in the reverse power relay, and prohibit the reverse
power from exceeding 30 % of the rated capacity of the
connected main transformer when the renewable power
system is connected to a high-voltage system. To ensure
power quality and safety, Taiwan Power Company further
specifies areas in which reverse power may not be generated
by renewable power systems that are interconnected with the
high-voltage system; these fall into three categories, which
are science parks, export processing zones, and areas
specified by the competent central authority.
The Korea KEPCO Technical Guideline requires that if a
DG is connected to a low-voltage distribution system and the
voltage fluctuation exceeds an average of 3% over 10 min,
then the DG must be connected to the distribution system via
a special transformer; moreover, the reverse power from the
DG may not exceed the capacity of the transformer.
E. Prevention of Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)
Most standards or rules for interconnection simply require
that the photovoltaic system withstands electromagnetic
interference (EMI), or they include other EMI-related
specifications. IEEE 1547 and CSA C22.3 No. 9-08 are
clearly consistent with IEEE C37.90.2-1995 in this respect.
AS 4777.2 does not impose electromagnetic compatibility
(EMC) requirements, but users can refer to the Australian
Communication Authority’s document “Electromagnetic
Compatibility—Information for Suppliers of Electrical and
Electronic Products in Australia and New Zealand”. VDE V
0126-1-1 makes no provision for general EMI, but it does
comply with DIN EN 61000-6-3 (VDE 0839-6-3) to prevent
radio interference.
F. Isolation and Switching
Various interconnection standards or rules impose the
following requirements on isolation and switching between
photovoltaic installations and distribution resources: the
switch should be a manually operated isolating switch; it
should be lockable in the open position; it should provide a
visible verification of isolation, and it should be installed in a
location that allows easy access for checkup, maintenance
and operation. However, IEEE 929 specifies two exceptions;
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the first applies when a utility operates in a way that does not
require such a switch for PV systems; the second applies
≥ 30s
≥ 60s
when certified non-islanding inverters are utilized.
IEC 61727, GB/T 20046, and CNS 15382 all impose the
same requirements in cases of isolation and switching, as the
≥ 60s requirements in IEC 60364-7-712, which requires that an
isolating switch is installed on the DC side of the PV inverter.
≥ 5 min
Canadian standard CSA C22.3 No. 9-08 specifies that
isolating devices are installed in accordance with the
Canadian Electrical Code, Part I. Australian standard AS
4777.1 requires that an isolating device complies with the
requirements for isolation and switching in AS/NZS 3000,
and standard AS 4777.3 requires that the disconnection
device incorporates an electromechanical switch or a
semiconductor device if no galvanic isolation is installed
between the energy sources and the grid or the inverter
system is used as an uninterruptible power supply system;
otherwise, the disconnection device may incorporate
semiconductor devices.
G. Short Circuit Protection
Many of the interconnection standards that are considered
herein require the installation of short-circuit protection or
overcurrent protection device. The settings of the protective
equipment, including the limiting current and maximum
allowable trip time, should preferably be specified. IEC
61727 expressly requires that a photovoltaic system has
short-circuit protection consistent with IEC 60364-7-712, so
the PV supply cable on the AC side is protected by a device
that protects against short-circuit or overcurrent. The
requirements in GB/T 20046 and CNS 15382 for short-circuit
protection are consistent with IEC 61727. Chinese standard
GB/T 19939 is the only one that set limits on both
overcurrent (150 % of rated current) and the time to
disconnect (0.1s).
UK EREC G83 requires that manufacturers specify the
maximum contribution of DGs to the short-circuit current,
and this information must be provided to the Distribution
Network Operator. UK EREC G83 also elucidates one
method for determining this contribution to the short-circuit
current. Australian AS 4777.1 explicitly requires overcurrent
protection if the distance between the inverter and the
switchboard exceeds 3m, unless the inverter is supplied from
a current-limited source (such as a solar photovoltaic array).
In contrast, most standards or rules require only that the
power generation system is protected against overcurrent,
independently of the distance between the inverter and the
switchboard.
The Korea KEPCO Technical Guideline expressly requires
the installation of a short-circuit current protection device
(such as a current-limiting reactor) if the system short-circuit
capacity exceeds the interruption capacity of the circuit
breaker. The Taiwan TPC Technical Guideline also requires
that an additional fault current that is caused by the
connection of a DG system does not cause an inefficient
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interruption of the circuit breaker; otherwise a current
limiting reactor must be installed or the DG installer must
reimburse the power company for the cost of replacing the
circuit breaker.
The Texas Distributed Generation Interconnection Manual
requires that the DG system should contribute no more than
25 % of the maximum potential short-circuit current of the
feeder. Canadian standard CSA C22.3 No. 9-08 requires that
the protection of the DG system detects a phase-to-phase
fault or a phase-to-ground fault and cease energizing the
distribution system as soon as such a fault is detected. IEEE
1547 and California Electric Rule 21 impose no requirements
concerning the short-circuit current, but they do requires that
the interconnection system withstands voltage and current
surges.
VI. REQUIRED CONTROL CAPABILITIES BY PV
A. Active Power Control
The active power control system at a PV power station
should be capable to receive and automatically execute
instructions to adjust the active power. For example, the
Chinese standard DL/T1040 requires that all PV power
stations are equipped with an active power control system to
adjust the active power efficiently [33]. DL/T1040 requires
that a PV power station should reduce or eliminate its active
power as required by the scheduling institute.
Annex A70 of Italy’s Grid Code requires that PV stations
have active power control with a frequency droop of 2.4% in
the over-frequency range between 50.3 and 51.5Hz [34].
Austria’s standard requires that PV power plants that generate
more than 100 kW should execute active power control, but it
includes no general requirement for active power control for
PV power plants with a generating capacity of under 100 kW
[35].
B. Reactive Power Control
PV systems should support reactive power regulation. The
Chinese standard NB/T 32004 imposes a dynamical
adjustment requirement on PV inverters from lead 0.95p.u. to
lag 0.95p.u. at the rated power [36]. A PV power station with
a capacity of 10kV to 35kV must be able to adjust its reactive
power and support voltage regulation in response to the
voltage of the PCC. The scheduling institute sets the voltage
transfer slip, the reference voltage, and the adjustment
algorithm. A PV power station with a generating capacity of
110kV or above should have a voltage control system to
adjust reactive power. As instructed by the scheduling
institute, a PV power station must be able to adjust
automatically its reactive power input or output and perform
PCC voltage control, and the speed and precision of that
voltage control must satisfy the voltage regulation.
Under Japan standard JEAC 9701-2012, inverters that are
connected to LV or HV distribution lines must have an
autonomous control function. This control function must be
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realized by manipulating active power and/or reactive power
while satisfying the grid voltage requirement. The
autonomous control requirements for an LV interconnection
are as follows.
- The grid interconnection point voltage must be
monitored.
- If an over-voltage occurs, and the inverter has a
reactive power control function, reactive power control
should be executed within the range 1.0 to 0.85 p.f. by
performing a lead angle operation.
- If the voltage cannot be returned to the regulated range
through reactive power control or, if the reactive power
control is not available, then an inverter should perform
active power control until the voltage returns to the
regulated range.
The requirements associated with HV interconnection
autonomous control are essentially the same as those
associated with the LV interconnection, except as follows.
- The regulated voltage range is determined by
discussion between the power system utility and DG
owner.
- Both power factor control and static capacitor control
are utilized in reactive power control.
The Belgian regulation C10/11 requires that installations
with a capacity of below 1 MW must always operate with
power factors of greater than 0.95 [37]. For larger
installations, the grid operator can request any reactive
power-to-active power ratio between -0.1 (inductive) and
0.33 (capacitive). For larger installations (>2.5 MVA),
additional telemetric measures may be required.
The German standard VDE-AR-N 4105 adjusts the power
factor values such that they differ with the output of the
generation system; these values fall into the following three
ranges; a) allowed power factors from 0.95 leading to 0.95
lagging for a generation system with the installed capacity of
3.68kVA or less; b) power factors of between 0.95 lagging
and 0.95 leading for systems with the capacity of between
13.8kVA and 3.68kVA, and c) power factors from 0.9
leading to 0.9 lagging for systems with the capacity of
13.8kVA or above.
VII. FUTURE POTENTIAL TRENDS FOR IMPROVING THE
EXISTING STANDARDS FOR THE INTERCONNECTION OF PV
SYSTEMS
Presently used standards or guidelines, such as IEEE 1547,
were developed based on an assumption of that the
percentage of DRs on the grid is relatively low. However, as
the number of PV installations increases, previously applied
grid-interconnection standards increasingly cause grid
instability. Therefore, advanced requirements must be
included in the PV interconnection standards to address the
potential impact of PV integration on the grid. This study
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concerns several issues associated with the improvement of 1.2 pu≦UT≦1.3 pu At least 0.5s for operation
*
these standards. The voltage (pu) of the PV station is measured at PCC.

A. Inverter certification standards for PV systems JEAC 9701 imposes detailed requirements on the LVRT
As PV penetration increases, the control capability and capability of PV systems. JEAC 9701 imposes different
performance of PV inverters become increasingly important. requirements on low-voltage and high-voltage PV systems.
Therefore, power utilities must pay more attention to the After April 2017, if the PV integration point is on the low
certification and testing of PV inverters. Some safety voltage side, then as a fault occurs and the voltage drop is
standards for PV inverters, such as UL 1741, EN 50524, EN less than 80% of the rated voltage (such that the residual
50530 or IEC 62109, have been published to provide a basis voltage is at least 20% of the rated voltage), the PV must
for certifying PV grid-interconnections. remain connected to the grid for 1s and, during the voltage
recovery period, the voltage must rise above 80% of rated
B. Autonomous functions of PV inverters
voltage for up to 0.1s. If the voltage drop exceeds 80% of the
In several areas with high penetration levels of PV, the rated voltage, then the PV must remain connected to the grid
problem of grid instability arises because most DRs are for 1s, but the recovery voltage may rise above 80% of the
required to trip off during a small frequency or voltage rated voltage within 1s. Figure 2 displays the aforementioned
disturbance. The loss of a large amount of PV power LVRT functions. If the PV integration point is on the high
destabilizes the frequency. Many power utilities have started voltage side, then the PV must remain connected to the grid
developing technical recommendations for new PV inverters. for 0.3s during the low-voltage period, as presented in Fig. 3.
For instance, the smart inverter working group in California
requires that a new PV inverter has low/high voltage ride-
through and low/high frequency ride-through functions.
These functions are used to keep many DRs from tripping
offline during a short-duration frequency or voltage event.
These functions are becoming increasingly important because
a simultaneous tripping of a large solar power plant has a
considerable impact on the power system. Rule 21 has
extended the voltage tripping time of PV inverters to provide
LVRT and HVRT capabilities. A few standards also require
that PV inverters are LVRT-capable. For example, GB/T
19964 requires the LVRT capability for PV systems, as Fig. 2. The LVRT requirement of PV systems at low voltage (JEAC 9701)
presented in Fig. 1 and Table XV, and require that PV
systems must be connected to the grid during a voltage dip
that lasts up to 0.15s, and may not be disconnected from the
grid if the voltage exceeds the limit curve in Fig. 1.

1.1
1
0.9
0.8
Voltage (pu)

0.7 Stay connected

0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3 Disconnection is allowed
Fig. 3. The LVRT requirement of PV systems at high voltage (JEAC 9701)
0.2
0.1
0 C. Different requirements for different PV capacities
-1 0 0.15 0.625 1 2 3
Time (sec) Most of interconnection standards or guidelines concern
DRs with small capacity. For example, IEEE 1547 applies to
Fig. 1. The requirement of LVRT for PV systems (GB/T 19964) DR systems with an aggregate capacity of 10 MVA or less at
the PCC. IEC 61727, CNS 15382 and GB/T 20046 apply to
TABLE XV PV with a capacity of 10 kVA or less. As the PV capacity
THE REQUIREMENTS OF VOLTAGE RANGES (GB/T 19964)
increases, existing standards or guidelines must be improved.
Voltage range Requirements
＜0.9 pu Comply with LVRT requirement For example, Denmark’s Technical Regulation 3.2.2
0.9 pu≦*UT≦1.1 pu Normal operation identifies four categories of PV plants based on the total rated
1.1 pu＜UT＜1.2 pu At least 10s for operation power at the point of connection [38]; these are PV power

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plants with capacities from 11 kW to 50 kW (Category A),
from 50 kW to 1.5 MW (Category B), from 1.5 MW to 25
MW (Category C), and above 25 MW (Category D). Some
requirements apply only to categories C and D. For instance,
category C and D systems must be designed to withstand a
voltage dip over a specific period. The requirements
concerning power quality, control functions, protection
functions, and data communication vary among PV
categories.
D. Remote and centralized monitoring of PV systems
As PV capacity increases, the need for adequate
supervision and monitoring of PV systems increases. Various
small residential or commercial PV installations are
commonly inadequately monitored. Therefore, several
standards for the monitoring or remote control of PV systems
have been developed. For example, CSA 22.3 No. 9-08 and
the KEPCO Technical Guideline require the monitoring of
the connection status, voltage, and real and reactive power
outputs of each DR system with a capacity of greater than
250 kVA. The Italian standard CEI 0-21 requires that a PV
system with a capacity of higher than 6kW should have a
remote control function [39]. In Germany, the required
remote control of a PV system depends on the voltage at the
point of connection [29]. For example, at high voltages (HV),
SCADA devices must be used to monitor and control PV
systems; at medium-voltage (MV) levels, critical MV nodes
are monitored; however, no active monitoring and control are
required for low voltages (LV).
E. Communication protocols for PV systems
The communication connections of PV units are essential
in enabling their widespread integration. The development of
a common language for communicating with PV devices has
the potential to improve the industry’s monitoring and
management capabilities. A lack of mutual compatibility of
the communication protocols of PV devices inhibits the
development of high-penetration PV systems. Several
standards have begun to develop open-source protocols for
PV applications; they provide guidelines for information
exchange with, and the monitoring of, PV systems. As PV
penetration increases, standards-based communication
protocols become more important for managing and
controlling PV systems.
VIII. CONCLUSION
The proportion of solar power in distribution systems has
increased in recent years as a result of considerable advances
in the photovoltaic industry. Therefore, following the
development of both interconnection standards and grid
codes for wind power, many countries have begun to
establish relevant interconnection standards for solar power.
A high PV penetration system presents high challenges on the
operation of distribution systems, and typical studies include
the investigation of possible adverse impacts on the power
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quality, protection coordination, and operation of distribution
feeders. The related issues in PV and the nature of
complications that arise in the system are further elaborated
and discussed. Pertinent standards and guidelines to ensure
the successful operation of the PV system are also given with
respect to the nature of problems faced.
Photovoltaic manufacturers must understand the
requirements of interconnections that are set by each country
to ensure growth of their market. Most interconnection
standards can be classified as general requirements and
specifications, safety and protection requirements, and power
quality requirements. This work summarized and compared
important international and local standards that are set by
relevant international organizations in the electricity
generation and distribution industry, and relevant authorities
in Germany, Spain, the UK, Italy, Belgium, Canada,
California and Texas in the USA, Australia, Taiwan, China,
Japan and South Korea.
Although each of the standards was developed for
particular generation sources or local grid, many of them
have certain common requirements. These interconnection
standards are critical to the development of solar power
generation and will support the commercialization of the
photovoltaic technology, reduce manufacturers' operating
costs, and ensure the safe and reliable operation of power
systems. This investigation serves as a useful reference for
the development of international or local standards for PV
interconnection.
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