NCERT-Art and Culture Notes

T.MATHIRAJA.
NCERT-ART AND CULTURE NOTES
NCERT Notes: Prehistoric Rock Paintings
November 13, 2017
Subject: History
Category: Art and Culture
Topic: Prehistoric Rock Paintings
NCERT notes on important topics for the UPSC civil services exam preparation. These notes will also be
useful for other competitive exams like bank PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on.
Prehistoric Art
 Prehistory: Time period in the past when there was no paper or the written word and hence no
books or written accounts of events. Information about such an age is obtained from
excavations which reveal paintings, pottery, habitat, etc.
 Drawings and paintings were the oldest form of artistic expression practiced by humans.
Reasons for such drawings: Either to decorate their homes, or/and to keep a journal of events in
their lives.
 Lower and middle Palaeolithic Periods have not shown any evidence of art works so far. The
Upper Palaeolithic Age shows a lot of artistic activities.
 Earliest paintings in India are from the Upper Palaeolithic Age.
 The first discovery of rock paintings in the world was made in India by archaeologist Archibald
Carlleyle in 1867 – 68 (in Sohagighat, Mirzapur District, Uttar Pradesh).
 Rock paintings have been found in the walls of caves at Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar and Karnataka, some in the Kumaon Hills of Uttarakhand.
 Paintings at the rock shelters at Lakhudiyar on the banks of the Suyal River (Uttarakhand) –
1. 3 categories of paintings: man, animal and geometric patterns in black, white and red ochre.
2. Humans in stick-like forms, a long snouted animal, a fox, a multiple-legged lizard, wavy lines,
groups of dots and rectangle-filled geometric designs, hand-linked dancing humans.
 Paintings in Kupgallu (Telangana), Piklihal and Tekkalkota (both in Karnataka)
1. Mostly in white and red ochre.
2. Subjects are bulls, sambhars, elephants, sheep, gazelles, goats, horses, stylised humans and
tridents.
 Paintings in the Vindhya ranges at Madhya Pradesh extending into Uttar Pradesh –
1. About 500 rock shelters at Bhimbetka in the Vindhya Hills at Madhya Pradesh.
2. Images of hunting, dancing, music, elephant and horse riders, honey collection, animal fighting,
decoration of bodies, household scenes, etc.
3. Bhimbetka drawings can be categorised into 7 Periods.
a. Period I: Upper Palaeolithic
b. Period II: Mesolithic
c. Period III: Chalcolithic
 Two major sites of prehistoric rock/cave paintings in India: Bhimbetka Caves and Jogimara Caves
(Amarnath, Madhya Pradesh).
Bhimbetka Paintings
 Continuous occupation of these caves from 100000 BC to 1000 AD.
 Discovered by archaeologist V S Wakankar in 1957 – 58.
 One of the oldest paintings in India and the world.
 Period I (Upper Palaeolithic)
1. Linear representations of animals like bisons, tigers, elephants, rhinos and boars; stick-like
human figures.
2. Paintings in green and dark red. Green paintings are of dancers and red ones are of hunters.
 Period II (Mesolithic)
1. Largest number of paintings in this period.
2. More themes but paintings reduce in size.
3. Mostly hunting scenes – people hunting in groups with barbed spears, arrows and bows, and
pointed sticks. Also show traps and snares to catch animals.
4. Hunters wear simple clothes; some men are shown with head dresses and masks. Women have
been shown both clothed and in the nude.
5. Animals seen – elephants, bisons, boars, tigers, deer, antelopes, leapards, panthers, rhinos,
frogs, lizards, fish, squirrels and birds.
6. Children are seen playing and jumping. Some scenes depict family life.
 Period III (Chalcolithic)
1. Paintings indicate an association of these cave-dwellers with the agricultural communities

settled at Malwa.
2. Cross-hatched squares, lattices, pottery and metal tools are depicted.
3. Colours used in Bhimbetka paintings – white, yellow, orange, red ochre, purple, brown, green
and black. Most common colours – white and red.
4. Red obtained from haematite (geru); green from chalcedony; white probably from limestone.
5. Brushes were made from plant fibre.
6. In some places, there are many layers of paintings, sometimes 20.
7. Paintings can be seen in caves that were used as dwelling places and also in caves that had some
other purpose, perhaps religious.
8. The colours of the paintings have remained intact thousands of years perhaps due to the
chemical reaction of the oxide present on the rock surface.
NCERT Notes: Arts of the Indus Valley
November 14, 2017
Subject: History
Topic: Arts of the Indus Valley
useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on.
Introduction
 Indus Valley art emerged during the second half of the third millennium BCE (i.e. from 2500 BC
onwards).
 Forms of art: seals, pottery, sculpture, gold jewellery, terracotta figures, etc.
 The two major sites of this civilisation, Harappa and Mohenjodaro showcase excellent town
planning as well, like houses, planned streets, public baths, drainage systems, storage facilities,
etc.
 Harappa and Mohenjodaro are in Pakistan.
 Major sites in India are: Rakhigarhi (Haryana), Ropar (Punjab), Kalibangan and Balathal
(Rajasthan), Lothal and Dholavira (Gujarat).
Stone statues
 Two male statues in stone – the Bearded Man (priest king) and a torso in red sandstone.
 Bearded man (Priest)
1. Appears to be of a priest
2. A shawl is draped over the left shoulder
3. Slightly elongated eyes as if in half-meditation
4. Well-formed nose, with a moustache, short beard and whiskers
5. Wearing an armlet and probable other jewellery.
Bronze casting
 The bronze statues found in Harappa were made by the technique called Lost Wax technique.
 This technique is used in some parts of the country even today showing continuity of traditions.
 This technique was popular in almost all the sites.
 First, wax figures were made and then covered with clay. The clay as allowed to dry and then
the figure was heated to melt the wax. This wax was drained out through a hole in the clay.
After that, the hollow clay was filled with the metal of choice. After cooling the metal, the clay
was removed revealing the desired metal figurine.
 Both animal and human figures were made this way.
 Examples of bronze figures: Dancing Girl, Buffalo with uplifted head.
 Dancing Girl
1. 4 inch copper figure
2. Long hair tied in a bun
3. Left arm covered with bangles
4. Cowrie shell necklace around the neck
5. Right hand on the hip and the left hand in a traditional Indian dancing gesture
6. Large eyes and a flat nose
7. Found from Mohenjodaro.
Terracotta
 Terracotta images were also created but they were less refined as compared to the stone
statues.
 Most important terracotta images are those of the mother goddess.
 Male figures are also found with similar features and positioning in all the figures indicating
perhaps the image of a god.
 Terracotta toys have also been found (wheels, whistles, rattles, gamesmen, discs, birds and
animals).
Seals
 Thousands of seals have been discovered.
 They were mostly made of steatite (a kind of soft stone).
 Some seals were also made using chert, agate, copper, terracotta, faience, gold and ivory.
 Standard Harappan seals were square plaques with 2X2 dimension.
 Purpose of the seals: chiefly commercial.
 Some seals were carried in the form of amulets, perhaps as identity cards.
 Every seal has a picture of an animal and some writings in a pictographic script (which is not yet
deciphered).
 Animals represented include tigers, bulls, elephants, goats, bisons, etc.
 Pashupati Seal: A seal with a figure seated cross-legged in the centre with animals around; an
elephant and a tiger to the right of the figure and a rhino and a buffalo to its left.
 Copper tablets, square or rectangular in shape have been found which were used as amulets.
Pottery
 A lot of pottery has been excavated.
 Plain and painted pottery are found – plain is more common.
 Plain pottery: generally made of red clay, with or without a fine red or grey slip.
 Black painted pottery: has a fine coating of red slip with painted geometric and animal designs.
 Perforated pottery was also found, perhaps to use as a sieve.
 Pottery of various sizes has been excavated.
Beads and ornaments
 A variety of ornaments have been found which were used by both men and women.
 Made from precious metals, gemstones, bone and baked clay.
 Ornaments worn by men and women: fillets, necklaces, finger-rings, armlets.
 Ornaments worn by women: earrings, girdles, anklets.
 Well-crafted ornaments have been found including necklaces of gold and semi-precious stones,
copper bracelets and beads, head ornaments and earrings made of gold, steatite and gemstone
beads, faience pendants and buttons.
 Cemetery found in Farmana (Haryana) – where dead bodies were buried with ornaments.
 Bead factories at Lothal and Chanhudaro.

 Beads made from cornelian, amethyst, lapis lazuli, quartz, crystal, jasper, turquoise, steatite, etc.
Metals were also used like gold, bronze and copper. Beads were also made from shells and
terracotta.
 Beads were of various shapes disc-shaped, cylindrical, spherical, barrel-shaped, and segmented.
NCERT Notes: Arts of the Mauryan Period
November 15, 2017
Subject: History
Topic: Arts of the Mauryan Period
Mauryan Art and Architecture
Introduction
 Religions of the Shramana tradition, i.e., Jainism and Buddhism emerged around the 6th century
BCE.
 The Mauryas had established themselves as a great power in the 4th century BCE and by the 3rd
century, they had large parts of India under their control.
 At this time there were many modes of religious practices including the worship of Yakshas and
mother-goddesses. Nevertheless, Buddhism became the most popular.
 After the Harappan civilization, monumental stone sculpture and architecture appears only in
the Mauryan period.
 There were pillars, sculptures, rock-cut architecture, buildings like stupas, viharas and chaityas
that served many purposes. They are exquisite in aesthetic quality and brilliant in their design
and execution.
Mauryan Pillars and Sculptures
Pillars & Sculptures
 Erection of pillars was common in the Achamenian Empire (Persian Empire) also. While there
were commonalities like the use of polished stones, motifs like lotus, there are also differences.
While the Achamenian pillars were constructed in pieces, the Mauryan pillars were rock-cut,
displaying the superior skill of the carver.
 Stone pillars can be seen all over the Mauryan Empire. These had proclamations inscribed on
them and were used to spread the message of the Buddha by Emperor Ashoka.
 The top portion of the pillar is called capital and it typically has animal figures like bull, lion,
elephant, etc. These capital figures are carved standing on a square or circular abacus. The
abacuses are on the base which could be a stylised inverted lotus.
 Example of pillars with capital figures: Sarnath, Basarah-Bakhira, Rampurva, Sankisa and Lauriya-
Nandangarh.
 The Lion Capital at Sarnath is the most famous example.
 Monumental figures of Yakshas and Yakshinis have been found in various parts of India thus
showing the popularity of Yaksha worship.
Rock-cut architecture
 Ashoka also patronised rock-cut architecture.
 Rock-cut elephant at Dhauli, Odisha – shows modelling in round with linear rhythm. It also has
an Ashokan edict.
 Lomus Rishi Cave – Rock-cut cave at Barabar Hills near Gaya. The cave entrance is decorated
with a semicircle chaitya arch. An elephant is carved in high relief on the chaitya. The interior
hall of the cave is rectangular; it also has a circular chamber at the back. Ashoka patronised this
cave for the Ajivika sect.
Stupas, chaityas and viharas
 Stupas and viharas were constructed as part of the Buddhist and Jaina monastic tradition but
most of the constructions belong to Buddhism.
 Some Brahmanical gods were also represented in the sculptures here.
 Stupas were constructed over the relics of the Buddha at Rajagriha, Kapilavastu, Vaishali,
Ramagrama, Allakappa, Pava, Vethadipa, Pippalvina and Kushinagar.
 Stupas consist of a cylindrical drum with a circular anda and a harmika and a chhatra on the top.
Sometimes there were circumambulatory pathways and gateways. In many cases, additions
were added in later centuries.
1. Anda: hemispherical mound symbolic of the mound of dirt used to cover Buddha’s remains (in
many stupas actual relics were used).
2. Harmika: square railing on top of the mound.
3. Chhatra: central pillar supporting a triple umbrella form.


 Stupa at Bairat, Rajasthan – 3rd century BCE; grand stupa with a circular mound and a
circumambulatory path.
 Many stupas were built and not all of them with royal patronage. Patrons included lay devotees,
gahapatis, guilds and kings.
 Not many mention the names of the artisans. But artisans’ categories like stone carvers,
goldsmiths, stone-polishers, carpenters, etc. are mentioned.
 Stupa at Sanchi – most famous and one of the earliest examples.
 Chaityas were basically prayer halls and most of them were with stupas. Generally, the hall was
rectangular and it had a semi-circular rear end. They had horse-shoe shaped windows. They also
had pillars separating the hall from the two aisles.
 Viharas were the residences of the monks.
 Both chaityas and viharas were made out of wood, and later were also stone-cut.
Depiction of the Buddha
 In the early periods, Buddha is represented through symbols like footprints, lotus thrones,
chakras, stupas, etc.
 Later on, stories were portrayed on the railings and torans of the stupas. These were mainly the
Jataka tales.
 The chief events from Buddha’s life which are narrated in the arts are birth, renunciation,
enlightenment, first sermon (dharmachakrapravartana) and mahaparinirvana (death).
 The Jataka stories that find frequent depiction are Chhadanta Jataka, Sibi Jataka, Ruru Jataka,
Vessantara Jataka, Vidur Jataka and Shama Jataka.
Lion Capital & Sanchi Stupa – NCERT Notes
November 16, 2017
Subject: History
Topic: Lion Capital & Sanchi Stupa
Lion Capital, Sarnath
 One of the finest examples of Mauryan sculpture.
 Located at Sarnath, near Varanasi. Commissioned by Emperor Ashoka. Built in 250 BCE.
 Made of polished sandstone. The surface is heavily polished.
 Currently the pillar is in its original place but the capital is on display at the Sarnath Museum.
 It was commissioned to commemorate the first sermon of the Buddha or the

Dharmachakrapravartana at Sarnath.

 Originally, the capital had five components:
o The shaft (now broken into many parts)
o A lotus base bell
o A drum on the base bell with 4 animals proceeding clockwise (abacus)
o Figures of 4 lions
o The crowning part, a large wheel (this is also broken and displayed at the museum)
 The capital was adopted as the National Emblem of India after independence without the
crowning wheel and the lotus base.
 The four lions are seated back-to-back on a circular abacus. The figures of the lions are grand
and evoke magnificence. They are realistic images and the lions are portrayed as if they are
holding their breath. The curly manes of the lions are voluminous. The muscles of the feet are
shown stretched indicating the weight of the bodies.
 The abacus has four wheels (chakra) with 24 spokes in all four directions. This is part of the
Indian National Flag now.
 The wheel represents Dharmachakra in Buddhism (the wheel of dhamma/dharma). Between

every wheel, there are animals carved. They are a bull, a horse, an elephant and a lion. The
animals appear as if they are in motion. The abacus is supported by the inverted lotus capital.
Sanchi Stupa
 Sanchi Stupa is a UNESCO world heritage site since 1989. Sanchi is in Madhya Pradesh.
 There are many small stupas here with three mains ones – stupa 1, stupa 2 and stupa 3. Stupa 1
is also called the Great Stupa at Sanchi. It is the most prominent and the oldest, and is believed
to have the Buddha’s relics.
 It was built by Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE.
 Originally, it was smaller than its present dimensions. It was expanded in later periods.

 The original structure was made out of bricks. Later on, it was covered with stone, vedica, and
the torana (gateway).
 There are four gateways to the stupa with the southern one being built first. The others were
later added. The gateways are adorned with beautiful sculptures and carvings. Each torana
consists of two vertical pillars and three horizontal bars on top. The bars contain exquisite
carvings on front and back. They contain images of shalbhanjikas – lady holding the branch of a
tree. Stories from the Jataka tales are carved here.
 The structure has a lower and upper pradakshinapatha or circumambulatory path. The upper
pradakshinapatha is unique to this stupa.
 On the southern side of the stupa, the Ashokan Lion Capital pillar is found with inscriptions on it.
 The hemispherical dome of the stupa is called the anda. It contains the relics of the Buddha.
 The harmika is a square railing on top of the dome/mound.
 The chhatra is an umbrella on top of the harmika. There is a sandstone pillar in the site on which
Ashoka’s Schism Edict is inscribed.
 The original brick dome was expanded into double its size during the reign of the Shunga
dynasty with stone slabs covering the original dome.
NCERT Notes: Post-Mauryan Trends in Indian Art and Architecture – Part I
November 20, 2017
Subject: History
Topic: Post-Mauryan Trends in Indian Art and Architecture – Part I
Post Mauryan Period Notes
Introduction
 After the decline of the Mauryan Empire in the second century BC, various rulers controlled the
regions which were once under the Mauryas, like the Shungas, Kanvas, Kushanas and Guptas in
the north and central India; and the Satavahanas, Abhiras, Ikshvakus and Vakatakas in the south
and western India.
 This period also saw the emergence of Brahmanical sects like the Shaivas and the Vaishnavas.
 Chief examples of fine sculpture are found at: Bharhut and Vidisha (Madhya Pradesh); Mathura
(Uttar Pradesh); Bodhgaya (Bihar); Jaggayyapeta (Andhra Pradesh); Bhaja and Pavani
(Maharashtra); and Khandagiri and Udaigiri (Odisha).
Post Mauryan Art and Architecture
Bharhut
 Sculptures are tall like the Yakshas and Yakshinis of the Mauryan era.
 Illusion of three-dimensionality is present.
 Narratives or stories are represented pictorially.
 Space is utilised to the maximum extent.
 Initially, the carvings were shown with flat images, i.e., projection of hands and feet were not
possible, but later on they emerged with deep carvings and a much naturalised representation
of human and animal forms.
 One important sculpture at Bharhut: Queen Mayadevi (the Buddha’s mother) dreaming of an
elephant descending towards her womb.
 Jataka tales are also seen.
 A common characteristic of all the male images after first and second centuries is the knotted
headgear.
Sanchi
You can read about Sanchi Stupa here.
Mathura, Sarnath and Gandhara Schools
 Gandhara (in modern Pakistan), Mathura and Sarnath emerged as important art production
centres from the first century AD onwards.
 Buddha gets a human form in Mathura and Gandhara. Previously he was represented via
symbols.
 Gandhara art form had influence of Indo-Greek elements such as Bactria and Parthia traditions
besides the local Gandhara tradition.
o The Buddha images here have Hellenistic features.
o The Buddha here is more muscular.
o The sculptures are heavily polished with rich carvings.
o The hair is curly and the lobes of the ears are elongated.
o The garments are generally flowing in nature.
o The sculptures were initially made of stone and later on stucco was also used.
 The Mathura art tradition became so strong that it spread to other parts of northern India.
o Best example: Stupa sculpture at Sanghol, Punjab.
o The Buddha images in the Mathura school are modelled on the earlier Yaksha images.
o Mathura art form also has some images of the Shaiva and Vaishnava faiths but images
of the Buddha are numerous.
o There is less symbolism here as compared to the Gandhara School.
o The sculptures are generally made of red sandstone.
o The garments are clearly visible and they usually cover the left shoulder. Multiple folds
are shown.
o The halo around the deity is profusely decorated.
o In the 2nd century, the images get fleshier and their rotundity increase.
o In the 3rd century, the fleshiness is reduced. Movement is shown by increasing the
distance between the legs and bending of the body. There is more softness in the
surface.
o But in the late 4th century, this trend is reversed and the flesh becomes tightened.
o In the 5th and 6th centuries, the drapery is integrated into the mass.
 Sarnath and Kosambi also emerged as important centres of art besides the traditional centre
Mathura.
o The Buddha images in Sarnath have transparent drapery covering both shoulders.
o The halo around the Buddha is hardly decorated.
Early temples
 Apart from Stupas, Brahmanical temples also started getting built.
 Temples were decorated with the images of gods and also representations of the Purana myths.
 Every temple had a principle image of a god.
 There were 3 kinds of shrines of the temples:
o Sandhara type: without pradakshinapatha (circumambulatory path)
o Nirandhara type: with pradakshinapatha
o Sarvatobhadra: which can be accessed from all sides
 Important temple sites from this period: Deogarh (UP); Eran, Udaygiri, Nachna-Kuthara (near
Vidisha in MP). These are simple structures with a veranda, a hall and the shrine at the back.
Buddhist Monuments of South India
 The Vengi region in Andhra Pradesh has many stupas, in Jaggayyapeta, Amaravati,
Nagarjunakonda, Bhattiprolu, Goli, etc.
 Amaravati School of Art
o Developed during the Satavahana period.
o This is fully indigenous in nature and had profound influence on art in Sri Lanka and
south-east Asia since products from here were taken to those places.
o Had many sculptures and has a Mahachaitya. The sculptures are preserved in Chennai
Museum, National Museum at Delhi, Amaravati Site Museum and the British Museum at
London.
o Amaravati Stupa has a pradakshinapatha and a vedica (fence) with many sculptures on
it. The torana (gateway) has disappeared.
o Unique feature of this stupa: the dome is covered with relief stupa sculptural slabs.
o Events from Buddha’s life and Jataka tales are depicted.
o It was first built in the first century AD and in later centuries developed or enhanced.
o Initial phase does not show Buddha images but they are seen from the later stages (like
the stupa at Sanchi).
o The sculptures have intense emotions. The figures are slender and show a lot of
movement. The bodies are shown with 3 bents (tribhanga).
o The structures are more complex than at Sanchi and are more animated.
o There is a lot of attention paid to the forms’ clarity.
 The sculptures of Goli and Nagarjunakonda in the 3rd century are reduced in animation but still
very three-dimensional.
 Independent Buddha images at: Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda and Guntapalle. Guntappale: Rock-
cut cave site near Elluru.
 Other rock-cut stupas found at: Anakapalle (near Vishakhapatnam); and Sannati (largest in
Karnataka).
 Apart from Buddha images, images of Boddhisattvas like Avalokiteshvara, Vajrapani, Padmapani,
Amitabha and Maitreya Buddha are also seen.
NCERT Notes: Post-Mauryan Trends in Indian Art and Architecture – Part II
November 20, 2017
Subject: History
Topic: Post-Mauryan Trends in Indian Art and Architecture – Part II
Post Mauryan Period Notes
Cave Tradition in Western India
 Caves dating from the 2nd century BC have been excavated.
 Three architectural types:
o Apsidal vault-roof chaitya halls – Ajanta, Bhaja, Pitalkhora
o Apsidal vault-roof pillarless halls – Thana-Nadsur
o Flat-roofed quadrangular hall with a circular chamber at the back – Kondivite in Mumbai
 The front of the chaitya hall has an imposing semi-circular chaitya arch with an open front
having a wooden façade.
 The caves at Kondivite have no chaitya arch.
 All the chaitya caves have a stupa at the rear.
 An example of the apsidal vault-roof kind: Ajanta Cave No. 9. This chaitya has a rectangular hall
with a stone-screen wall as façade. Similar kinds are found at Nashik, Bedsa, Kanheri and Karla.
 After the first century BC, many caves are of the first architectural type.
 Junnar has the highest number of cave excavations – more than 200.
 Kanheri in Mumbai has 108 excavated caves.
 Most important sites: Ajanta, Pitalkhora, Ellora, Nashik, Karla, Bhaja, Junnar and Kanheri.
 Earlier it was believed that these caves belonged to the orthodox Theravada sect of Buddhism.
But the discovery of the Konkan Maurya inscription which mentions Saka era 322
(corresponding to 400 AD) proves that cave activity in western Deccan was a continuing process.
 Some of these sites have been converted into modern Hindu shrines and are used to this day by
the local people.
 Rock-cut caves are found not only in Maharashtra but also in:
o Karnataka – mainly in Badami and Aihole patronised by the Chalukyas.
o Andhra Pradesh – Vijayawada area.
o Tamil Nadu – Mahabalipuram patronised by Pallavas.
 Post 6th century art depended more on political patronage as opposed to the collective public
patronage of the earlier periods.
Karla Caves
 Located at Karla, Lonavala in Maharashtra.
 Biggest rock-cut chaitya hall was excavated in Karla.
 This cave has an open courtyard with 2 pillars, a stone-screen wall to protect from rain, a
veranda, a stone-screen wall as façade, an apsidal vault-roof chaitya hall with pillars and a stupa
at the rear.
 Chaitya hall is carved with human and animal figures.
Viharas
 Viharas have been excavated at all cave sites.
 Vihara plan: a veranda, a hall and cells around the walls of the hall.
 Important viharas – Ajanta cave No.12; Nashik Cave Nos. 3, 10 and 17; Bedsa cave No.11.
 Early vihara caves are carved with interior decorative motifs like chaitya arches and vedica
designs over the cell doors.
 The vihara caves at Nashik have front pillars carved with ghata-base and ghata-capital with
human figures.
 A popular such cave was found at Junnar and was popularly called Ganeshlini since an image of
Ganesha belonging to a later era was installed in it. It became a chaitya-vihara when a stupa was
added to the back of this vihara.
Ajanta
 Most famous cave site. Located in Aurangabad district, Maharashtra.
 There are 29 caves in Ajanta.
 4 chaitya caves:
o Cave nos. 10 and 9 belonging to 1st and 2nd centuries BC.
o Cave nos. 19 and 26 belonging to the 5th century AD.
 There are large chaitya-viharas also.
 Decorated with sculptures and paintings.
 The only remaining example of 1st century BC and 5th century AD paintings.
 Cave nos. 19 and 26:
o Elaborately carved.
o Façade decorated with the images of Buddha and Boddhisattva.
o Apsidal vault-roof variety. Cave no. 26 – very big, interior hall carved with Buddha
images; biggest image being Mahaparinibbana image.
 Ajanta shrine images are big in size.
 Chief patrons at Ajanta:
o Varahadeva, a minister of the Vakataka king Harishena – cave no. 16
o Upendragupta, local king and a feudatory of the Vakataka king – cave nos. 17 – 20.
o Buddhabhadra – cave no. 26
o Mathuradasa – cave no. 4
 Paintings indicate many typological variations. Outward projections are seen from the 5th
century onwards. Lines are well-defined and rhythmic. The figures are heavy much like the
sculptures found in this region. The colours are limited.
 The paintings show various skin colours like brown, yellowish brown, greenish, yellow ochre,
etc. indicating a multi-coloured populace.
 The themes of the paintings are events from the Buddha’s life, Jatakas and Avadanas.
 Padmapani and Vajrapani images are very common in the Ajanta caves. Some paintings cover
the entire wall of the caves. Example: Simhala Avadana, Vidhurpundita Jataka and Mahajanaka
Jataka.
 In many paintings, events are grouped geographically. Famous example of painting from cave
no.1 – Padmapani Boddhisattva.
Ellora
 Important cave site in Aurangabad. Located 100 km from Ajanta.
 It has 32 Buddhist, Jain and Brahmanical caves.
 It is a unique historical site in India as it has monasteries associated with the three religions from
the 5th to the 11th century AD.
 Buddhist caves:
o 12 in number.
o Images belong to Vajrayana Buddhism like Tara, Akshobhya, Mahamayuri,

Avalokiteshvara, Maitreya, etc.
o Are big in size and are of single, double and triple storeys.
o Triple storeyed cave is found only at Ellora.
o Have massive pillars.
o All caves were plastered and painted but nothing is visible today.
o The sculptures are monumental.
o The shrine Buddha images are big generally guarded by the images of Padmapani and
Vajrapani.
 Jain caves:
o Are more ornate than the Buddhist caves.
o The decorative forms are heavily protruded.
o Belong to 9th century AD and onwards.
 Brahmanical caves:
o Numbered 13 – 28.
o Cave no. 14 is the only double storey cave here.
o Have images of Shiva and Vishnu and their different forms.
o Prominent Shaivite themes: Andhakasurvadha, Ravana shaking Mt. Kailas and

Kalyanasundara.
o Prominent Vaishnavite theme: avatars of Vishnu.
 Ellora caves have been carved by various artisan guilds that came from Vidarbha, Karnataka and
Tamil Nadu. Most diverse site in India.
 Cave no. 16 – also called Kailashleni. Here, a rock-cut temple is carved out of a single rock.
Elephanta Caves
 Located in Elephanta Island in Mumbai Harbour.
 Originally a Buddhist site, later dominated by Shaivism.
 Contemporary with Ellora caves.
 Sculptures are slender in body images with stark light and dark effects.
Cave Tradition in Eastern India
 Mainly located in the coastal regions of Andhra Pradesh and Odisha.
 Main sites in AP – Guntapalle in Elluru.
 Unique because structural stupas, viharas and caves are excavated in one place.
 Guntapalle Chaitya Cave – circular hall with a stupa and a chaitya arch at the entrance.
 Most of them date back to the 2nd century BC.
 Most of the caves are vihara type.
 The biggest rock-cut stupas in India are found at Anakapalli near Vishakhapatnam. Carved during
the 4th – 5th centuries AD.
 Earliest examples in Odisha – Udaigiri-Khandagiri caves near Bhubaneswar.
 Scattered caves with inscriptions of Kharavela kings. As per the inscriptions, the caves were
intended for Jaina monks.
NCERT Notes: Post-Mauryan Trends in Indian Art and Architecture – Part III
November 21, 2017
Subject: History
Topic: Post-Mauryan Trends in Indian Art and Architecture – Part III
Seated Buddha, Katra Mound, Mathura

 Period: 2nd century AD.
 Buddha with two Boddhisattva attendants. Buddha is seated in Padmasana (cross-folded legs).
 Right hand is in Abhayamudra raised above the shoulder level and left hand is on the left thigh.
 Ushanisha (hair knot) is vertically raised. S
 culptures of this period from Mathura have light volume and a fleshy body.
 The sanghati (dress) covers only the left shoulder.
 Buddha is seated on a lion throne. He has a large halo which is decorated with geometric motifs.
His face is rounded having fleshy cheeks.
 The attendants are identified as the Boddhisattvas Padmapani (holding a lotus) and Vajrapani
(holding a thunderbolt).
 Two flying figures diagonally above the halo.
 This image is important for an understanding of the Buddha image development in the later
periods.
Buddha Head, Taxila

 Period: 2nd century AD, Kushana Period.
 Taxila in Gandhara region, now in Pakistan.
 The sculpture has Greco-Roman elements. Buddha head has Hellenistic elements.
 Thick curly hair with sharp and linear strokes over the head. Big forehead plane, protruding
eyeballs, half-closed eyes.
 Face and cheeks are not rotund unlike the images found in other parts of the country.
 Elongated ears and earlobes; Surface is smooth and the outlines are quite sharp.
 Expressive image; shows a remarkably calm expression.
 Gandhara images of this period showcase heaviness. This style assimilates influences from
Parthian, Bactrian and Acamenian traditions with the local style.
Seated Buddha, Sarnath

 Period: 5th century AD.
 Fine example of the Sarnath School.
 Made from Chunar sandstone.
 Buddha is seated in Padmasana.
 Image represents dhammachackrapravartana which is evident from the figures in the panel
below the throne. The panel has a chakra in the centre and a deer on each side. Buddha’s hands
are also shown in dhammachackrapravartana mudra placed below the chest.
 Body is slender and slightly elongated. The outlines are delicate and rhythmic.
 The robe clings to the body. Face is round although the cheeks are less rounded as compared to
the earlier images from the Kushana period. Lower lip is protruding. Eyes are half-closed.
 Ushanisha has circular curled hairs.
 The back of the throne is richly decorated with carvings of creepers and flowers. The halo is
plain.
Padmapani Boddhisatva, Ajanta

 Located in Ajanta Cave No.1.
 Period: Late 5th century AD.
 Image of a Boddhisattva holding a Padma or lotus.
 Large shouldered with 3 bends in the body creating the impression of a movement.
 Soft modelling, outlines merged with the body creating a 3-D effect.
 Eyes are half-closed and a bit elongated. Nose is straight and sharp. Small chin.
 Adorning a beaded necklace.
 Right hand is holding the lotus and the left hand is extended into space.
 Small figures surround the image.
 Thread over the body is seen with spiral lines.
 Colours used: light red, green, brown and blue.
 Cave No.1 paintings are better preserved.
Mara Vijaya, Ajanta

 Location: Cave No.26, Ajanta Caves.
 The theme of this image has been portrayed as paintings in the caves but this is the only
sculpture.
 Image of Buddha in the centre surrounded by Mara’s army and his daughter.
 Buddha is in padmasana.
 Mara represents desire here. This representation is the personification of the tumult of mind
that the Buddha underwent at the time of his enlightenment.
 Buddha’s right hand is shown towards the earth symbolising his generosity.
 The panel contains many highly voluminous images.
Maheshmurti, Elephanta
 Period: Early 6th century AD.

 Located in the main cave shrine at Elephanta Caves.
 Best example of sculpting images in rock-cut caves in the western Deccan tradition.
 Large image. Central head is of Shiva. Other two heads are of Bhairava and Uma.
 Central face is round with thick lips and heavy eyelids.
 The face of Bhairava in profile is shown in anger with bulging eye and moustache.
 Uma’s face has feminine features.
 This image is considered as a representation of the five integrated faces of Shiva mentioned in
one of the Shilpa texts. The top and the back heads are invisible.
 Characteristic features of the sculptures of the Elephanta Caves: smooth surface, elongation and
rhythmic movement.
NCERT Notes: Later Mural Traditions
November 23, 2017
Subject: History
Topic: Later Mural Traditions
useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil service exam and so on.
Introduction
 After Ajanta, very few sites with paintings have survived.
 In many places, sculptures were also plastered and painted.
Badami
 Example of later mural tradition.
 Badami was the capital of the western Chalukyan dynasty.
 This dynasty ruled the area from 543 CE to 598 CE.
 Chalukya king Mangalesha patronised the excavation of the Badami caves.
 Mangalesha was the younger son of Pulakesi I and the brother of Kirtivarman I.
 Cave No. 4 is also known as the Vishnu Cave because of the dedication of the image of Vishnu.
The date 578 – 579 CE is mentioned here. Thus, we get the period during which the cave was
carved and also the Vaishnava leanings of the patron.
 Paintings depict palace scenes. A painting shows Kirtivarman seated in the palace and watching
a dance scene with his wife and feudatories.
 The paintings are an extension of the mural painting tradition from Ajanta to Badami in south
India.
 The faces of the king and queen are reminiscent of the modelling seen in Ajanta, with their eye-
sockets large, eyes half-closed and protruding lips.
 These artists of the 6th century CE were able to create volume by contouring different parts of
the face to create protruding structures of the face itself.
Murals under the Pallava, Pandava and Chola Kings
 The Pallavas succeeded the Chalukyas further south in Tamil Nadu.
o They were great patrons of the arts.
o Mahendravarma I (7th century) built many temples in Panamalai, Mandagapattu and

Kanchipuram.
o An inscription at Mandagapattu mentions the king Mahendravarma I with several titles

such as Vichitrachitta (curious-minded), Chaityakari (temple-builder) and Chitrakarapuli
(tiger among artists) – showing his interest in artistic activities.
o Paintings at the temple at Kanchipuram was patronised by the Pallava king Rajasimha.
o Painting of Somaskanda here – only traces remain – large, round face.
o There is increased ornamentation in this period as compared to the previous. But, the
depiction of the torso is much the same although a bit elongated.
 Pandyas also patronised art.
o Examples: Tirumalaipuram caves and Jaina caves at Sittanvasal.
o Paintings are seen on the ceilings of the shrine, in verandas and on the brackets.
o Dancing figures of celestial nymphs are seen.
o Contours are in vermillion red and the bodies are painted yellow. Dancers have
expressions on their faces and show supple limps. Their eyes are elongated and
sometimes protrude off the face. This is a distinctive feature seen in many later
paintings in the Deccan and South India.
 The Cholas ruled over the region from 9th to the 13th century CE.
o The Cholas were at the height of their power in the 11th century CE and this is when
their masterpieces appear.
o Temples built during the reign of Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola –
Brihadeswara Temple at Thanjavur, at Gangaikonda Cholapuram, at Darasuram.
o Chola paintings are seen in Nartamalai. Most important paintings are seen in the
Brihadeswara Temple.
o Two layers of paint were seen. The upper layer was executed during the Nayaka period
(16th century). The Chola paintings (original layer) depict narrations and various forms
of Lord Shiva, Shiva in Kailas, Shiva as Nataraja, as Tripurantaka. Also there is a portrait
of Rajaraja, his mentor Kuruvar, etc.
Vijayanagara Murals
 After the Chola decline, the Vijayanagara Dynasty brought the region from Hampi to Trichy
under its control.
 Hampi was the capital.
 Paintings at Tiruparakunram, near Trichy (14th century) represent the early phase of the
Vijayanagara style.
 Virupaksha Temple at Hampi
o Paintings on the ceilings of the Mandapa.
o Depicting events from dynastic history and also from the Mahabharata and the
Ramayana.
o Examples of paintings: portraying Vidyaranya, Bukkaraya Harsha’s spiritual teacher

carried in a palanquin in a procession; incarnations of Vishnu.
o Faces and figures are shown in profile. Large frontal eyes, narrow waists.
 Lepakshi in Andhra Pradesh – paintings on the walls of the Shiva Temple.
 Features of Vijayanagara paintings:
o Lines are still but fluid.
o Faces are in profile.
o Figures and objects are shown two-dimensionally.
o These features were adopted by later artists such as those of the Nayaka Period.
Nayaka Paintings
 Extension of the Vijayanagara styles.
 17th and 18th centuries.
 Seen in Thiruparakunram, Sreerangam and Tiruvarur.
 Nayaka paintings showcase episodes of Mahabharata, Ramayana and Krishna Leela.

 In Thiruparakunram, paintings from two periods are observed – 14th and 17th centuries.
 The 14th century paintings show scenes from the life of Mahavira.
 In Tiruvarur, there is a panel describing the story of Machukunda.
 Sri Krishna Temple at Chengam, Arcot – 60 panels narrating the Ramayana. (Late phase of the
Nayaka period).
 Male figures are shown with slim waists but less heavy abdomens.
 Painting of Nataraja at Tiruvalanjuli – good example of Nayaka art.
Kerala Murals (16th – 18th centuries)
 Distinct style was developed but a lot of the features of the Nayaka and Vijayanagara styles
were adopted.
 The artists took ideas from the contemporary traditions of Kathakali and Kalam Ezhuthu.
 Vibrant and luminous colours, human figures shown 3-dimensionally.
 Paintings on the walls of the shrines, on cloister walls of temples, also in palaces.
 Theme of the paintings – from locally popular episodes of Hindu mythology, local versions of the
Mahabharata and Ramayana through oral traditions.
 More than 60 sites with mural paintings
o Three palaces: Dutch Palace (Kochi), Krishnapuram palace (Kayamkulam),

Padmanabhapuram palace (Travancore, now in Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu).
o Pundareekapuram Krishna temple
o Panayanarkavu (temple), Thirukodithanam
o Sri Rama temple, Triprayar
o Vadakkunathan temple, Thrissur
Traditional forms of murals:
 Pithoro in parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat.
 Mithila paintings, Mithila region,
 Bihar Warli paintings, Maharashtra
NCERT Notes: Temple Architecture and Sculpture – Part I
November 27, 2017

Subject: History
Topic: Temple Architecture and Sculpture – Part I
useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams and so on. This
article talks about temple architecture UPSC.
Temple Architecture and Sculpture
Basic Form of the Hindu Temple
 The basic elements that comprise a Hindu Temple are given below:
 Garbhagriha: Literally means womb-house. It is a cave-like sanctum which houses the main icon
of the temple. In earlier times, it was a small cubicle with one entrance. In later periods, it grew
into a larger chamber.
 Mandapa: The entrance to the temple. It could be a portico or a collonaded hall where
worshippers stand.
 Shikhara/Vimana: Noticed from the 5th century CE. It is a mountain-like spire on top. In north
India, it is called Shikhara and is curving in shape. In the south, it is like a pyramidal tower and is
called Vimana.

 Amalaka: Stone-like disc seen at the top of the temple. Mostly in north Indian temples.
 Kalasha: It is the topmost part of the temple. Mainly seen in north Indian styles.
 Antarala: It is a vestibule between the Garbhagriha and the Mandapa.
 Jagati: This is common in north Indian temples and is a raised platform where devotees can sit
and pray.
 Vahana: It is the vehicle of the main deity which along with the standard pillar or Dhvaj which
are placed axialy
Types of Indian Temple Architecture/Styles

Basically there are 3 kinds of temple architecture:
1. Nagara Style
2. Dravida Style
3. Vesara Style
The Nagara or North Indian temple style
 Became popular in northern India.
 Entire temple is generally built on a stone platform with steps leading to it.
 No grand boundary walls or gateways (unlike the Dravida style).
 Earlier temples had one shikhara whereas latter temples had many.
 The garbhagriha is located directly beneath the tallest shikhara.
Subdivisions of Nagara Style
 Based on Style:-
 Rekha-prasada/Latina:
o Simple shikhara with square base and whose walls slope inwards to a point on top.
o Most common.
o In later periods, latina type became more complex with several towers clustered
together.
o The tallest tower was at the centre and the garbhagriha was directly beneath it.
 Phamsana:

o Roofs composed of many slabs that gently rise to a single point over the building’s
centre.
o Roofs do not curve inwards like the latina type, but they slope upwards on a straight
incline.
o Phamsana structures are generally broader and shorter than latina ones.
o In many temples, the latina type is used to house the garbhagriha whereas the mandapa
has a Phamsana style of architecture.
 Valabhi:

o Rectangular buildings with a roof that rises into a vaulted chamber.
o Also called wagon-vaulted buildings.
Nagara Style in Various Regions:-
Central India
 Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan.
 Made of sandstone.
 Oldest surviving structural temples from the Gupta period are in MP. They are small shrines with
four pillars to support a small mandapa. The mandapas are basically small porch-like structures
before the garbhagriha which are also rather small. Examples: temple at Udaigiri – part of a
larger Hindu complex of cave shrines (outskirts of Vidisha); temple at Sanchi (which was a
Buddhist site).
 This shows how similar architectural developments were incorporated in both religions.
Dashavatara Vishnu Temple, Deogarh, UP

 Classic example of the late Gupta period temple architecture.
 Patrons are unknown.
 From the architecture and imagery, it is known that the temple was built in early 6th century CE.
 Panchayatana Style of architecture.
o Main shrine is built on a rectangular plinth with four subsidiary shrines that are smaller
and at the 4 corners.
o Hence, there are a total of five shrines and hence the name, Panchayatana.
 This temple has a rekha-prasada type of shikhara.
 It is a west-facing temple. Most temples are north or east facing.
 Has a grand doorway with figures of Ganga and Yamuna on the left and right side respectively.
 Depicts Vishnu in various forms. 3 main Vishnu reliefs on the temple walls: Sheshashayana on
the south; Nara-Narayan on the east; and Gajendramoksha on the west.
 Since it was assumed that the subsidiary shrines had avatars of Vishnu in them, the temple was
mistaken to be Dashavatara temple.
Khajuraho Temples (MP)
 Built in the 10th century CE.
 It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
 Patronised by Chandela Kings.
 All temples made of sandstone.

 From the temple at Deogarh (built about 400 years before Khajuraho temples), the
development of the Nagara architectural style is visible here.
 These temples are known for their extensive erotic sculptures. Mostly Hindu, though some Jain
temples are also present.
 There are also temples dedicated to Yoginis which form part of Tantric worship indicating the
rise and spread of tantric cult after the 7th century. E.g. Chausanth Yogini temple.
 Important temples in Khajuraho: Kandariya Mahadeo (dedicated to Lord Shiva) and Lakshmana
temple.
 Lakshmana temple

o Grandest of the Khajuraho temples.
o Dedicated to Vishnu.
o Built by the Chandela King Dhanga in 954 CE.
o Structure is placed on a high platform that is accessed by stairs.
o Has small temples in four corners.
o Has high shikharas, amalak and kalash. Also has projecting balconies and verandas.
West India
 Gujarat, Rajasthan and western MP.
 Sandstone is most common, grey to black basalt is also seen in some 10 – 12th century temples.
 Also seen is soft white marble in 10 – 12th century Jain Temples at Mount Abu and a 15th
century temple at Ranakpur.
 Samlaji in Gujarat is an important art historical site. Many sculptures made of grey schist are
found here.
 Sun Temple, Modhera, Gujarat


o Built by Raja Bhimdev I of the Solanki dynasty in 1026 CE.
o Temple complex features a huge rectangular stepped tank known as the ‘Surya Kund’ in
the front. This is a noticeable feature from earlier times – proximity of a sacred water
body. By early 11th century, this was a common feature of many temples.
o The Surya Kund is a 100 sq.m pond – one of the grandest of its kind in the country. 108
miniature shrines are carved in between the steps inside the tank.
o A large ornamental torana (gateway) leads to the sabha mandapa or assembly hall that
is open on all sides.
o Lavish carving and sculpture work is present.
o The central shrine walls are plain. The temple is east-facing and every year at the time of
equinoxes, the sun shines directly onto the central shrine.
NCERT Notes: Temple Architecture and Sculpture – Part II
November 28, 2017
Subject: History
Topic: Temple Architecture and Sculpture – Part II (Nagara Style in
East India & the hills)

Nagara Style in Various Regions: – (Contd.)
East India
 North-East, Odisha and Bengal.
 Each region produced a distinct type of architecture.
 Terracotta was the main medium in Bengal and north-east until the 7th century.
 Assam
o There is evidence of Gupta influence from a sculpted door frame dating to the 6th
century CE from DaParvatia near Tezpur; and sculptures from Rangagora Tea Estate near
Tinsukia.
o The Gupta influence is seen till the 10th century.
o By 12th to 14th centuries, a distinct Ahom style developed in the region around
Guwahati. This style evolved from the mixing of the style brought to the area by the Tais
of Upper Burma with the Pala style of Bengal. Example: Kamakhya Temple – a Shakti
Peeth dedicated to Goddess Kamakhya built in 17th century.
 Bengal
o Regions: West Bengal, Bangladesh, Bihar
o Style between 9th and 11th centuries – Pala Style. The Palas were patrons of Buddhist
monastic styles. The temples in this region showcased the local Vanga style.
o Style of temple architecture from the middle of the 11th century to middle of the 13th
centuries – Sena style.
o Siddheswara Mahadeva temple in Barakar in Burdwan District – 9th century; tall curving
Shikhara crowned by a large amalaka – early Pala style.
o
o Many temples were located at Telkupi in Purulia District – 9th to 12th century but were
submerged due to dam construction. These temples showed all the Nagara sub-styles
prevalent in the north.
 Some temples survive.
 Made of black to grey basalt.
 Had chlorite stone pillars and arched niches.
 They influenced early Bengal Sultanate buildings at Gaur and Pandua.
o Local vernacular building traditions also influenced the temples. Most noticeable of
these influences was the curving or sloping side of the bamboo roof of a Bengali hut.
 This feature was adopted in Mughal buildings and is known as the Bangla Roof.
o From the Mughal period onwards, several terracotta brick temples were built which had
elements from the earlier Pala style, from the local bamboo hut styles, and arches and
domes from Islamic architecture.
o Eg. Terracotta Temple, Vishnupur (17th century)
o
 Odisha
 Three orders of architectural features:
o Rekhapida (Rekha Deula): Tall straight building (looking like a shikhara) covering the
garbhagriha.
o Pidhadeul: It is the mandapa, a square building where worshippers are present and also
where dancing takes place.
o Khakra (Khakra Deula): Rectangular building with a truncated pyramid-shaped roof.

Temples of Shakti are usually in this type.
 Location: Ancient Kalinga – that includes modern Puri District including Bhubaneswar (ancient
Tribhuvanesvara, Puri and Konark).
 Odisha temples are a distinct sub-style of the Nagara style called Kalinga Style.
 Shikhara is called Deul and is almost vertical and suddenly curves sharply inwards at the top.
 In front of the deul, there is the mandapa, called jagamohana in Odisha.
 Exterior of the temples are richly carved while the interiors are plain.
 Temples generally have boundary walls.
 Konark Sun Temple

o Sun temple built around 1240.
o Its shikhara which was said to be 70m high fell in the 19th century.
o The jagamohana (mandapa) has survived. This is the largest enclosed space in Hindu
architecture although it is not accessible any more.
o The temple is set on a high base. There are detailed carvings. There are 12 pairs of
gigantic wheels sculpted with spokes and hubs representing the chariot wheels of the
sun god. The whole temple resembles a processional chariot.
o On the southern wall there is huge sculpture of Surya or sun god made of green stone. It
is believed that there were 3 more such images in different directions made out of
different stones. The fourth wall had the doorway from which the sun rays would enter
the garbhagriha.
The Hills
 Region: hills of Kumaon, Garhwal, Himachal and Kashmir
 Style: Ancient Gandhara style (because of the proximity of Kashmir to that region) with Gupta
and post-Gupta traditions from Sarnath, Mathura, Gujarat and Bengal.
 We can see both Buddhist and Hindu traditions in the hills.
 Its own local tradition: wooden buildings with pitched roofs.
 Many temples showcase the garbhagriha and shikhara of the latina type, and the mandapa in
wooden architecture.
 Sometimes a pagoda shape is seen to the temples.

 Karkota Period, Kashmir – Most significant in terms of architecture.
 Temple at Pandrethan –
o 8th and 9th centuries; temple built on a plinth in the middle of a water tank.
o Possibly Hindu temple dedicated to Lord Shiva.
o Wooden building. Peaked roof that slants slowly outwards (due to the snowy
conditions)
o Moderately ornamented – a row of elephants at the base and a decorated doorway.
 Sculptures at Chamba (Himachal Pradesh) –
o Local traditions mixed with the post-Gupta style. g.: Images of Mahishasuramardini and
Narasimha at Laksna-Devi Mandir.
o Styles: Post-Gupta and the Kashmiri metal sculpture traditions. Images’ yellow colour is
possibly an alloy of zinc and copper which were popular in Kashmir.
o Inscription in the Laksna-Devi Mandir states that it was built during the reign of
Meruvarman in the 7th century.
 Temples of Kumaon: classic examples of Nagara of this region – temples at Jageshwar (near
Almora) and Champavat (near Pithoragarh), both in Uttarakhand.
NCERT Notes: Temple Architecture and Sculpture – Part III
November 29, 2017
Subject: History
Topic: Temple Architecture and Sculpture – Part III (Dravida and Vesara Styles)
Temple Architecture UPSC
Dravidian Style of Architecture
Dravida or South Indian Style


 The temple is enclosed within a compound wall.
 Gopuram: The entrance gateway in the centre of the front wall.
 Vimana: The shape of the main temple tower. It is a stepped pyramid that rises up geometrically
(unlike the Nagara style Shikhara that is curving).
 In the Dravida style, shikhara is the word used for the crowning element at the top of the
temple (which is shaped like a stupika or octagonal cupola).
 At the entrance to the garbhagriha, there would be sculptures of fierce dvarapalas guarding the
temple.
 Generally, there is a temple tank within the compound.
 Subsidiary shrines could be found wither within the main tower or beside the main tower.
 In many temples, the garbhagriha is located in the smallest tower. It is also the oldest. With the
passage of time and the rise of the population of the temple-town, additional boundary walls
were added. The newest structure would mostly have the tallest gopuram.
 Example in the Sriranganathar Temple at Srirangam, Tiruchirappally, there are 7 concentric

rectangular enclosure walls each having gopurams. The tower at the centre has the garbhagriha.
 Famous temple towns of Tamil Nadu: Kanchipuram, Thanjavur (Tanjore), Madurai and
Kumbakonam.
 In the 8th to 12th centuries – temples were not confined to being religious centres but became
administrative centres as well with large swathes of land.
Subdivisions of Dravida Style
1. Kuta or Caturasra: square-shaped
2. Shala or Ayatasra: rectangular-shaped
3. Gaja-prishta or vrittayata or elephant-backed: elliptical
4. Vritta: circular
5. Ashtasra: octagonal
Pallava architecture
 The Pallava dynasty was ruling in the Andhra region from the 2nd century AD onwards. They
then moved southwards to Tamil Nadu.
 They built many monuments and temples during the 6th to the 8th centuries.
 Although they were mostly Shaivite, some Vaishnava monuments are also seen. Their
architecture was also influenced by the Buddhist heritage of the Deccan.
 Their early buildings were rock-cut whereas the later were structural.
 The early buildings were built during the reign of Mahendravarman I, a contemporary of the
Chalukya king Pulakeshin II of Karnataka.
 His son Narasimhavarman I, also known as Mamalla, was a great patron of the arts. Most
buildings in Mahabalipuram (also called Mamallapuram in his honour) are attributed to him.
 In Mahabalipuram, there are exquisite monolithic rathas and mandapas. The five rathas are
known as Panchapandava Rathas.
Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram
 Built during the reign of Pallava king Narasimhavarman II, also known as Rajasimha (700 – 728
AD).
 It has three shrines – one Shiva shrine facing east, one Shiva shrine facing west, a middle shrine
to Vishnu in Anantashayana pose. The presence of three main shrines is unique.
 It is probable that the shrines were not all built at the same time but were added later.
 There is evidence of a water reservoir and a gopuram.
 There are sculptures of Nandi the bull (Shiva’s mount) along the walls of the temple. There are
several carvings as well.
Brihadiswara Temple, Tanjore

 Shiva temple, also called Rajarajeswara Temple.
 Completed around 1009 AD. Built by Rajaraja Chola.
 It is the largest and tallest of all Indian temples. This Chola temple is bigger than any of the
previous Pallava, Chalukya or Pandya structures.
 More than 100 temples of the Chola Period are preserved. A lot of temples were constructed
during the Chola period.
 Its pyramidal multi-storied vimana is almost 70 metres high.
 There is a monolithic shikhara atop the vimana.
 The shikhara is a dome-shaped octagonal stupika. It has two large elaborately sculptured
gopuras. On the shikhara, there are large Nandi images.
 The kalasha on top of the shikhara is 3m and 8cm tall.
 There are hundreds of stucco figures on the vimana. Many might have been added later on in
the Maratha period.
 The main deity of Shiva is portrayed as a huge lingam set in a double-storied sanctum.
 The surrounding walls of the sanctum are adorned with painted murals and sculptures of
mythological stories.
Architecture in the Deccan
 A hybridised style mixing elements from both Nagara and Dravida styles emerge as a distinct
style during the middle of the 7th century in regions like Karnataka.
 This is referred to as Vesara in some ancient texts.
 Some of the temples are either completely nagara or dravida. Not all temples in the Deccan are
in vesara style.
 Kailashnath Temple, Ellora


o Completely in Dravida style.
o Main deity is Lord Shiva.
o There is also a Nandi shrine.
o Vimana rises 30 m.
o This temple was carved out of a portion of a hill.
o The temple is grand and imposing.
o Built during the Rashtrakuta phase at Ellora.
Chalukya Architecture
 Western Chalukya kingdom was established by Pulakesin I when he took control of the land
around Badami in 543 AD.
 Early western Chalukyas ruled the region till around the mid-8th century.
 Early activities are rock-cut caves while structural temples were built later on.
 Ravana Phadi cave at Aihole
o Important structure at this site: Nataraja
o This image is surrounded on the right by four large saptamatrikas and on the left by
three large ones.
o The figures have slim, graceful bodies. They have long oval faces. They wear short
pleated dhotis and tall cylindrical crowns.
 Distinct feature of Chalukya architecture: mixing and incorporation of several styles.
 Temples at Pattadakkal, Karnataka
o Pattadakkal is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
o There are 10 temples. Four are in Dravida style, four are in Nagara style, one (Papanatha
Temple) is a fusion of both and one is a Jain temple.
o Jain Narayana temple – built by Rashtrakutas in the 9th century.
o Virupaksha Temple – built by the chief queen of Chalukya king Vikramaditya II (733 –
44), Loka Mahadevi. Best example of Dravida style.
 Durga Temple, Aihole

o Apsidal shrine resembling a Buddhist Chaitya hall.
o Surrounded by a veranda.
o Shikhara is like a nagara one.
 The Lad Khan temple at Aihole

o Located south of the Durga temple. Built in the 5th century.
o Inspired by the wooden-roofed temples of the hills, but is made out of stone.
o Built in the Panchayatana style.
o So named because a person named Lad Khan had used it as his residence for some time.
Hoysalas
 Hoysalas grew into prominence in South India after the Chola and the Pandya power declined.
 Centred at Mysore.
 Chief temples are at Belur, Somnathapuram and Halebid.

 These temples have a plan called the stellate plan. This is because the plan which emerged from
being a straightforward square to a complex one with many projecting angles began to resemble
a star.
 The star-like ground plan is a distinct feature of the Hoysala architecture.
 Style is Vesara.
 Made of soapstone which is relatively soft. This enabled the artists to carve intricate details like
jewellery.
 Hoysaleshvara Temple, Halebid

o Made of dark schist stone in 1150.
o Dedicated to Nataraja (Shiva).
o It is a double building with a large hall for the mandapa.
o A Nandi pavilion is in front of each building.
o The temple’s tower fell long time back. The structure of the temple is evident from the
detailed miniature ones at the temple’s entrance.
o Very intricate and detailed carvings.
Vijayanagara Architecture
 City of Vijayanagara (City of victory) founded in 1336.
 Visited by international travellers like Niccolo di Conti, Domingo Paes, Duarte Barbosa, Abd, al-
Razzaq, etc. who have given vivid accounts of the place.
 Synthesizes the Dravida style with Islamic styles of the neighbouring sultanates.
 The sculpture tries to recreate the Chola tradition but foreign influence is also seen.
NCERT Notes: Temple Architecture and Sculpture – Part IV
November 30, 2017
Subject: History
Topic: Temple Architecture and Sculpture – Part IV (Buddhist and Jain Architectural
Developments)
Buddhist architecture
 Along with Hindu art and architecture, Buddhist temple building and artwork also went on along
with other religions.
 Ellora has Buddhist, Jain and Hindu monuments.
 Bodh Gaya (or Bodhgaya)
o Most important Buddhist site because Prince Siddhartha achieved enlightenment here
to become Gautama Buddha.
o The Bodhi Tree is important.
o The Mahabodhi Temple at Bodhgaya:
o
 The first shrine situated at the base of the Bodhi tree was probably built by
Emperor Ashoka.
 The vedika around the shrine is post-Mauryan built during 100 BC.
 Many sculptures in the niches in the temple belong to the Pala Period (8th
century CE).
 The temple itself was constructed during the colonial period.
 It is a 7th century design. It is neither nagara or dravida in style.
 Nalanda University
o It was a monastic university.
o It is a Mahavihara since it is a complex of many monasteries.
o Only a small portion of the place has been studied as most of it lies buried under
present civilisation and impossible to excavate.
o The records of the Chinese traveller Xuan Zang (Hsuan-tsang) gives a huge amount of
information about Nalanda.
o As per the records, the foundation of the learning centre was laid down by Kumaragupta
I, the Gupta king in the 5th century CE. Later kings added to the original centre.
o Evidence for all three Buddhist doctrines of Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana taught
here.
o Monks came from China, Tibet and Central Asia in the north; and from Sri Lanka, Burma,
Thailand, and other countries in Southeast Asia.
o Nalanda was a centre for art production and Buddhist sculptures and manuscripts were
taken from here by monks to their countries. So, art in Nalanda had a profound impact
on art in all the Buddhist countries.
o The Nalanda School of sculpture was influenced by Buddhist Gupta art of Sarnath, the
local Bihar tradition and Central India. This synthesis emerged during the 9th century.
o Features of Nalanda School of sculpture:
 Sculptures have an ordered appearance with little effect of crowding.
 They are depicted in three-dimensional forms.
 Delicate ornamentations.
 Back slabs of the sculptures are detailed.
 Nalanda bronzes: dating from 7th and 8th centuries to the 12th century;
outnumber the metal images from entire eastern India.
 Initially depict Mahayana Buddhist deities like standing Buddhas, bodhisattvas

like Manjusri Kumara, Naga-Nagarjuna and Avalokiteshvara seated on a lotus.
 In the late 11th and 12th centuries, Nalanda became an important tantric
centre. Then, Vajrayana deities dominated such Vajrasharada (a form of
Saraswati), Avalokiteshvara, Khasarpana, etc.
 Many Brahmanical images have also been found at Nalanda. Many such images
are still worshipped at nearby villages.
 Buddhist sites: Sirpur in Chhattisgarh (550 – 800 CE); Lalitagiri, Vajragiri and Ratnagiri in Odisha.
 Nagapattinam in Tamil Nadu was also a Buddhist centre until the Chola Period. Reason could be
that it was a port-town and there were trade activities with Sri Lanka which was and continues
to be predominantly Buddhist.
Jain architecture
 Jain temples are found all over India except in the hills.
 Oldest Jain pilgrimage sites are in Bihar.
 In the Deccan: Ellora and Aihole.
 In central India: Khajuraho, Deogarh, Chanderi and Gwalior.
 Karnataka has many Jain shrines.
o Statue of Gomateshwara: Granite statue of Lord Bahubali commissioned by

Camundaraya, the prime minister of the Ganga kings; located at Sravana Belagola; 18m
or 57 feet high; world’s tallest monolithic free-standing structure.
 Gujarat and Rajasthan have a rich Jain heritage continuing to this day.
 Jain bronze images found from Akola (near Baroda) belong to the late 5th – late 7th century CE;
made using the lost-wax process; the images have been inlaid with silver and copper for
embellishments.
 Jain bronze sculptures also found from Chausa (Bihar), Hansi (Haryana) and many places in
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
 Jain Temples at Mount Abu, Rajasthan
o Constructed by Vimal Shah.
o Also called Dilwara temples. Built between 11th and 13th centuries.
o Every ceiling has unique patterns. Richly sculptured on white marble. The exteriors are
simple but the interiors are finely carved and exquisitely decorated.
NCERT Notes: Indian Bronze Sculpture
December 1, 2017
Subject: History
Topic: Indian Bronze Sculpture
Introduction
 Apart from sculpturing in terracotta and stone, ancient Indian artists were masters in bronze
sculpting as well.
 The Lost Wax Technique or the ‘Cire-Perdu’ process has been known from the time of the Indus
Valley Civilization itself. This process is in use even today.
 Bronze is an alloy of basically copper and tin. Sometimes zinc was also added although most of
the component is copper.
 The alloy-making process of mixing metals was known to the ancient Indians.
 Bronze sculptures and statuettes of various icons of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism have been
found from various parts of India dating from the 2nd century CE to the 16th century CE.
 Most of the images were used for religious and ritualistic purposes.
 The metal casting process was also used for making articles of daily use like utensils.
North India
 The statue of the Dancing Girl found from Mohenjo Daro is one of the finest examples of Indus
Valley art. It is a bronze statue showing remarkable achievements of the artists of the Indus
Valley. The figurine is about 4 inches tall. Datable to 2500 BC. It is said to be in the tribhanga It is
one of the oldest bronze sculpture.
 Chariot at Daimabad: datable to 1500 BC.
 Images of Jain Teerthankaras
o Found in Chausa, Bihar belonging to the Kushana Period (2nd century CE).
o Images show the mastery of artists in modelling masculine human physique.
o Remarkable depiction of Adinath or Vrishabhanath (the first Teerthankara) with long

hair (generally the Teerthankaras are shown with short curly hair).
 Buddha images have been found in north India, particularly UP and Bihar.
o Standing Buddhas with the right hand in Abhaya Mudra.
o Gupta and pre-Gupta period.

o The Sanghati or the robe is wrapped over the shoulders and turn over the right arm,
while the other end of the robe covers the left arm.
o The clothes of the Buddha figures are thin.
o Youthful and proportionate figures.
o Bronze images from Dhanesar Khera, UP: Mathura style drapery which is a series of
dropping down curves.
o Buddha image at Sultanganj, Bihar: Sarnath style, less drapery.
o Bronze from Phophnar, Maharashtra: Vakataka images, contemporary to Gupta period.

Influenced by the 3rd century Amaravati style from Andhra Pradesh. These images were
portable and were carried by monks from place to place for personal worship or
installation at a vihara.
 Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir regions Buddhist and Hindu deities.
o Period: 8th, 9th and 10th
o Growth of different types of iconography of Vishnu images is seen.
o Worship of four-headed Vishnu: Chaturanana or Vaikuntha Vishnu.
 Nalanda School of Bronze (Buddhist)
o Emergence: 9th century CE. Pala Period.
o In regions of Bengal and Bihar.
o Four-armed Avalokiteswara: Good example of a male figure in the tribhanga pose.
o During the Vajrayana phase of Buddhism, worship of the female form was seen. Tara
images were popular.
South India
 The bronze casting technique and the sculpting of bronze images reached its zenith in the south
during the medieval period.
 Pallavas:
o Best Pallava bronze: Icon of Shiva in Ardhaparyanka asana (one leg kept dangling).
o Right hand in Achamana Mudra (indicating he is about to consume poison).
o Period: 8th century.
 Cholas:
o Chola bronze art is the most sought-after today in the world of art.
o Period: 10th – 12th century CE.

o Exquisite pieces of art developed during this period. This technique is still practised in
south India, particularly in Kumbakonam.
o Great patron of Chola bronze work: widowed queen Sembiyan Maha Devi (10th
century).
o World famous image: Shiva as Nataraja. (discussed below)
o Wide range of Shiva iconography in the Tanjore region.
o Kalyanasundara Murti: 9th century; marriage is represented by 2 separate statuettes;

Shiva and Parvati’s marriage or panigrahana.
o Ardhanarisvara image: union of Shiva and Parvati is represented.
o There are independent images of Parvati also.
 Vijayanagara:
o Period: 16th century.
o Portrait sculpture is seen wherein artists tried to preserve the knowledge of the royal
patrons for the future generation.
o Tirupati: There is a life-size standing bronze sculpture of King Krishnadevaraya with his 2
queens Tirumalamba and Chinnadevi.
o The physical body is shown as graceful and yet imposing.
o The king and his queens are in praying posture (Namaskara Mudra).
Nataraja (Chola bronze)
 Shiva’s dance is associated with the end of the cosmic world.

 Nataraja means ‘Lord of the Dance’.
 Shiva is seen balancing on his right leg. The foot of the right leg is suppressing the apasmara (the
demon of forgetfulness or ignorance).
 His left hand is in Bhujangatrasita stance (depicting kicking away tirobhava or illusion from the
devotee’s mind).
 Four arms are outstretched.
 Main right hand is in Abhayahasta.
 Upper right hand holds the Damaru (his favourite musical instrument – a percussion instrument
to keep rhythm).
 Main left hand is in Dolahasta and connects with the right hand’s Abhayahasta.
 Upper left hand carries a flame.
 Entire dancing figure is surrounded by the jvala mala or the garland of flames.
 Shiva’s locks fly on either side touching the jvala mala.
 Many variations of this model are found.
NCERT Notes: Some Aspects of Indo-Islamic Architecture – Part I
December 4, 2017
Subject: History
Topic: Some Aspects of Indo-Islamic Architecture – Part I
Introduction
 Islam came to India in the 7th and 8th centuries CE chiefly through Muslim traders, merchants,
holy men and conquerors.
 The religion spread in India over a time period of 600 years.
 Muslims in Gujarat and Sind had begun construction work in the 8th century itself. But it was
only in the 13th century that building activity on a large scale began by the Turkish State after
the Turkish conquest of North India.
 Muslims absorbed many aspects of local architectural traditions and amalgamated them into
their own practices.
 Architecturally, a mix of many techniques, stylised shapes and surface decorations evolved
through continuous amalgamation of architectural elements from the various styles. Such
architectural entities that showcased multiple styles are known as Indo-Saracenic or Indo-
Islamic architecture.
 While the Hindus were allowed to portray god in their art and were allowed to conceive
manifestations of the divine in any form, the Muslims were forbidden by their religion to
replicate living forms on any surface. So, their religious art and architecture mainly consisted
of arabesque, calligraphy and geometrical patterns on plaster and stone.
 Types of architectural buildings: mosques for daily prayers, Jama Masjids, dargahs, tombs,
hammams, minars, gardens, sarais or caravansarais, madrasas, Kos minars, etc.
Categories of Styles
1. Imperial Style (Delhi Sultanate)
2. Provincial Style (Mandu, Gujarat, Bengal, and Jaunpur)
3. Mughal Style (Delhi, Agra, and Lahore)
4. Deccani Style (Bijapur, Golconda)
Architectural Influences
 The architecture of Jaunpur and Bengal is distinct.
 Gujarat had more local influence than other styles. Example: toranas (gateways) from local
temple traditions, carvings of bell and chain motifs, lintels in mihrabs, and carved panels
depicting trees.
 Example of provincial style: Dargah of Shaikh Ahmad Khattu of Sarkhej (in white marble; 15th
century).
Decorative Forms
 Designing on plaster through incision or stucco.
 Designs were either left plain or filled with colours.
 Motifs of varieties of flowers (both Indian and foreign) were painted or carved.
 In the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, tiles were used to surface the walls and domes. Blue,
green, yellow and turquoise were the popular colours.
 In the wall panels, surface decoration was done by the techniques of tessellation (mosaic
designs) and pietra dura (a decorative art that is an inlay technique of using cut and fitted,
highly polished coloured stones to create images).

 Other decorative forms: arabesque, calligraphy, high and low relief carving and a profuse use of
jalis.

 The roof was generally a mix of the central dome and other smaller domes, chatris and tiny
minarets.
 There was generally an inverted lotus flower motif and a metal or stone pinnacle atop the
central dome.
Construction materials
 The walls were quite thick and made of rubble masonry.
 They were then coated with chunam or limestone plaster or dressed stone.
 Stones used: sandstone, quartzite, buff, marble, etc.
 Polychrome tiles were also used.
 Bricks were used from the 17th century.
Forts
 Forts symbolise the seat of power of a ruler. Many large forts with embattlements were built in
the medieval times.
 When a fort was captured, it meant the ruler who owned the fort had to surrender.
 E.g.: Chittor, Gwalior and Daulatabad
 Chittorgarh is the largest fort in Asia.
 Forts were constructed using great heights so that they were impregnable to enemy forces.
Inside there were places for offices and residences.
 Many complex features were added in the structure and design so as to making breaching the
walls of the forts challenging.
 Golconda Fort (Hyderabad) had concentric circles of outer walls. Daulatabad Fort had staggered
entrances so that even elephants could not be used to open the gates.
Minars
 Minar was a form of stambha or tower.
 Examples of medieval minars: Qutub Minar in Delhi, Chand Minar at Daulatabad Fort.
 Everyday use of the minar: azaan (call to prayer).
 Qutub Minar
o 13th century
o Construction started by Qutub-ud-din Aibak (Delhi Sultanate ruler) and completed by his
successor Iltutmish.
o UNESCO World Heritage Site
o 234 feet high
o Tower is divided into five storeys
o Mix of polygonal and circular shapes
o Material: red and buff sandstone with some marble in the upper storeys
o Highly decorated balconies
o There are inscriptions intertwined with foliated designs
o It came to be associated with Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki, a revered saint of

Delhi
 Chand Minar, Daulatabad
o 15th century
o 210 feet high
o Tapering tower has four storeys
o Work of architects from Delhi and Iran
Tombs
 Tombs are monumental structures over the graves of rulers and royalty.
 They were a common medieval feature in India.

 Examples: tombs of Ghyasuddin Tughlaq, Humayun, Akbar, Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan,
Itmaduddaula.
 Idea behind the tomb according to Anthony Welch was “eternal paradise as a reward for the
true believer on the Day of Judgement.”
 Walls had Quranic verses. Tombs were generally placed within paradisiacal elements like a
garden or a water body or both (as in the Taj Mahal).
Sarais
 Sarais were built on a simple rectangular or square plan around cities.
 They were meant to provide temporary accommodation to travellers, traders, pilgrims, etc.
 They were basically public spaces and a hub of cross-cultural interaction.
Structures for Common People
 Buildings such as those for domestic usage, temples, mosques, dargahs, khanqahs, pavilions in
the buildings and gardens, bazaars, commemorative gateways, etc.
 Here also, a mixing of styles, techniques and decorative patterns were seen. This was a feature
of the medieval period.
Jama Masjid
 Large mosques sprang up during the medieval times in India.
 Congregational prayers were held every Friday afternoon. A quorum of 40 Muslim male adults
was required for this to take place.
 At the time of the prayers, a khutba was read out in the name of the ruler along with his laws for
the realm.
 Generally, a city had one Jama Masjid and this place became the centre of the town for
religious, commercial and political activities.
 Generally, Jama Masjids were large with open courtyards.
 They were surrounded on three sides by cloisters with the Qibla Liwan to the west. The mihrab
and the mimbar for the Imam were located here.
 The mihrab indicated the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca and so people faced the mihrab while
offering prayers.
NCERT Notes: Some Aspects of Indo-Islamic Architecture – Part II
December 5, 2017
Subject: History
Topic: Some Aspects of Indo-Islamic Architecture – Part II
Indo-Islamic Architecture UPSC
Architecture in Mandu, Madhya Pradesh
 Mandu is located 60 miles from Indore in Madhya Pradesh.
 The city is at an elevation of 2000 feet overlooking the Malwa Plateau to the north and the
Narmada Valley to the south.
 It was constantly occupied by the Parmara Rajputs, Afghans and Mughals because of its natural
defence.
 It was the capital of the Ghauri Dynasty (1401 – 1561) founded by Hoshang Shah.
 Great example of the medieval provincial style of art and architecture.
 It has many official and residential pleasure palaces, mosques, artificial reservoirs, pavilions,
baolis, embattlements, etc.
 Most structures have arched pavilions, and are light and airy, so that they do not retain heat.
 Local stone and marble were used.
 Great example of architectural adaptation to the environment.
 Royal Enclave: Set of romantic buildings built around 2 artificial lakes.
 Hindola Mahal
o Audience hall of the Sultan
o Resembles a railway viaduct bridge with its large buttresses to support the walls
o Batter was used to give the impression of swinging (hindola) walls
 Jahaaz Mahal
o Two-storeyed ship-palace
o Built between 2 reservoirs
o Has open pavilions, balconies and a terrace

o Built by Sultan Ghiyasuddin Khilji possibly for using as his harem
o Had a terrace swimming pool
 Rani Rupamati’s double pavilion
 Baz Bahadur’s palace
 Asharfi Mahal – a madrassa
 Hoshang Shah’s tomb
o Example of the robustness of Afghan structures
o Majestic structure with a beautiful dome
o Has marble jail work, courts, porticos and towers
o Also has lattice work, toranas and carved brackets
 Jama Masjid
o Has a grand gateway and a squat dome
o Building is faced with red sandstone
o Mihrab has a lotus bud fringe
o Qibla Liwan is supported on carved brackets
Taj Mahal
 Built by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal.
 Built from 1632 and took almost 20 years to complete.
 Built by 20000 specialised workers.
 It is a mausoleum.
 It has a simple plan and elevation.
 One of the most famous architectural marvels of India worldwide.
 The structure is breathtakingly symmetrical.
 Made of white marble brought from the Makrana Mines, Rajasthan.
 It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
 Its monumental gateway is made of red sandstone.
 The tomb is set in a Chahar Bagh, criss-crossed with paths and water courses, along with pools
and fountains.
 The tomb is on a floor terrace. On the four sides of the terrace, there are four tall minarets
which are 132 feet high each.
 The main building has a drum and a dome with four cupolas.
 Towards the west of the structure is a mosque made of red sandstone.
 Towards the east is a similar structure to maintain the balance.
 Interior arrangements of the mausoleum: crypt below, vaulted, octagonal tomb chamber above;
there is a room at each angle which are all connected via corridors.
 Light comes into every corner of the building through perforated and carved jalis that are set in
the arched recesses of the interior.
 A double dome helps create a void that makes the ceiling as high as the façade.
 Four types of embellishments:
o Stone carvings in high and low relief on the walls
o Marble carving onto the jalis and volutes
o Creation of arabesques with pietra dura on walls and tombstones, and geometric
designs with tessellation
o Calligraphy – used in the inlay of jasper in white marble to write verses from the Quran
Gol Gumbad
 Location: Bijapur, Karnataka.
 Mausoleum of Muhammad Adil Shah (1626–1656), Adil Shahi Dynasty of Bijapur (1489–1686).
 Built by Muhammad Adil Shah himself.
 Tomb is a complex consisting of a gateway, a mosque, a Naqqar Khana, and a sarai within a big-
walled garden.
 The building is a huge square one with a circular drum. Above the drum is a majestic dome.
 Material: dark gray basalt with decorated plasterwork.
 The whole building is over 200 feet high.
 The tomb has a square chamber.
 The dome is the largest in the world with a diameter of 125 feet and an uninterrupted floor
space of 18337 square feet.
 Pendentives helped build the hemispherical masonry dome over the square base.
 The building has an impressive acoustic system with a whispering gallery where sounds get
magnified and echoed multiple times.
 At the four corners of the building there are seven-storeyed octagonal spires or minarets.
 This structure is a mix of many styles including local, Timurid and Persian styles.
Difference between Gandhara and Mathura School of art
July 18, 2018
India has a rich and varied culture of India as characterized in the later art of the subcontinent, dating
from the 14th through the 19th century. Art and culture is an important topic in the UPSC Exam. A
substantial amount of question can be asked from art and culture segment in UPSC Prelims as well as
Mains examination. Here we are giving the major difference between Gandhara School of art and
Mathura school of Art.
GANDHARA SCHOOL OF ARTS
During Kushana rule the Gandhara art prospered during the Kushana rule in India. Above all Kanishka,
the greatest of the Kushanas was a famous backer of art and architecture. The Gandhara School of art
flourished in his reign. Gandhara School was profoundly influenced by Greek methodologies.
The figures of Buddha were more spiritual and carved mainly in grey and bluish-grey color and finest
detailing.
MATHURA SCHOOL OF ARTS
The Mathura School of Art was entirely influenced by Indianism. The stone used in Mathura school of
arts was red sandstone. The sculptures were less spiritual.
They mostly used the spotted red sandstone for making sculptures and statues. The initial images of the
Buddha and the Bodhisattva are happy and fleshy figures with little spirituality about them. The
Mathura School of arts prided themselves on creating images of Buddha and they also made statues of
many gods and goddesses such as Jain Tirthankaras.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GANDHARA AND MATHURA SCHOOL OF ARTS
Areas of differences Gandhara School of art Mathura School of Art
Reign Kushana Dynasty Kushana Dynasty
Area Northwest Frontier Mathura
 Purely indigenous
Outside influences Greek influence
 No foreign influence
 Hinduism
Buddhism  Buddhism
Religious influence
Hellenistic realism  Jainism
 Secularism
Bluish- Grey sandstone

Material Used Spotted red sandstone
Grey sandstone
Spiritual Buddha Delighted Buddha

Features of Buddha
Sad Buddha Less spiritual
sculptures
Bearded Buddha Shaven head and face
Less ornamentation Muscularity
Great detailing Energetic
Buddha in Yogi postures Graceful posture of Buddha
Greek factors like wavy hair, Seated in Padmasana

large forehead, long ears
Buddha surrounded by two monks:
Padmapani (holding Lotus) and Vajrapani(
Holding Vajra)
Halo around the head of Buddha decorated

with geometrical motifs
The Standing Buddhas of the Sravasti,

Sarnath, and Kausambhi
Sarvatobhadrika image of 4 Jain Jinas
Abhayamudra- Don’t fear
Bhumisparshamudra -Touching
Various Mudras of the earth
Buddha in Gandhara —
Art Dhyana mudra- Meditation
Dharmachakramudra- A
preaching mudra
Thus learning about the various schools of art is essential as this is an important topic that can be asked
in the IAS exam.

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NCERT-ART AND CULTURE NOTES

NCERT Notes: Prehistoric Rock Paintings

November 13, 2017

Category: Art and Culture

Topic: Prehistoric Rock Paintings

 Earliest paintings in India are from the Upper Palaeolithic Age.

 Paintings in Kupgallu (Telangana), Piklihal and Tekkalkota (both in Karnataka)

1. Mostly in white and red ochre.

3. Bhimbetka drawings can be categorised into 7 Periods.

a. Period I: Upper Palaeolithic

b. Period II: Mesolithic

c. Period III: Chalcolithic

 Continuous occupation of these caves from 100000 BC to 1000 AD.

 Discovered by archaeologist V S Wakankar in 1957 – 58.

 One of the oldest paintings in India and the world.

 Period I (Upper Palaeolithic)

1. Largest number of paintings in this period.

2. More themes but paintings reduce in size.

 Period III (Chalcolithic)

1. Paintings indicate an association of these cave-dwellers with the agricultural communities

5. Brushes were made from plant fibre.

6. In some places, there are many layers of paintings, sometimes 20.

NCERT Notes: Arts of the Indus Valley

November 14, 2017

Category: Art and Culture

Topic: Arts of the Indus Valley

 Harappa and Mohenjodaro are in Pakistan.

 Bearded man (Priest)

3. Slightly elongated eyes as if in half-meditation

4. Well-formed nose, with a moustache, short beard and whiskers

5. Wearing an armlet and probable other jewellery.

 This technique was popular in almost all the sites.

 Both animal and human figures were made this way.

 Examples of bronze figures: Dancing Girl, Buffalo with uplifted head.

1. 4 inch copper figure

2. Long hair tied in a bun

3. Left arm covered with bangles

4. Cowrie shell necklace around the neck

6. Large eyes and a flat nose

7. Found from Mohenjodaro.

 Most important terracotta images are those of the mother goddess.

 They were mostly made of steatite (a kind of soft stone).

 Standard Harappan seals were square plaques with 2X2 dimension.

 Purpose of the seals: chiefly commercial.

 Animals represented include tigers, bulls, elephants, goats, bisons, etc.

 A lot of pottery has been excavated.

 Plain and painted pottery are found – plain is more common.

 Perforated pottery was also found, perhaps to use as a sieve.

 Pottery of various sizes has been excavated.

Beads and ornaments

 Made from precious metals, gemstones, bone and baked clay.

 Ornaments worn by men and women: fillets, necklaces, finger-rings, armlets.

 Ornaments worn by women: earrings, girdles, anklets.

 Bead factories at Lothal and Chanhudaro.

NCERT Notes: Arts of the Mauryan Period

November 15, 2017

Category: Art and Culture

Topic: Arts of the Mauryan Period

Mauryan Art and Architecture

Mauryan Pillars and Sculptures

Pillars & Sculptures

 The Lion Capital at Sarnath is the most famous example.