Why do cells divide?

The Cell Cycle • For reproduction

▫ asexual reproduction
● one-celled organisms
• For growth
▫ from fertilized egg to
multi-celled organism amoeb
a
• For repair & renewal
▫ replace cells that die
from normal wear &
tear or from injury

Cell division
The Cell Cycle
• 1.Amitosis direct division
▫ Direct cell division by simple cleavage of the nucleus,
without spindle formation. No mitotic spindle are seen • Body cell type
▫ no clear phase ▫ About 210 types
▫ Common in single cell microorganism
• Interphase (90% of cycle)
• 2.Mitosis indirect division • G1 phase~ growth
• 3.Meiosis reductive division • S phase~ synthesis of DNA
▫ In germ cell of organism having sexual reproduction • G2 phase~ preparation for
system. cell division
▫ In a higher organism, cell are divided into somatic cell • Mitotic phase
and sex cell (germ cell). • • Mitosis~ nuclear division
▫ Somatic cells divide normally each new cell has • • Cytokinesis~ cytoplasm
chromosome=parent’s chromosom diploid (2n) division

Cell cycle

time from cell exist until

cell divide
• Ex: Rapidly growing
human cell (20-24h)
• Liver cells 1-2 year
• Neurons 1 only
 Cell cycle-stages
• The time required for each cycle vary due to the
Ex: Rapidly dividing cell difference in G1 (3-4h) or until few days, months
(20-24h) and years.
Mitosis (M1h) • S and G2 phase generally the same.
• Interphase • S phase = 7-8h, G2 phase =2-5h
• G1 phase • M phase ~ 1 h
▫ Cellular growth 9h • Ex:
▫ Waktu paling bervariasi ▫ Red blood cells 120 days
▫ Can exit to G0 ▫ Brain Neuron 50-100 years
▫ mammalia cell needs 16h t.d G1=5h S=7h G2=3h M=1h

Cell Division: Key Roles

Cell Cycle-stages

• Mitosis
▫ Cell birth (division)
▫ Small time of cell cycle
• Interphase
▫ 20-24 h
▫ Most cell life
▫ Cell growth, function
▫ DNA synthesis
▫ Organelle development

11

Chromosome Organization Interphase-cont

• When cells divide, daughter cells must each
receive complete copy of DNA
• Each cell has about 2 meters of DNA in the
nucleus; thin threads called chromatin
• Before division, condenses to form chromosomes
• DNA also replicates before cell division to produce
paired chromatids
• chromosomes exist in condensed, extended form. (Cell
has a uniform appearance), nucleolus and centriole are
clearly seen.
• Cell Mass double
• At the molecular level : time during which cell growth and
DNA replication occuring in S phase. In contrast RNA is
synthesed in all phase, except at the time where mitosis
take place.
• Under certain condition ex. starvation or when a tissue
reach its final size, cells will stop cycling and remain in a
waiting state called G0. Cells in G0 can reenter the cycle
if conditions change.
 Mitosis Prophase
• Prophase
• Prometaphase ▣ Chromatin condenses
◼ visible chromosomes
• Metaphase chromatids
• Anaphase ▣ Centrioles move to opposite
• Telophase poles of cell
◼ animal cell
▣ Protein fibers cross cell to
form mitotic spindle
◼ microtubules
▣ Nucleolus disappears
▣ Nuclear membrane breaks
down

Prometaphase Metaphase

▫ spindle fibers attach to
centromeres
● creating kinetochores
▫ microtubules attach at
kinetochores
● connect centromeres
to centrioles
▫ chromosomes begin
moving
• Centrosomes at
opposite poles
• Centromeres are
aligned
• Kinetochores of sister
chromatids attached
to microtubules
(spindle)

Anaphase Separation of chromatids

• In anaphase, proteins holding together sister
▣ Paired centromeres
chromatids are inactivated
separate; sister
▫ separate to become individual chromosomes
chromatids liberated
▣ Chromosomes move
to opposite poles
▣ Each pole now has a
complete set of
chromosomes

2
1 chromosome
chromosom s
single-strand
e
double-strand ed
2
ed
chromatids
Telophase

▣ Daughter nuclei form

▣ Nuclear envelopes
arise
▣ Chromatin becomes
less coiled
▣ Two new nuclei
complete mitosis
▣ Cytokinesis begins
◼ cell division

Cytokinesis

• Cytoplasmic division
• Animals
▫ constriction belt of
actin microfilaments
around equator of cell
● cleavage furrow forms
● splits cell in two
● like tightening a draw
string

Mitosis features
1. Karyokinesis (nucleus division)
▫ Segregation of chromosomes and formation of 2
nuclei
2. Cytokinesis (Cytoplasm division)
▫ Splitting of the cell as a whole into 2 two
distinct progeny cells. the cytoplasm divides
roughly in half in most cases.
Cell changes
• Nucleus
▫ Chromosome condensation
▫ Nuclear envelope breakdown
• Cytoplasm
▫ Cytoskeleton reorganization
● Mitotic spindle formation (MT)
● Contractile ring (MF)
▫ Organelle redistribution
 Schematic diagram corresponding to the metaphase cell
Meiosis (Reductive division)
• occur in the germ cell of organism with generative or sexual
reduction.
• 1x duplication chromosome followed by 2x division produce
haploid cells (n chromosomes)
• Germ cell (sperma or ovum) meet oocyte grow new
organism with 2xdivision haploid (4 sperm for male and 1
ovum+3 polar body for female)
• Gamet production process gametogenesis i.e 2
spermatogenesis (generate sperma) and oogenesis (generate
ovum)

Comparison between mitosis and

•Meiosis meiosis
• Mitosis progeny • Meiosis progeny
▫ 2 daughter cells identical to ▫ Germ cell division (haploid)
parent (diploid) ▫ Reductive division
▫ Generates gametes
(egg,sperm)
▫ Each genetically distinct from
parent

Meiosis-first division Meiosis are divided into division I dan division II

Leptonema
Zygonema
• Homologous chromosome Pachynema
Diplonema
diakinesis
pairing to meiosis
Prophase I
▫ Each chromosome
duplicated (as attached sisters
Division I
chromatid before pairing occurs)
prometafaseI
• Genetic recombination Metafase I
I
▫ Chromosomes pairing Anaphase I
Meiosis Telophase
involves crossing over
between homologous
chromosomes Interphase
Prophase
Division II
iMetaphase
nAnaphase
ttelophase
e
r
Meiosis
• Prophase I
▫ Long Prophase occur in which chromosome
pairing and exchange genetic material occur.
▫ Leptonema
● Chromosome appear as a long spindle, thicken in
several places. Chromosome consist of 2 chromatid
▫ Zygonema
● Homolog chromosome pairs

▫ Pachynema
● chromosome become shorter and thicker.
● crossing over of homolog chromatid occur. Meiosis-cont
● The longest phase in prophase (weeks,years)
▫ Diplonema • Metaphase I
● homolog chromosome attach each other but with ▫ chromosome aligned in the equator
incomplete (chiasma, a place where crossing over
occur). • Anaphase I
● very long process. Ex. Oocyte is formed in this stage, but it ▫ Chromatid of each homolog chromosome migrate
does not develop to the next phase until the ovulation take place years toward each pole.
after.
• Telophase I
▫ Diakinesis
▫ T begin as chromosome reach the pole.
● chromosome shorter, nucleolus dissapear, chiasma
move apart from centromer to the edge of
chromosom.

Meiosis II
• Meiosis I result in the formation of cell with • Prophase II
nucleus (spermatocyte II for male and oocyte II with polar body ▫ Very short, spindle start to be formed
for female) • Metaphase II
• Between meiosis I and meiosis II there is short ▫ Chromatid align in the equator
interphase, but there is no chromosome • Anaphase II
replication, hence nucleus haploid ▫ Chromatid migrate to each pole
• Telophase II
▫ Chromosome reach the pole. But nucleus as a result of
telophase has only a half pair of chromatid.
 Meiosis II - cont

• At the end of telophase, 4 germ cells are produced, each has n

chromosome.
• Spermatogenesis generates 4 spermatozoa out of 1 haploid
mother.
• Oogenesis generates only 1 ovum, polar body become smaller
• Spermatozoa with ovum called zygote with 2n chrom.
• After DNA replication
▫ 2 nuclear & (cell) division required to produce haploid gametes
▫ Each diploid cells in meiosis
● Produces four haploid cells
▫ Each diploid cells mitosis
● Produces two diploid cells

Comparison between Meiosis and Mitosis

Figure 15.15

Clinical relevance : Downsyndrom

Comparison between Mitosis and meiosis

• Mitosis • Meiosis
▫ chromosome 2n ▫ Total chromosome half n
▫ 1x division ▫ 2x division
▫ Occur in somatic and germ ▫ only in germ cell
cells ▫ Long process
▫ quick process

Figure 15.13-3
Meiosis
I

Nondisjuncti
on
Meiosis
II

Non-
disjuncti
on
Gamete
s

n+ n+ n− n− n+ n− n n
1 1 1 1 1 1
Number of
chromosomes
(a Nondisjunction of (b Nondisjunction of
) homo- ) sister
logous chromosomes chromatids in
in meiosis II
meiosis I