DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

R.V.COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION AFFILIATED TO VTU, BELAGAVI)

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
LABORATORY MANUAL

COURSE CODE: 16PH12/22

2016-17

For the First / Second Semester B.E

Name of the student

Section, Batch

Branch

Roll No. / USN

Faculty In-charge 1.
2.
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

VISION

TO ENABLE ENGINEERING GRADUATES TO UNDERSTAND, LEVERAGE

AND APPRECIATE THE ROLE OF PHYSICS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF
SUSTAINABLE AND INCLUSIVE TECHNOLOGY.

MISSION

 EDUCATES THE STUDENTS WITH A PROGRAM CHARACTERIZED BY

ART OF TEACHING WITH EXPERIMENTING SKILLS, PROJECT
WORK/SEMINAR, SELF STUDY, EFFECTIVE COUNSELING AND AN
ACTIVE INVOLVEMENT OF STUDENTS IN THEIR EXPERIENTIAL
LEARNING.
 IMBIBE INQUISITIVENESS IN STUDENTS TO USE PHYSICS FOR
ENGINEERING INNOVATION.
 EMPOWER THE FACULTY AND STUDENTS TO INVOLVE IN RESEARCH
AND TO DEVELOP THE DEPARTMENT AS A KEY FACILITATOR FOR
R&D TO ALL ENGINEERING PROGRAMS.
 INDEX
Name : Sec/Batch : USN/Roll No :
PAGE
S.NO EXPERIMENTS
NO
TEACHING FACULTY
BATCH MATRIX 01
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS 02
MEASUREMENTS 04
1. Characteristics of laser beam 06
2. Verification of Stefan‟s law 10
3. Wavelength of LED‟s 12
4. Torsional Pendulum 14
5. Series LCR Circuit 18
6. Fermi energy of copper 20
7. Hall Coefficient measurement 22
8. Energy band gap of a Thermistor 26
9. Dielectric constant 28
10. Thermal conductivity of a poor conductor by Lee‟s and 32
Charlton‟s method
11. Electrical resistivity by Four Probe method

12. Thermal conductivity of a good conductor by Searle‟s method

Sample viva questions 36

 TEACHING FACULTY

Sl.
Name Designation Initials
No.

01 Dr. T Bhuvaneswara Babu Prof. and HoD TBB

02 Dr. D N Avadhani Associate Professor DNA

03 Dr. T K Subramanyam Associate Professor TKS

04 Dr. Sudha Kamath Associate Professor SK

05 Dr. G Shireesha Assistant Professor GS

06 Dr. S Shubha Assistant Professor SS

07 Dr. Tribikram Gupta Assistant Professor TG

08 Dr. B Radhakrishna Assistant Professor BR

09 Dr. BM Rajesh Assistant Professor BMR

10 Dr. P Ramya Assistant Professor RP

11 Dr. Karthik Shastry Assistant Professor KS

 BATCH MATRIX

Sl. No Experiment Batch 1 Batch 2 Batch 3

Cycle 1 Thermal conductivity of a poor 1, 2, 3, 4 24, 25, 26,27 47, 48, 49,50
1 conductor by Lee‟s and
Charlton‟s method
2 Electrical resistivity by Four 1, 2, 3, 4 24, 25, 26, 27 47, 48, 49,50
Probe method (Open End)
3 Torsional Pendulum 5, 6 28, 29 51, 52
4 Wavelength of LED‟s 7, 8 30, 31 53, 54
5 Energy band gap of a Thermistor 9, 10 32, 33 55, 56

6 Dielectric constant 11,12 34, 35 57, 58

Cycle 2 Fermi energy of copper 13, 14, 15,16 36, 37, 38, 39 59, 60, 61,62
7
8 Thermal conductivity of a good 13, 14, 15,16 36, 37, 38, 39 59, 60, 61,62
conductor by Searle‟s method
(Open End)
9 Hall Coefficient measurement 17, 18 40, 41 63, 64
10 Verification of Stefan‟s law 19, 20 42, 43 65, 66
11 Series LCR Circuit 21, 22 44, 45 67, 68

12 Characteristics of laser beam 23 46 69 &

onwards
 GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS
1. Lab batches will be allotted at the beginning of the semester. Students will have to
perform two experiments in one lab.

2. Every student has to perform the experiment whichever is allotted to him /her, no change
of experiments will be entertained.

3. While attending every laboratory session the student must bring the data sheets pertaining
to the experiments.

4. Submission of data sheets and practical record with observations and results in every
class for evaluation is mandatory.

5. The data sheet must contain entries like aim of the experiment, apparatus required,
circuit diagram or the diagram of the experimental setup, tabular columns, the necessary
formulae of the experiments as given in the left hand side pages in the lab manual.

6. Separate data sheets should be prepared for each experiment. The procedure and
principle of the experiment must be read by the student before coming to the laboratory
and it should not be written on the data sheets.

7. All calculations pertaining to the two experiments should be completed in the laboratory.
The results must be shown to the batch teacher and must obtain the exit signature from
batch teacher before he or she leaves the laboratory.

8. Entries of observations should be made in data sheets only with pen.

9. Substitutions and calculations should be shown explicitly in the data sheet and the
practical record.

10. In the event the student is unable to complete the calculations in the regular lab session,
with the permission of the lab in-charge, the student should complete calculations, write
in the practical record and submit for the evaluation in the next lab session.(In case of any
difficulty in calculation the student can consult the batch teacher within two working
days).

11. Mobile phones are not allowed to the lab. The student should bring his/her own
calculator, pen, pencil, eraser, etc.

Department of Physics, RVCE 2

12. The experiments are to be performed by the students in the given cyclic order. This will
be made clear to the student in the instructions class. If for some reason a student is
absent for a practical class then the student must move on to the next set in the subsequent
class. The experiment, that he or she has missed, will have to be performed by him or her
in the repetition class.

13. Please remember that practical record is evaluated during regular lab session. Therefore
it is imperative that each student takes care to see that the experiments are well
conducted, recorded and submitted for valuation regularly.

14. There will be a continuous internal evaluation (CIE) in the laboratory. An internal test
will be conducted at the end of the semester. The internal assessment marks are for a
maximum of 50 marks.

15. The semester end examination (SEE) of the lab will be conducted for 50 marks.

All students are strictly adhere to the Do’s and Don’ts in the laboratory:

 Do’s  Don’ts
 Come prepared to the lab.  Come late to the lab and leave the lab
 Wear lab coat in the lab. early.
 Maintain discipline in the lab.  Carry mobile phones to the lab
 Handle the apparatus with care.  Touch un-insulated electrical wires.
 Confine to your table while doing the  Use switch if broken.
experiment.  Overload the electrical meters.
 Return the apparatus after completing  Talk with other students in the lab.
the experiment.  Make the circuit connection when the
 Switch off the power supply after power supply is on.
completing the experiment
 Switch off the electrical circuit
breaker if there is burning of
insulation.
 Utilize the First Aid box in
emergency situation.
 Keep the lab clean and neat.

Department of Physics, RVCE 3

 MEASUREMENTS

To conduct various experiments in the Physics Laboratory, we need to learn measurement of

dimensions and other physical quantities using instruments. Measurements of various
dimensions of object using Vernier Calipers, Screw gauge, Multi meter etc are discussed
here.
Vernier Calipers
It is used to measure the length and breadth of some small objects accurately.

Main Scale

Vernier Scale

Least count of vernier calipers

The vernier caliper has two scales – main scale and vernier scale. The main scale is graduated
in cm while the vernier scale has no units. The vernier scale is not marked with numerals,
what is shown above is for the clarity only.
Least count (LC) of the vernier calipers is the ratio of the value of 1 main scale division
(MSD) to the total number of vernier scale divisions (VSD).
Example:
Value of 10 main scale divisions (MSDs) = 1cm
Value of 1 MSD = 0.1cm
Total number of VSD = 10 Therefore LC = 0.1cm/10 =0.01cm
To take readings using the calipers
(1) First see if the 0 of the vernier scale coincides with a main scale reading. If it
coincides then take it as the main scale reading (MSR).
(2) If the 0 of the vernier scale does not coincide with any main scale division then
the division just behind the zero of the vernier is the main scale reading (MSR).
(3) Then see which vernier division coincides with a main scale reading. This division
of the vernier scale is noted as the coinciding vernier scale division (CVD).
(4) The total reading is given by TR = MSR + VSR, TR = MSR + (CVD x LC)

For example, if
MSR = 1cm, CVD = 6, TR = MSR + (CVD x LC) = 1cm + (6 x 0.01)cm = 1.06cm

Screw gauge:
Unlike the above instruments, screw gauge has a pitch scale and a head scale. The pitch scale
is graduated in mm while the head scale has no units.
The least count for this type of instruments is given by
pitch
Least Count 
No. of head scale divisions

Department of Physics, RVCE 4

The pitch of the screw gauge is the distance moved on the pitch scale for one complete
rotation of the head. To find pitch give some known number of rotations to the pitch scale
and note the distance moved by the head scale.
Pitch = distance moved on the pitch scale / No. of rotations given to head scale
Usually the pitch is 1mm, the head scale is divided into 100 divisions.
Therefore LC = pitch /No. of head scale divisions = 0.01mm
In the screw gauge the head is rotated until the plane faces (metal plug and screw head) that
hold the object touch each other. If the pitch scale reading is zero and the zero of the head
scale coincides with the pitch line then there is no zero error, otherwise there is a zero error
(ZE). Determination of zero error is shown in the following figure.

ZE = 0 ZE = +2 ZE = -4
The total reading is calculated using the formula: TR=PSR+{(HSR - ZE)×LC} mm

Multi meter:
A multi meter is an instrument with ammeters, voltmeters (both AC and DC), ohmmeters
etc., of various ranges built into it. By conveniently switching the rotatable knob of the multi
meter, we can choose the electrical meter required for a particular measurement.

+ Ve

- Ve

Department of Physics, RVCE 5

 CHARACTERSTICS OF LASER BEAM

OBSERVATIONS:

Part A: Determination of the wavelength of LASER

Diagram:

d
Formula:
C sinθn
Wavelength of Laser source λ  ……. m
n
Where C is the grating constant, n is the order of spectrum, θ is the angle of diffraction

1 inch 2.54 102 m

Grating Constant: C    5.08 105 m
No. of lines (N) per inch 500

Table:

Diffraction Distance Distance Diffraction angle Wavelength λ (nm)

order (n) 2Xn(cm) Xn(cm) (θn) θn = tan-1  X n  C sinθn
 
 d 
λ
n
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Result: The wavelength of laser light is found to be…………… nm

Department of Physics, RVCE 6

 CHARACTERSTICS OF LASER BEAM
Experiment No: 01 Date:

Aim: Part A: To determine the wavelength of a given laser beam

Part B: To measure the divergence angle of the given laser beam

Apparatus and other required materials:

Laser source, Grating, optical bench with accessories and metre scale etc.,

Principle:
The laser is a device, which gives a strong beam of coherent photons by stimulated
emissions. The laser beam is highly monochromatic, coherent, directional and intense. The
directionality of a laser beam is expressed in terms of full angle beam divergence. Divergence
of a laser beam is defined as its spread of laser beam with distance.

Part A: Determine the wavelength of a laser

Formula:
C sinθ n
Wavelength of Laser source λ= ……. m
n
Where C is the grating constant: Distance between successive lines, n is the order of
spectrum, θ is the angle of diffraction, N = No. of lines per inch
1 inch 2.54 102 m
Grating Constant: C    5.08 105 m
No. of lines (N) per inch 500
Procedure:
 Mount the laser on an upright and fix the upright at one end of the optical bench. Mount
a screen on another upright and fix it at the other end of the optical bench.
 Mark four quadrants on a graph with „O‟ as the origin and fix the graph sheet on the
screen using pins. Switch on the laser source and adjust the position of the graph sheet,
so that the centre of the laser spot coincides with the origin.
 Mount the grating on the grating stand such that the length of the grating is on the grating
stand and move the stand closer to the laser source. Adjust the grating plane such that the
diffraction pattern is along the horizontal on the screen with the central maximum is at
the origin. Note down the distance „d‟ between grating and the screen.
 Mark the centres of the central maximum and secondary maxima on the graph sheet
using pencil and remove the graph sheet from the stand. Measure the distance between
the first order maxima on either side of the central maximum as 2X1, for the 2nd order
maxima measure the distance as 2X2, continue this up to 6th order maxima.
 By using the grating constant C and the angle of diffraction θn, calculate the wavelength
of laser light for all the orders. Finally find the average value of wavelength.

Department of Physics, RVCE 7

PART B: Determination of divergence angle of a laser beam:
III-spot
Diagram: II-spot
ɸ I-spot

LASER

D1
D2
D3
Table :
Mean
Horizontal Vertical
Spot Distance Diameter (cm) w
diameter diameter  = tan -1  
No ‘D’ cm w  wv D
wh (cm) wv (cm) w h
2
I

II

III

Average ɸ= --------degree

Average ɸ= ---------rad

Result: The angle of divergence of given laser beam is found to be ɸ = ......................rad.

Department of Physics, RVCE 8

PART B: Determination of divergence of laser beam.

Formula: The angle of divergence ɸ of the laser beam is given by

w
 = tan -1  
D
Where, w is the mean diameter of the laser spot
D is the distance of the screen from the source.

Procedure:
 Arrange the laser source on a laser stand at one end of the optical bench.
 Place the screen with graph sheet in front of the laser source at a distance “D1”. (Measure
this distance with metre scale.)
 Draw the boundary of bright laser beam spot on the graph sheet using a pencil.
 Measure the diameter of the spot along the horizontal (WH) and along the vertical (WV).
 Repeat the above procedure for two more distances D2 and D3
 Calculate the average diameter (W) of the spot for each distance D.
 Calculate angle of divergence ɸ by substituting the values of W and D.

Result:

1. The wavelength of laser light (λ) is ………… nm

2. The angle of divergence (ɸ) of given laser beam is = ......................rad.

Precautions:
1. Laser is harmful to eye. Hence don‟t look at the laser source directly.
2. The laser source should be switched on only while taking the observation and switched
off thereafter.
3. The laser tube axis should be horizontal.

Department of Physics, RVCE 9

STEFAN'S LAW OBSERVATIONS:

Diagram Model Graph:

Bulb

A
A

Log P
+ - n=AB/BC
V C B
+ -
Log R

AB×Scale on y-axis
+ - Slope=
RPS BC ×Scale on x-axis

Table:

Voltage, V Current, I R = V/I P = VI

Trial No. 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝑷𝟏𝟎 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝑹𝟏𝟎
(Volt) (A) (Ω) (W)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Note: Take readings only up to 12V.

Electrical power given to bulb = energy radiated by bulb per second

 P = VI = eσAT4 where A is the surface area of the filament, σ is Stefan's constant, T is the
absolute temperature of the filament and e is the emissivity of the filament.
 Emissivity of the black body is 1
 Let P = e σ A Tn where it is to be proved that n = 4
Log P = Log (σ) + Log (A) + n Log (T)+loge
But T α R (R is the resistance of the filament)
Log P = Log (σ) + Log (e A) + n Log (R)
Log P= n log(R) + Log (σ e A)
Log P= n log(R) + K , Where log(σ e A) = K (a constant)
 This equation is of the form y = mx + c where y = Log P, m = n and c = K
Therefore a plot of Log P versus Log R is a straight line with the slope = n
If n= 4 Stefan‟s law is verified

RESULT: Slope = _______. , Hence Stefan‟s law is verified.

Department of Physics, RVCE 10

 STEFAN'S LAW

Experiment No.:02 Date:

Aim: Verification of Stefan's law of radiation.

Apparatus and other required materials: Regulated power supply (RPS), electric bulb (12
V, 10 W) and DC Ammeter, Voltmeter.

Principle: Stefan‟s law states that the energy dissipated per unit area per unit time by a
perfect black body is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.
Stefan‟s law E α T4 or E = σ T4

The filament is not a perfect black body, hence the Stefan‟s law for the filament is E = σe T4

Where, E is the energy dissipated per second per unit area of a black body
e is the emissivity of the filament material
σ is the Stefan's constant (5.67 x 10-8 Wm-2K-4)
T the temperature of the black body in Kelvin

Procedure:
 Make the electrical connections as shown in the diagram.
 Keep the display in the regulated power supply (RPS) in volts mode.
 Keep the current knob for the maximum position, keep the course volts and fine volts
knobs at the minimum position before switching ON the RPS.
 Switch ON the RPS and vary the voltage knobs slowly till a faint glow is seen in the
filament.
 Vary the voltage in convenient steps and note down the current I in the ammeter and the
voltage V in multi meter set in voltage mode (0 – 20 V DC).
 Calculate the power (P) dissipated in the filament and resistance (R) of the filament
material.
 𝑃
Plot a graph of 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 𝑅
versus 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 and calculate the slope „n‟ of the graph.
 If the slope „n‟ is 4, the Stefan‟s law is verified

Result: Slope n = _______. Hence Stefan‟s law is verified.

Department of Physics, RVCE 11

WAVELENGTH OF LED‟S OBSERVATIONS:

Diagram: Model Graph:

RR

Current mA
++ +
V + +

LED 1
Ba _

LED 2
-
- - -

- mA +
A
Knee Voltage
Voltage V V

hc
Formula: Energy of the PhotonE = hυ = = eV
λ

hc
The wavelength of LED is λ= nm
eVK

Where, h is Planck‟s constant = 6.63 x 10 -34 Js

c is Speed of Light = 3 x 108 m s-1
e is charge on electron = 1.602 x 10 -19 C
VK is the Knee voltage in V of the LED, (to be measured).

Table:
Sl No. LED 1 LED 2 LED 3
Colour: Colour: Colour:
Voltage I Voltage I Voltage I
V mA V mA V mA
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Result: The wavelengths of LED‟s

Colour of LED Wavelength (nm)

Department of Physics, RVCE 12

 WAVELENGTH OF LIGHT EMITTING DIODES

Experiment No:03 Date:

Aim: To determine the wavelengths of the given Light Emitting Diodes (LED s).

Apparatus and other required materials: Power supply, LED‟s, multi meter.
milli ammeter, patch cords etc.,

Principle: Light emitting diode is special type of semiconductor diode. It consists of heavily
doped P type and N type direct band gap semiconductor. The LED absorbs electrical energy
and converts it into light energy. When the PN junction is in the forward biased the electrons
from the N region migrate into P region and combine with holes. This recombination of
electrons and holes results in the emission of photons.
hc
Formula: Energy of the photons emitted by LED =E = hυ = = eVK
λ
hc
The wavelength of LED is λ= nm
eVK

Where, h is Planck‟s constant = 6.63 x 10 -34 Js; c is Speed of Light = 3 x 108 m s-1
e is charge on electron = 1.602 x 10 -19 C; VK is the Knee voltage of the LED.

Procedure:
 Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram.
 Keep the display in the regulated power supply (RPS) volts mode.
 Keep the current knob for the maximum position, keep the course volts and fine volts
knobs at the minimum position before switching ON the RPS.
 Include the LED1 in the circuit.
 Vary the voltage in convenient steps and note down the current I in the milli ammeter
and the voltage V in multi meter set in voltage mode (0 – 20 V DC). (Note down the few
voltmeter reading for current below 0.5 mA).
 Repeat the above procedure for the second and third LED‟s
 Plot a graph of current versus voltage for each LED.
 Draw a tangent at the knee of the graph and extend the tangent to intercept the voltage
axis. The point of intersection is knee voltage VK.
 Note down the knee voltage for each LED from the graph.
 Calculate the wavelength of each LED using the relevant formula.

Result: The wavelength of LED‟s are found to be

Sl. No Colour of LED Wavelength (nm)

1
2
3

Department of Physics, RVCE 13

Department of Physics, RVCE 14
 TORSION PENDULUM

Experiment No:04 Date:

Aim: To determine the moment of inertia of the given irregular body

Apparatus and other materials required: Rectangular, circular and irregularly shaped
plates, steel or brass wire, chuck nuts, stop clock, pointer, metre scale, weight box.

Principle:
Torsion pendulum is an illustration of angular harmonic oscillation. Moment of Inertia of a
body is the reluctance to change its state of rest or uniform circular motion. The moment of
inertia (MI) of a regular body about any axis is calculated by knowing its mass and
dimensions. A body whose moments of inertia about different axes are known, is made to
oscillate about the same axes, corresponding periods are noted. If the moment of inertia is I
I
and the time period is T then for all axes chosen for all the bodies the ratio is a constant
T2
as long as the dimensions of the suspension wire remains the same.

I
T=2π , C is the couple per unit angular strain (twist) of the wire. It is equivalent to the
C
spring constant of the spring for linear oscillation, and is dependent on dimensions of the wire

only. Therefore if we change the pendulum geometry, T  I and thus squaring both sides
I
is constant.
T2

Procedure:
 Measure the dimensions of the given circular and rectangular discs.
 Clamp one end of the wire through the chuck nut to a regular disc and other end to the
top end of the retard stand.
 Twist the wire through a small angle and then let free so that the body executes torsional
oscillations (The oscillations should be in a horizontal plane. Arrest the side ward
movement or wobbling if any).
 For each configuration of the pendulum, note down the time taken for 10 oscillations and
repeat the process thrice. Tabulate this in table 1.

Department of Physics, RVCE 15

To determine the period of irregular body

Axis through CG Time for 10 sec. (s) Mean time(t) for 10 Period
oscillations in s T=t/10 s
1.
2. Tα =
3.

1.
2. Tβ =
3.

(a) Moment of inertia of irregular body about the axis through the CG and perpendicular to
its plane, I'
 I 
Iα =  2  × Tα2 = ___________ Kgm2
 T mean
(b) Moment of inertia of the irregular body about the axis through the CG and parallel to its
plane
 I 
Iβ =  2   Tβ2 = ____________ Kgm2
 T mean

Result:

1. The moment of inertia of irregular body about an axis perpendicular to the plane
Iα =______Kgm2.

2. The moment of inertia of irregular body about an axis parallel to the plane
Iβ =______Kgm2.

Department of Physics, RVCE 16

 I
 Calculate mean time (t) for 10 oscillations and hence the time period T then find for
T2
each axes.
 Follow the same procedure for two different axes of the irregular body and tabulate in
table 2.
 Find out the moment of inertia of irregular body using given formula.

Result:

1. The moment of inertia of irregular body about an axis perpendicular to the plane
Iα =______Kgm2.

2. The moment of inertia of irregular body about an axis parallel to the plane
Iβ =______Kgm2.

Department of Physics, RVCE 17

SERIES RESONANCE – OBSERVATIONS:

Diagram: Model Graph :

L C R

A
L C R
AC mA

SG
L - Inductor , C- capacitor, R - variable resistor
mA - ac milli-ammeter,
A
SG - signal generator/oscillator
Capacitance of capacitor in the circuit C = ________ F,
Resistance of the resistor in the circuit R = ________ 
Table:
Frequency Current
(Hz) (mA)

Formula:
At resonance XL=XC
1 1
2f 0 L 
2f 0 C 
L= 2 2
4π f C
0

Where f0 is the resonant frequency (Hz), L is the inductance of the coil (H) and
C is the value of capacitance (F).
Band width = f2-f1 (Hz),
Where f1& f2 are the lower and upper cut off frequency
Resonant frequency f
Quality factor = Q =  0
Band width f 2 -f1
Result:
1. Resonant frequency of the circuit = ______Hz
2. Self-inductance of the given coil = ______H
3. Quality factor from graph = ______
4. Band width = ______Hz

Department of Physics, RVCE 18

 SERIES RESONANCE IN L-C-R CIRCUIT

Experiment No.05 Date:

Aim: To construct a series L-C-R circuit and to study the frequency response of the circuit. From
the frequency response to calculate, a) the self-inductance of the given coil, b) quality factor of the
circuit (Q- value) and c) the band-width of the circuit.

Apparatus and other materials required: Signal generator, Inductor, Resistance box, Capacitor
and AC milli-ammeter.

Principle: L-C-R circuit fed by an alternating emf is similar to forced harmonic oscillator. The
circuit contains an inductor L, capacitor C and resistor R in series. In this series LCR circuit, the
inductive reactance XL increases with increase in frequency and the capacitive reactance XC
decreases with increasing frequency. At resonant frequency f0 the inductive reactance and capacitive
reactance are equal and the reactance is zero hence the total impedance of the circuit is minimum
and there by the current is maximum. Therefore, at resonance XL = XC,
1 1
2πf0L=  L= 2 2 Where f0 is the resonant frequency, L is the inductance of the coil and
2πf0C 4π f 0 C
C is the value of capacitance.
After the resonance with increase in frequency the inductive reactance is more than the
capacitive reactance and hence the reactance and impedance will increase and the current decreases.
The property of a reactive circuit to store energy is expressed in terms of quality factor or „Q‟
factor. It is a figure of merit that enables us to compare different coils, it is given as follows
ω0 ×energy stored
Q= where 0 = 2f0
average power dissipated
Procedure:
 Make the circuit connection as shown in the figure.
 Unplug a small resistance say 1 or 2 from the resistance box.
 Keep the frequency knob to the minimum position, DC offset in off position and set level
knob (ac voltage knob) to 25% of the maximum position before switch on the oscillator.
 Select 1k Hz frequency knob.
 Vary the frequency from the minimum value in convenient steps till the current in the circuit
reaches maximum and then decreases to minimum.
 Take more number of readings of current for small variations in frequency around the
maximum current.
 Plot a graph of frequency versus current and note down the maximum current and
corresponding frequency (f0).
 Draw a horizontal line at IRMS=Imax/ 2 from the current axis such that it cuts the graph at two
points A and B and note down the frequencies corresponding to A and B i.e., lower cut off
frequency f1 and upper cut off frequency f2respectively.
 Calculate the self-inductance of the given coil, quality factor and band width using the relevant
formulae.
Results:
1. Resonant frequency of the circuit= ___Hz; 2. Self-inductance of the given coil = ___H
3. Quality factor from graph= ______; 4. Band width= ______Hz

Department of Physics, RVCE 19

 FERMI ENERGY OBSERVATIONS:

Diagram:

R
+
+
V
-
-
Thermometer

mA
- +
Copper coil

Model Graph: Formula:

ρAm
E F =1.36×10-15 J
l
ρAm
1.36×10-15 J
EF = l  ............eV
A 1.6 1019 C
Resistance in Ω

EF is the Fermi energy (eV)

T is the reference temperature (K),
B A is area of cross section of the given
C copper wire (m2)
l is the length of the copper wire
e = 1.602 x 10-19 C.
m is the slope of the straight line.
Temperature in ρ is the density of copper =8960 Kg/m3
Table: K
Sl. Temp Temp V I R=V/I
0
No. C K (mV) (mA) (Ω)
1. 90
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Result: Result: The Fermi energy of copper is EF =___________ J, ____________eV

Department of Physics, RVCE 20

 FERMI ENERGY OF COPPER

Experiment No: 06 Date:

Aim: To determine the Fermi energy of copper

Apparatus and other materials required: RPS, Multi meter, Milli ammeter, Beaker,
Thermometer and copper wire.

Theory: In a conductor, the electrons fill the available energy states starting from the lowest
energy level. Therefore all the levels with an energy E less than a certain value E F(0) will be
filled with electrons, whereas the levels with E greater than EF0 will remain vacant. The
energy EF0 is known as Fermi energy at absolute zero and corresponding energy level is
known as Fermi level. For temperature greater than zero Kelvin, Fermi energy is the average
energy of the electrons participating in electrical conductivity. By measuring the resistance of
the copper wire at different temperature, Fermi energy is calculated.

ρAm
E F =1.36×10-15 J
l
EF is the Fermi energy
T is the reference temperature (K),
A is area of cross section of the given copper wire (m2)
l is the length of the copper wire
e = 1.602 x 10-19 C.
ρ is the density of copper =8960 Kg/m3
m is the slope of the straight line obtained by plotting resistance of the metal
against absolute temperature of the metal.
Procedure:
 Make the circuit connections as shown in the diagram.
 Set the multi meter to 200 or 2000 mV DC mode according to the requirement.
 Set the current to about 6 to 8 mA by varying the power supply voltage and note down the
resistance of the coil at the ambient temperature.
 Immerse the copper coil in a beaker containing water at about 90°C.
 Note down the voltage in multi meter and current in milli ammeter for every decrement of
1°Cto about 60°C.
 Plot a graph of resistance along y-axis and temperature along x-axis and calculate the
value of slope m.
 Calculate the Fermi energy of the material by using the relevant formula.

Result: Result: The Fermi energy of copper is EF =___________ J, ____________eV

Department of Physics, RVCE 21

HALL EFFECT OBSERVATION:

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

Figure 1.

Voltage
d knobs
A
I of Hall V
effect
Current setup
knobs of
Hall
B
effect
setup
Block diagram
Table 1:
Sl. No Current Magnetic
I (mA) field ‘B’
(Gauss)
1.
2.
Current I

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Magnetic Field B
10.

Calibration Curve

Department of Physics, RVCE 22

 HALL EFFECT
Experiment No: 07 Date:

Aim:
To study the Hall Effect in semiconductors / metals, calculate the Hall Coefficient and to
determine the concentration of charge carriers

Apparatus and other materials required:

Hall Effect setup, Hall Probe (Ge Crystal n or p type / Metal), Electromagnet, Constant
Current Power Supply, Digital Gauss meter etc.,

Principle:
When a metal or a semiconductor carrying current is placed in a transverse magnetic field B,
a potential difference VH is produced in a direction normal to both the magnetic field and
current direction. This phenomenon is known as Hall Effect.
The Hall Effect helps to determine
1. The nature of charge carries e.g. whether semiconductor is an n-type or p-type
2. The majority charge carrier concentration
3. The mobility of majority charge carriers
4. Metallic or semiconducting nature of materials

Experimental Setup:
The experimental setup for the measurement of Hall voltage and determination of Hall
coefficient is shown in the figure 1. A thin rectangular germanium wafer is mounted on an
insulating strip and two pairs of electrical contacts are provided on opposite sides of the
wafers. One pair of contacts is connected to a constant current source and other pair is
connected to a sensitive voltmeter. This arrangement is mounted between two pole pieces of
an electromagnet, such that the magnetic field acts perpendicular to the lateral faces of the
semiconductor wafer.

Procedure:

Part A: Calibration of the magnetic field of the electro magnet

 Adjust the gap between the pole pieces of the electromagnet such that the specimen kept
between the pole pieces is not in contact with them. Maintain the same gap throughout
the experiment.
 Connect the electromagnet to the constant current supply source and keep the current
varying knob at zero position.
 Place the Gauss probe between the pole pieces and switch on the digital gauss meter.
Adjust the knob in it for zero reading.
 Switch on the constant current supply unit. Slowly increase the current from a minimum
of 0.25 A, in convenient steps upto 4A and note down the corresponding magnetic field
from the gauss meter.
 Note down the reading of current and magnetic field and enter the readings in the table 1.
 Plot a graph of the current in the electromagnet and the magnetic field, this is called as
calibration graph.
 Remove the gauss probe and switch off the digital gauss meter.
 Reduce the current in the constant current supply to zero.

Department of Physics, RVCE 23

 Table 2:
Model Graph: For n or p type Current through the crystal IC =……..mA

Sl. Current Magnetic field Hall

Hall Voltage V/s Magnetic
No I (mA) from calibration Voltage
field curve VH (mV)
(B)
B B
Hall Voltage VH (mV)

(Gauss) (Tesla)

1.
A
2.
3.
B 4.
C
5.
AB×Scale on y-axis 6.
Slope=
BC ×Scale on x-axis 7.
8.
9.
Magnetic Field B (Tesla) 10.

1 gauss = 10-4 Tesla

Formula:
V  t mt
Hall Coefficient: R H =  H  
i. = …………….. Ωm/Tesla
 B  IC IC
Where VH = Hall Voltage in V
IC = Current through the crystal in mA
t = thickness of specimen in meters (t = 0.5 X 10-3m)
B = Magnetic flux density in Tesla
1
ii. Carrier Concentration: n =      m3
qR H
Where q = Charge of electrons/holes in C, RH= Hall Coefficient in Ωm/Tesla

Result:
Hall Coefficient (RH) of the material = …………… Ω-m/tesla
Carrier Concentration (n) of the material = …………… /m3

Department of Physics, RVCE 24

Part B: Measurement of Hall voltage

 Insert the Hall probe between the pole pieces in the electromagnet such that the crystal in
the Hall Probe is facing the north pole of the electromagnet.
 The wires connected to the length of the crystal (Black and Red) are connected to the
current source, the wires connected to the breath of the crystal (Green and Yellow) in the
Hall Effect setup.
 In the Hall Effect setup turn the selector knob to the current and set the crystal current
(IC) to a small value say 1 mA by varying the current knob and note down the current IC.
Maintain the same current IC throughout the experiment.
 Turn the selector knob to the voltage, and set the voltage to zero using offset knob. If
there is a small voltage it is taken as zero error.
 Vary the current in the electromagnet in random steps from 0.5A to 4.0 A with the help
of constant current source. Note down the current ( I ) and the Hall voltage (VH) and
enter the values in Table 2.
 For the currents ( I ) in the previous step, note down the magnetic field from the
calibration curve and enter the values in the Table 2.
 Plot a graph of magnetic field B (Tesla) and a Hall voltage VH in V and find the slope.
 Calculate the Hall co efficient and carrier concentration using relevant formulae.

Result:
Hall Coefficient (RH) of the material = …………… Ω-m/tesla
Carrier Concentration (n) of the material = …………… /m3

Department of Physics, RVCE 25

THERMISTOR – OBSERVATIONS:

Diagram: Model Graph:

Multimeter Ω
A

Log R
Slope=AB/BC

Thermometer
C
B
AB×Scale on y-axis
Slope=
BC ×Scale on x-axis
Thermistor

1/T

Formula: Eg = 4.606  k  m Joules

4.606  k  m
Eg = eV
1.6 1019
Where Eg = Energy gap of a given thermistor in eV
k = Boltzmann constant = 1.381 x 10-23 J/K
m = Slope of the graph
Table:

Temp t○C Temp T(K) R Log R 1/T

(Ω)
85

Result: The energy gap ( band gap) of the given thermistor is __________eV.

Department of Physics, RVCE 26

 BANDGAP OF A THERMISTOR

Experiment No: 08 Date:

Aim: To determine the energy gap (Eg) of a Thermistor.

Apparatus and other materials required: Glass beaker, Thermistor, Multi meter,
Thermometer.

Principle: A thermistor is a thermally sensitive resistor. Thermistor‟s are made of

semiconducting materials such as oxides of Nickel, Cobalt, Manganese and Zinc. They are
available in the form of beads, rods and discs.
b
The variation of resistance of thermistor is given by R  a e T where „a‟ and „b‟ are

constants for a given thermistor. The resistance of thermistor decreases exponentially with
rise in temperature. At absolute zero all the electrons in the thermistor are in valence band
and conduction band is empty. As the temperature increases electrons jump to conduction
band and the conductivity increases and hence resistance decreases. By measuring the
resistance of thermistor at different temperatures the energy gap is determined.
4.606  k  m
Formula : Eg  eV
1.6 1019
Where Eg = Energy gap of a given thermistor in eV.
k = Boltzmann constant = 1.381 x 10-23 J/K .
m = Slope of the graph.
Procedure:
 Make the circuit connection as shown in the figure.
 Keep the multi meter in resistance mode (200 Ω range).
 Insert the thermometer in a beaker containing thermistor and note down the resistance at
room temperature.
 Immerse the thermistor in hot water at about 90○C.
 Note down the resistance of the thermistor for every decrement of 2°C upto 60○C.
 Plot the graph of log R versus 1/T and calculate the slope „m‟.
 Calculate the energy gap of a given thermistor using relevant formula.

Result: The energy gap of the given thermistor is __________eV.

Department of Physics, RVCE 27

 DIELECTRIC CONSTANT OBSERVATIONS:

Diagram:

Model Graph 1: Charging Model Graph 2: Discharging

3.0 Vm

Vm 2.5
Voltage (V)

2.5

2.0
Voltage (V)

2.0

1.5
1.5
63.2%Vm Growth
1.0
Decay of voltage
1.0 36.8%Vm

0.5
0.5

τ
0.0 0.0
0 τ 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Time (s) Time (s)

 
  _____s ; C =
= ______F   _____s ; C = = ______F
R R
Formula: The capacitance and dielectric constant of the given capacitor are given below:
τ Cd
1. Capacitance C= (F) ; 2. Dielectric Constant ε r =
R ε 0A
Where τ : time constant, εr: relative permittivity or the dielectric constant of the dielectric,
ε o : Absolute permittivity of free space = 8.854x10-12F/m., C: capacitance of the capacitor
(F), A: area of each plate (m2), d: thickness of the dielectric (m).

The value of C =  obtained from equations 1 & 2 should be calculated separately.

R
The average value of the capacitance is determined.
Thickness of dielectric d (m)
Area of each plate A (m2)

Department of Physics, RVCE 28

 DIELECTRIC CONSTANT

Experiment No:09 Date:

Aim: 1. To determine the capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor.

2.To determine the dielectric constant of the dielectric material in an electrolytic
capacitor by the method of charging and discharging of the capacitor.

Apparatus and materials required: Power supply, electrolytic capacitor, Multimeter, two
way key and stop clock.

Principle: In an electrical circuit containing a capacitor and resistance the growth as well as
decay of voltage are opposed by the induced emf. Therefore, it takes some finite time for
voltage to reach its maximum value when the circuit is switched on. Similarly when the
circuit is switched off the electric voltage takes again some finite time to become zero.

Formula:
The capacitance and dielectric constant of the given capacitor are calculated by using the
formulae given below:
𝜏 Cd
1. C = 𝑅 (F) 2.  r 
o A
where  : Time constant.
 r : Relative permittivity or the dielectric constant of the dielectric.
 o : Absolute permittivity of free space = 8.854x10-12F/m.
C: Capacitance of the capacitor (F).
A: Area of the dielectric (m2).
d: Thickness of the dielectric (m).

Procedure:
( I ) Charging of the capacitor:
 Make the circuit connection as shown in the diagram.
 Open the circuit at ‘a’ and ‘b’.
 Keep the current knob for the maximum position, keep the course volts and fine volts
knobs at the minimum position before switching ON the RPS.
 Keep the battery voltage to suitable value (say 2 to 4V).
 Keep the multimeter position in 20 V DC.
 Set the stopwatch for zero.
 Close the circuit at ‘a’ and ‘b’ and simultaneously start the stop watch.
 Note down the voltage across the capacitor using multi meter for every thirty seconds of
charging time till the voltage reaches saturation.
 Plot a graph of voltage versus time. Find out the time constant by taking 63.2% of the
saturation voltage as shown in the graph.

Department of Physics, RVCE 29

Table
R = ___Ω; Battery voltage=___V
Time in Voltage Voltage
seconds during during
(s) Charging Discharging
(V) (V)
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330
360
390
420
450
480
510
540
570
600

Result:
1. Capacity of parallel plate capacitor C = _________________F.
2. Dielectric constant of the given dielectric material  r = _____ .

Note: Data
C=3300µF C=4700 µF
R=47 kΩ R=47 kΩ
L=47 cm L=55 cm
B=1.5 cm B=2.5 cm
d=80µm d=80 µm

Department of Physics, RVCE 30

(II) Discharging of the capacitor:
 Set the stop watch to zero.
 Disconnect the circuit at ‘a’ and ‘b’ and connect the circuit at ‘a’ and ‘c’ and
simultaneously start the stop watch.
 Note down the voltage across the capacitor using multi meter for every thirty seconds of
time of discharge till the voltage reaches minimum value.
 Plot a graph of Voltage versus time of discharge. Find the time constant by taking 36.8%
of the saturation voltage as shown in the graph.

(III) Calculation of Capacitance and Dielectric constant

 Calculate the average time constant „τ = RC‟ from charging and discharging.
 Note down length, breadth and thickness of the dielectric for the given capacitor and
hence calculate its dielectric constant.

Note: Multiply the dielectric constant value with the correction factor 10-6. This is because
the dielectric in the electrolytic capacitor is alumina on a paper, the total thickness of the
dielectric is not the alumina.

Result:
1. Capacity of parallel plate capacitor C = _________________F.
2. Dielectric constant of the given dielectric material  r = _____ .

Department of Physics, RVCE 31

LEE‟S AND CHARLTON‟S METHOD OBSERVATIONS:

Diagram: Experimental Setup Model Graph:

θ2 A

B
C

Time (t) in seconds

H : Steam chamber, S: Sample disc (bad conductor),

B: metallic disc, T1 and T2 are the Thermometers
Formula:
mct dθ
K= dt
A(θ1 -θ 2 )

Where,
Mass of the metallic disc B, m = …. kg
Specific heat of the material of B, c = ….. J/kg/K
Thickness of the poor conductor S, t = ……. m
Radius of the poor conductor S, r= ………. m
Area of cross section poor conductor A= ……….. m2
Steady temperature of steam chamber „H‟, θ1= ⁰C
Steady temperature of disc B, θ2 = ⁰C
d
Rate of cooling from the graph =
dt

Department of Physics, RVCE 32

 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF A POOR CONDUCTOR BY LEE’S AND
CHARLTON’S METHOD

Experiment No:10 Date:

Aim: To determine the thermal conductivity of a given poor conductor by Lee‟s and
Charlton‟s method.

Apparatus:
Lee's disc apparatus, a brass disc (B) of large diameter compared to its thickness, sample of
poor conductor in the form of the disc (S) with same diameter, thermometers, stop watch,
screw gauge and a balance.

Principle:
At steady state there will be constant temperature gradient across the sample and the rate of
flow of heat across the sample is constant. In the determination of thermal conductivity of the
poor conductor the rate of flow of heat through the poor conductor is equated to the rate of
loss of heat through the brass disc. i.e.,
(θ -θ ) dθ
Q=KA 1 2 = m×c
t dt
Where
k - Thermal conductivity of the sample, A - Surface area of the sample disc
θ1 – θ2- Temperature difference across the sample, t - Thickness of the sample disc
where „m‟ and „c‟ are the mass and specific heat of the disc „B‟ respectively.

Department of Physics, RVCE 33

Thickness of the given sample using screw gauge:
Zero error =
Pitch = distance moved on the pitch scale /No. of rotations givens given to head scale
LC = Pitch/ Total number of head scale divisions = ____mm
Table 1:
Trial No. PSR mm HSD TR=PSR+{(HSR-ZE)×LC} mm
1
2
3
4

Thickness of the poor conductor =……………….m

Table 2: Rate of cooling of the metallic disc

Sl. No. Time (min) Time in s Temperature of

metallic disc T ⁰C
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10

Result: The thermal conductivity of a given poor conductor by Lee‟s and Charlton‟s method
is found to be…………………...Wm-1K-1

Department of Physics, RVCE 34

Procedure:
 Determine the mean thickness of the given sample disc „S‟ using a screw gauge and
tabulate the values in Table 1.
 Keep the given sample disc of poor conductor „S‟ between metal disc „B‟ and the steam
chamber „H‟.
 Introduce the thermometerT1through hole in the steam chamber (H) and thermometer
T2in the metal disc (B).Pass the steam through the chamber „H‟ until the temperature
indicated by thermometers T1 and T2 become steady and note the steady temperature θ1
and θ2 respectively.
 Remove the poor conductor „S‟ and keep the steam chamber in direct contact with the
brass disc till its temperature rises about 8ºC to 10ºC above θ2.
 Remove the steam chamber and cover the top surface of the brass disc with filt.
 Note down the decrease in temperature of the brass disc for every one minute using a
stop clock, till the temperature of the disc is 10 0C below it's steady state θ2and enter the
readings in Table 2.
 Plot a graph of time versus temperature. Draw a tangent to the curve at the point
d
corresponding to its steady temperature θ2and find the slope = of the tangent.
dt
 Determine the thermal conductivity of poor conductor using the given formula.

Result: The thermal conductivity of a given poor conductor by Lee‟s and Charlton‟s method
is found to be…………………...Wm-1K-1

Department of Physics, RVCE 35

 VIVA VOCE

CHARACTERISTICS OF LASER BEAM

1. What is meant by diffraction?

Bending of waves round the edges of an obstacle is called diffraction.

2. What is the condition for diffraction?

Size of the obstacle should be comparable with that of the wave length of the light
source. Since grating constant and wave length are of the same order (10-6 metre),
diffraction takes place within the grating.

3. Distinguish between diffraction and dispersion?

Diffraction: Bending of light round the edges of an obstacle is called diffraction. In this
case lower the wave length lesser will be the deviation.
Dispersion: When white light passes through a prism it splits into its constituent colors.
This phenomenon is called dispersion. In this case lower the wave length higher will be
the deviation.

4. Distinguish between polychromatic & monochromatic source.

Polychromatic source a source having different wave lengths. Ex. Mercury vapour lamp.
Monochromatic source is a source having single wave length. Ex Sodium vapour lamp.

5. What does LASER stands for?

The term LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

6. What are the characteristic of laser radiation?

Laser radiations have high intensity, high coherence, high monochromaticity and high
directionality with less divergence.

7. What is population inversion?

When the number of atoms are more in higher energy state than in the lower energy
state, this condition is known as population inversion, it is essential for stimulated
emission.

8. What is pumping in a laser?

It is the process in which atoms are excited to higher energy states by continuously
supplying energy.

9. What is meant by the term coherence?

The state of vibration, same phase or constant phase difference is known as coherence.

10. What is an active medium?

A solid, liquid, or gaseous medium in which population inversion can be achieved is
called an active medium.

11. What is the action of an optical resonator?

It gives the directionality to the laser beam and amplifies the laser beam.

Department of Physics, RVCE 36

STEFAN’S LAW

1. What is a „black body‟?

Black body is a body which absorbs all wavelengths which are incident on it and emits
all those wavelengths on heating. This total energy emitted or absorbed is independent of
the nature of the body and depends on its temperature.

2. How does this law differ from Newton‟s law of cooling?

Newton‟s law of cooling is applicable only when the difference of temperature between
the body and the surroundings is very small. There is no such conditions for Stefan‟s
law.

3. Can the value of Stefan‟s constant be determined from this method?

Yes, taking the value of „n‟ as 4, the value of σ can be calculated from the value of the
intercept C of the graph.

4. What for Stefan‟s law is used?

It has the advantage like finding the temperature of Sun.

5. What are the limitations of Stefan‟s law?

This method is even though not very precise and accurate, it has some advantages. The
bulb is never truly a black body and at steady state, the power radiated is never equal to
V.I exactly. The working theory in this method is to some extent approximate,
nevertheless, the method is very simple and the accessories are easy to procure. It gives
an approximate idea about Stefan‟s Law, Stefan‟s constant and the verification of the
law.

6. State Stefan‟s law.

It states that total radiant energy emitted per second per unit surface area of a perfectly
black body is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.

7. State Kirchoff‟s law of black body radiation.

It states that at any temperature, the ratio of emissive power to the absorptive power of a
given wavelength is same for all black bodies. A good emitter is a good absorber of heat.

8. What is emissive power and absorptive power?

Emissive power: At a particular temperature and for a given wavelength, it is defined as
the radiant energy emitted per unit time per unit surface area of the body within a unit
wavelength range.
Absorptive power: At a particular temperature and for a given wavelength, it is defined
as the ratio of the radiant energy absorbed per second per unit surface area of the body to
the total energy falling per unit time on the same area.

9. State Wien‟s law?

The wavelength corresponding to the maximum energy emitted from a black body is
inversely proportional to its absolute temperature (λmaxT = Constant).

10. Explain the energy distribution in a black body radiation spectrum?

The energy radiated by a black body is not uniformly distributed over the entire
wavelength range emitted by the body but it is maximum for a particular wavelength and

Department of Physics, RVCE 37

 decreases on either side. The value of wavelength at which the energy radiated peaks
depends on the temperature of the black body.

11. Mention the properties of black body radiation?

Black body radiation has all the property of electromagnetic radiation.

12. What are the modes of transmission of heat?

Conduction, convection and radiation. Conduction is the mode of transmission of heat in
which heat travels from the hot part of the body to its cold part without actual motion of
heated atoms. Convection is the mode of transmission of heat from one part of the
medium to the other by the bodily motion of heated atoms. Radiation is mode of
transmission of heat from one body to another without the intervening medium.

13. Distinguish between Heat and Temperature?

Sensation of hotness is called heat. Degree of hotness is called temperature.

WAVELENGTH OF LED’s

1. What is LED?
Light Emitting Diode is a heavily doped p n junction, where voltage yields a flow of
current.

2. What is quatntum?
hc
According to Quantum theory, it is a bundle of energy given by E = hυ =

Where E is the energy of the quantum, h is the Planck‟s constant and υ is the frequency
of the light emitted.

3. What is „ħ‟ (h cross)?

h
It represents angular momentum. p   
2π

4. Discuss the mechanism How light is produced from LED?

A photo P-N junction can convert absorbed light energy into an electrical energy. The
same process is reversed here (i.e. the P-N junction emits light when electrical energy is
applied to it). This phenomenon is generally called electroluminescence, which can be
defined as the emission of light from a semi-conductor under the influence of an electric
field. The charge carriers recombine in a forward-biased P-N junction, as the electrons
cross from the N-region and recombine with the holes existing in the P-region light is
emitted. Free electrons are in the conduction band of energy levels, while holes are in the
valence energy band. Thus the energy level of the holes will be lesser than the energy
levels of the electrons. Some portion of the energy must be dissipated in order to
recombine the electrons and the holes. This energy is emitted in the form of heat and
light

5. What is semiconductor diode laser?

Semiconductor diode laser is a specially fabricated p-n junction. It emits laser light when
it is forward biased and the applied current must be above the threshold value.

Department of Physics, RVCE 38

TORSION PENDULUM
1. What is meant by Torsion Pendulum?
A pendulum in which the oscillations are due to the torsion in the suspension wire.

2. Describe Torsion pendulum?

It consists of a rigid body (disc, rod, etc.,) attached to the lower end of the wire, whose
top end is fixed to the rigid support and it is subjected to rotational oscillations.

3. Define moment of inertia?

It is the opposition for the rotational motion. When rigid body rotates about an axis, it
has tendency to oppose the change in its state of rest or of uniform rotation about its axis.
This tendency is called moment of inertia of a body about the axis of rotation.
Quantitatively it is the product of the mass and radius of gyration.

4. Define inertia of a body. What is the measure of the inertia of a body?

The property of a body by virtue of which every body tries to stay in its state of rest or
uniform motion along a straight line unless compelled by an external force. Mass is the
measure of the inertia of a body.

5. What are the factors on which moment of inertia of a body depend?

Moment of inertia depends on a) mass of the body b) The distribution of mass about the
axis of rotation.

6. Why (I/T2) is a constant for a given wire?

I
For a torsion pendulum, the period of torsion oscillation is T 2 Where I = the
C
moment of inertia about its axis, C = couple per unit twist of the suspended wire.
Rearranging (I/T2) = (C)/ (4Π2)
Since “C” (couple per unit twist) is a constant for a given wire; I/T2 is a constant.

SERIES RESONANCE
1. What is an Inductor?
A non resistive coil of wire in which there will be an opposing emf when there is varying
current is passing through it. It is a passive component used to store energy in the form of
magnetic field.

2. What is Resistance?
The resistance of a conductor is the opposition offered by the conductor to the flow of
electric current through it. The opposition is due to the collision of electrons with ion cores
of the conductor. It is independent of frequency.

3. What is Impedance?
Impedance measure the effective opposition to the flow of current due to the reactance and
resistance. It is frequency dependent.

4. What is Inductive reactance?

The opposition offered by the inductor to the flow of AC is called inductive reactance (X L).
XL = L = 2πfL.

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5. What is capacitive reactance?
The opposition offered by the capacitor to the flow of AC is called capacitive reactance (X C).
XC == 1/C = 1/C2πf

6. What do you mean by resonance in LCR series circuit?

The condition at which the current is maximum due to the matching of inductive and
capacitive reactances.

7. What is Quality factor? Explain the variation of quality factor with change in resistance of
the circuit.
It is defined as the ratio of resonant frequency to the bandwidth of the circuit. Quality factor
1 L f
measures the sharpness of resonance Q or Q= 0
R C f 2 -f1
The smaller the value of resistance, the greater is the current at resonance and the resonance
curve is sharper. As the resistance is increased, the sharpness of resonance decreases and the
circuit becomes less selective.

8. What is Bandwidth?
It is the difference between upper and lower cut off frequencies. Bandwidth is the applicable
range of frequencies.

9. What are the applications of LCR resonant circuits?

They are used as tuning circuits in radio and television receivers.

FERMI ENERGY
1. What is Fermi energy of a metal?
It is the energy of the highest occupied level at absolute zero temperature..

2. What is meant by Fermi factor?

It is the probability of occupation of given energy state by a charge carrier.

3. What is meant by Fermi temperature TF? What is the relation between EF& TF?
It is the temperature at which the average thermal energy of the free electrons in a solid
becomes equal to the Fermi energy at 0°K. EF = kBTF

4. What is meant by Fermi velocity?

It is the velocity of those electrons which occupy the Fermi level. It is given by
1
EF = 2 mvF2

5. What is Fermi Dirac distribution?

It gives distribution of electrons / fermions among the various available energy levels of
a material under thermal equilibrium conditions.

6. What are the factors on which EF depend?

EF depends on the material and the temperature.

7. How many electrons will be there in each energy level?

According to Paul‟s exclusion principle, there will be two electrons in each energy level.

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8. State Paul‟s exclusion principle?
It states that no two electrons can have all the four quantum numbers same.

9. What is meant by free electron?

Free electron is the electron which moves freely in the absence of external field. These
electrons collide with each other and also with the lattice elastically and hence there is no
loss in energy.

HALL EFFECT

1. What is Hall Effect, Hall voltage and Hall field?

If a metal or a semiconductor carrying a current I is placed in a transverse magnetic field
B, a potential difference is produced in the direction normal to both the current and
magnetic field directions. This phenomenon is called Hall Effect. The corresponding
potential difference generated is called Hall voltage and the electric field generated is
called the Hall field.

2. Define Hall co-efficient.

It is numerically equal to Hall electric field induced in the specimen crystal by unit
current when it is placed perpendicular in a magnetic field of 1 W/m2.

3. Define mobility.
It is the ratio of average drift velocity of charge carriers to applied electric field.

4. What is Fleming‟s Left Hand Rule?

Stretch thumb, first finger, middle finger at right angles to each other such that fore
finger points in the direction of magnetic field, middle finger in the direction of current
then thumb will point in the direction of the force acting on it.

5. How does mobility depend on electrical conductivity?

It is directly proportional to conductivity.

6. Which type of charge has greater mobility in semiconductors?

In semiconductors, electron has greater mobility than holes.

7. What happens to the hall coefficient when number of charge carriers are decreased?
Hall coefficient increases with decrease in number of charge carriers per unit volume.

8. What are the applications of Hall effect?

It is used to verify whether a substance is a semiconductor, conductor or insulator.
Nature of charge carriers and mobility of charge carriers can be studied. This experiment
can be used to measure magnetic field strength.

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BAND GAP OF THERMISTOR

1. What is a band gap?

This is the energy gap between the conduction and valence bands of a semiconductor (or
insulator).

2. How do you differentiate between a conductor, an insulator and a semiconductor in

relation to energy gap?
In conductors, the valence and conduction bands overlap each other. In insulators, there
is large energy gap between valence and conduction bands, while in semiconductors this
energy gap is not too large so that at room temperature the thermal energy gained by
some of the electrons in the valence band is sufficient to make them jump to conduction
band, crossing this energy gap.

3. What is intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors?

A pure or natural semiconductor free of impurities is called an intrinsic semiconductor
e.g. silicon and germanium. But it has low electrical conductivity. When some
pentavalent (like arsenic) or trivalent (like boron) impurity is added to it, then it is called
an extrinsic semiconductor.

4. Why a semiconductor behaves as an insulator at zero degree Kelvin?

At 0K, electrons in valence band do not have sufficient energy to cross the energy band
gap so as to reach to conduction band and to make them available for conduction. Thus
semiconductor behaves as an insulator.

5. What do you mean by doping and what is the effect of doping on depletion region?
Doping is a process of introducing a small amount of impurity into the intrinsic
semiconductor. As the doping concentration increases width of the depletion region
decreases.

6. Explain the effect of doping in a germanium crystal.

The conductivity of germanium crystal is enhanced by adding the impurities from V or
III group of periodic table e.g., arsenic or antimony from V group or indium from III
group. When antimony or arsenic having five electrons in their outermost shell are
introduced into the germanium crystal, the fifth electron of the impurity atom does not
find a place in the symmetrical covalent bond structure and is free to move through the
crystal. These free electrons are then available as current carriers. When a III group
elements like indium is added each atom leaves behind a hole.

7. On what factors does the conductivity of an extrinsic semiconductor depend?

The conductivity of an extrinsic semiconductor depends upon the type and amount of
impurity added.

8. What do you mean by a hole?

Hole indicates the deficiency or absence of an electron. It effectively behaves like a
positively charged particle when an electric field is applied across the crystal.

9. What are values of energy gap of silicon & germanium?

Silicon & Germanium energy gap values are 1.1eV & 0.7eV respectively at 20°C.

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10. What is the effect of temperature on the energy gap of a semiconductor?
As temperature increases energy gap decreases.

11. What are the factors on which energy gap of semiconductor depend?
It depends on the material & temperature.

DIELECTRIC CONSTANT

1. What is a capacitor?
Capacitor is a device used to store charge.

2. What is meant by capacitance?

Ability to store charge in a capacitor is called capacitance and it is measured in farad.

3. What is the relation between Q, C & V?

Q=CV, Q, charge stored (coulomb), C capacitance (farad), V (voltage).

4. Define one farad.

It is the amount of charge required to raise the potential by 1 volt.

5. What is a dielectric?
Dielectric is an insulator which is used to increase the capacitance of the capacitor.

6. Classify dielectrics.
Dielectrics are classified into polar and non-polar dielectrics.

7. On what factors the dielectric constant depend?

It depends on frequency, material and temperature.

8. What is „time constant‟ of a circuit?

The time constant of a circuit consisting a resistor and a capacitor, is the time taken by
the capacitor to acquire 63% of its maximum charge.

9. What is the expression for time constant?

If the capacitance of the capacitor is C farad and resistance in the circuit is R ohm, then
the time constant is equal to RC.

10. How charging and discharging depend on time constant?

The smaller the time constant, more rapid is the charging and discharging of capacitor.

11. What is dielectric constant of a dielectric?

The dielectric constant of a dielectric is the factor by which the capacitance of the
capacitor is increased when vacuum between the two plates of the capacitor is replaced
by the dielectric material.

12. What is the effect of an alternating field on the dielectric constant of a material?
Dielectric constant depends on the frequency of the applied field. Dielectric constant
decreases as the frequency of the applied field increases.

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LEE CHARLTON’S METHOD

1. Define thermal conductivity. Does the value of K depend on the dimension of the
substance?
Thermal conductivity is defined as the quantity of heat flowing per second, normally a
unit cube when the temperature difference between the two opposite faces of the cube is
unity.
No. The value of K depends only on the material of the body.

2. What is the unit of K? Give its dimensions.

J. K-1 m-1s-1→ [K]=[MLT-3θ-1]

3. Can you measure the thermal conductivity of a good conducting disc by this method?
This method cannot be used to determine the thermal conductivity of a good conducting
disc since the temperatures θ1 and θ2 will be nearly equal and the measurement of their
difference will be very difficult.

4. Can you apply this method to determine the thermal conductivity of a liquid?
The present method can be used to determine the thermal conductivity of a liquid if the
disc S is replaced by a thin-walled flat-end copper container with the edges made of bad
conductors. The experimental liquid is taken in this container.

5. What is the largest source of error in this experiment?

The largest source of error lies in the measurement of rate of cooling.

6. Why is the specimen taken in the form of a disc?

For a disc the thickness is small whereas the cross-sectional area is large. Hence the
amount of heat that is conducted is large.

7. Is it absolutely necessary that the steam chamber be placed at the top?

No. it can also be placed below the bad conductor.

8. Why do you measure the thickness of the disc in situ?

When the disc is placed between the two slabs its effective thickness decreases due to
pressure. Therefore the thickness is measured under the experimental condition of heat
flow.

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