1. Define computer. Also explain the functioning of the computer with its block diagram.

Ans. The word “computer” comes from the Greek word “compute” which means to calculate. So a computer is
normally considered to be a calculating device that can perform arithmetic operations at enormous speed. A
computer may be defined as “an electronic device that takes raw data as input, operates or process upon it and
finally gives information as output where data can be either arithmetic or logical.”
Thus, a computer can store, process and retrieve data as and when desired and as a computer can process on data it
is also known as data processor.

INPUT OUTPUT
PROGRA STORAGE UNIT UNIT RESULTS
UNIT
M & DATA

CONTROL UNIT

Symbols used : CENTRAL

Flow of PROCESSING UNIT

Instruction & Data
Flow of Control ARITHMETIC
Instruction LOGIC UNIT

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMPUTER

INPUT UNIT :- As name implies Input unit is used to put data inside the computer from the outer world. The input
unit links the external environment with the computer system. All input devices provide a computer with a data that
are transformed into the binary codes that the primary memory of a computer is designed to accept. This
transformation is accomplished by units called input interfaces. Input interfaces are designed to match the unique
physical or electrical characteristics of input devices to the requirements of the computer system. The following
functions are performed by input unit /devices :-
 It accepts the list of instructions and data from the outside world.
 It converts these instructions and data in computer acceptable forms.
 It supplies the converted instructions and data to the computer system for further processing.
STORAGE UNIT :- The data and instructions entered through input unit are stored before actual processing starts.
Similarly, the results produced after processing are also stored before being passed onto output unit. Moreover, the
intermediate results produced by the computer also preserved for ongoing processing. All these tasks are created by
the primary storage unit. It provides space for storing, data and instructions, intermediate results and final results.
The storage unit is divided into primary and secondary. Primary storage unit consists of RAM and ROM, is
responsible for all data & instructions, intermediate results and final results whereas secondary storage unit consists
of HDD, FDD, CD, DVD, pen drive etc , is used to keep data permanently as they are permanent in nature unlike RAM.
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT :- The Control Unit(CU) and Arithmetic Logic Unit(ALU) of a computer system are jointly
known as Central Processing Unit(CPU). All major calculations and comparisons are made inside the CPU and the
CPU is also responsible for activating and controlling the operations of their units of a computer system.
CONTROL UNIT :- By selecting, interpreting and seeing to the execution of the program instruction, the CU is able to
maintain order and direct the operation of the entire system. It acts as a central nervous system for the other

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components of the computer. It obtains instructions from the program stored in the main memory, interprets the
instructions, and issues signal that cause other units to execute them.
ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT :- All calculations are performed and all decision/comparisons are made in the ALU.
Intermediate results generated in the ALU are temporarily transferred back to the primary storage unit until needed
at later time. The type and number of arithmetic and logic operations that a computer can perform is determined by
the engineering design of the ALU.
OUTPUT UNIT :- The job of an output unit is just reverse of an input unit. It supplies information and results of
computation to the outside world and links the computer and external environment. As computer works with binary
codes , the results produced are also in binary form. Hence, before supplying the results to the outside world it is
converted into human acceptable form by output interfaces. Output interfaces are designed to match the unique
physical or electrical characteristics of output devices (terminals, printers, speakers etc.).
2. Perform the following conversions :-
a. (00001101)2 = (?)10
b. (278)10 = (?)2
c. (0.625)10 = (?)2
d. (ABC)16 = (?)2
e. (1101011.1011)2 = (?)2

Ans. Do by usrself.

3. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the following languages :-

a. Machine Languages b. Assembly Languages c. High Level Languages(HLL)
Ans. a. Machine Languages :- Although computers can be programmed to understand many different computer
languages, there is only one language understand by the computer without using a translation program. This
language is called the machine language.
Advantages of machine languages :-
 Fastly executable :-Programs written in machine language can be executed very fast by the computer. This is
mainly because machine instructions are directly understood by the CPU and no translation is required.
 Accuracy : As no translation is required computer provides hundred percent accuracy. Also computer executes
every instruction in binary code hence can be easily converted into electrical forms without generating errors.
Disadvantages of machine languages :-
 Machine dependent : Because of the internal design of every type of computer is different from every other
type of computer and needs different electrical signals to operate, the machine language also is different from
computer to computer. It is determined by the actual design of ALU,CU and the size & length of the memory.
Hence, suppose after becoming proficient in the machine code of a particular design, company decided to
change to new computer, the programmer may be required to learn the new machine language.
 Difficult to program : Although easily used by the computer, machine language is difficult to program. It is
necessary for the programmer to either memorize the dozens of code numbers for the commands in the
machine instruction set or constantly refer to reference card and he is also forced to keep track of the storage
location of data and instructions.
 Error prone : For writing programmes in machine language, since a programmer has to remember the opcodes
and he must also keep track of the storage location of data and instructions , it becomes very difficult for him to
concentrate fully on the logic of the problem. This frequently results in programme errors. Hence, it is easy to
make errors while using machine.
 Difficult to modify: It is difficult to correct or modify machine language programmes . Checking machine
instructions to locate errors is about as tedious as writing them initially. Similarly ,modifying a machine language
programme at a later date is so difficult that many programmes would prefer to code the new logic afresh
instead of incorporating the necessary modifications in the old programme.
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b. Assembly language:-
Advantages of assembly languages:-

 Easier to understand and use:- Assembly languages are easier to understand and use because memories are
used instead of numeric op-codes and suitable names are used for data. The use of memories means that
comments are usually not needed , the programme itself is understandable . Symbolic programming also saves a
lot of time and effort of the programmer because it is easier to write as compared to machine language
programmes.
 Easy to locate and correct errors:- While writing programs in assembly language, fewer errors are made and
those that are made are easier to find and correct because of the use of mnemonics and symbolic field names. If
we use an invalid mnemonic or a name that has never been defined, the assembler will print out an errors
indication. For example, suppose one instruction in the symbolic programme reads ADD AREA, and we forget to
define what AREA is , the assembler will look through its table to find AREA and not finding it will indicate the
errors.
 Easier to modify:- Assembly language programs are easier for people to modify than machine language
programs. This is mainly because they are easier to understand and hence it is easier to locate, correct and
modify instructions as and when desired.
 No worry about address:- One of the greatest advantages of assembly language is that it eliminates worry
about address for instructions and data. Suppose we have written a long machine language programme involving
many steps and many references to itself within the programme, such as looping, and address modifications and
so on. At the very end we may suddenly discover that we have left out an instruction in the middle. If we insert
that instruction, we will have to remember all the following instructions, and go through the entire programme
to check any references to other steps. But if we write the same programme in symbolic language, we merely
add the extra instruction, and the assembler will take care of the step numbering automatically.
Disadvantages of Assembly language:-

 Machine dependent:- Because each instruction in the symbolic language is translated into exactly one machine
language instruction, assembly languages are machine dependent .
 Knowledge of hardware required:- Since assembly languages are machine dependent .So the programmer must
be aware of a particular machines characteristics and requirements as the programme is written and should
have a good knowledge of the logical structure of his computer.
 Machine level coding:- In case of an assembly language, instructions are still written at the machine code level
that is, one assembler instruction is substituted for one machine code instruction.

C. High-level languages:

Advantages of High-level languages:

 Machine independent:- High-level languages are machine independent . This is a very valuable advantage
because it means that a company changing computers-even to one from a different manufacturer will not be
required to rewrite all the programmes that is currently using. A programme written in a high-level language can
be run on many different types of computers with very little or practically no effort.
 Easy to learn and use: These languages are very similar to the languages normally used by us in our day-to-day
life .Hence, they are easy to learn and use .The programmer need not know the machine instructions the data
format, and so on.
 Fewer errors:- In case of high-level languages, since the programmer need not write all the small steps carried
out by the computer, he is much less likely to make an errors. Hence, diagnostic errors, if any, can be easily
located and corrected by the programmer.

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 Better documentation:- A high level language is designed in such a way that its instructions may be written
more like the language of the problem. Thus the statements of a programme written in a high-level language can
be easily understood by a person familiar with the problem. For the documentation of such programmes, very
few or practically no separate comment statements are required.
 Easier to maintain:- Programmes written in high level languages are easier to maintain because they are easier
to understand and hence it is easier to locate , correct and modify instructions as and when desired.
Disadvantages of high-level language:-
 Lower efficiency:- It has lower efficiency than machine or assembly language due to more execution time and
more main storage ability.
 Lack of flexibility:- Lack of flexibility means that some tasks cannot be done in a high-level language , or can be
done only with great difficulty.
4. Distinguish between the followings :- a. Input and Output Devices b. RAM and ROM c. BCD and EBCDIC
Ans. a. Input Devices and Output Devices :-
Input Devices : Data and instructions must enter the computer system before any computation can be performed on
the supplied data. This task is performed by the input device that links the external environment with the computer.
System. The following functions are performed by an input device :
 It accepts the list of instructions and data from the outside world.
 It converts these instructions and data in computer acceptable form.
 It supplies the converted data and instructions to the computer system through storage unit for further
processing.
 Few examples of input devices are :- Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, Joystick, BCR(Bar Code Reader), etc.
Output Devices: The job of an output device is just the reverse of the input device. It links the computer with the
external environment.
The following functions are performed by an output device:
 It accepts the results produced by the computer which are in coded form and hence cannot be easily
understood by us.
 It converts these coded results to human acceptable form.
 It supplies the converted results to the outside world.
Few examples of output devices are:- Monitor, Printer, Speaker, Plotter etc.
b. RAM:- Primary storage is usually referred to as random access memory(RAM) because it is possible to randomly
select and use any location of this memory to directly store and retrieve data and instructions. Each separate
location inside the memory is as easy to access as any other location and takes the same amount of time. It is also
referred to as read/write memory because information can be read fro a RAM chip can also be written into it.
ROM:- A read only memory (ROM) is one in which information is permanently stored. The information from the
memory can only be read and it is not possible to write fresh information into it. This is the reason why it is called
Rom. When the power supply is switched off, the information stored inside a ROM is not lost as it is in the case of a
RAM chip. Such memories are also known as field stores, permanent stores or dead stores.

c. BCD:- The binary coded Decimal(BCD) code is one of the early memory codes. It is based on the idea of converting
each digit of a decimal number into its binary equivalent rather than converting the entire decimal value into a pure
binary form. This facilitates the conversion process to a great extent.

Eg. 4210 = 0100 0010 or, 01000010 in BCD

4 2

Each decimal digit is independently converted to a 4 bit binary number and hence the conversion process is
very easy. When 4 bits are used, altogether 16(24) configurations are possible. 4 bit BCD coding system can be used

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to represent the various characters used by a computer. Instead of using 4 bits with only 16 possible characters
computer designers commonly use, 6 bits to represent characters in BCD code. In the 6 bit BCD code, the four BCD
numeric place positions are retained, but two additional zone positions are added. With 6 bits, it is possible to
represent 64(26) different character.
EBCDIC:- The major problem with BCD code is that only 64 (26) different characters can be represented in it and not
decimal number(10),lower-case letters(26), capital letters(26) and a fairly large number of other special
characters(28+).
Hence the BCD code was extended from a 6-bit code to an 8-bit code. The added 2 bits are used as
additional zone bits, expanding the zone to 4 bits. The resulting code is called the extended binary coded decimal
interchange code (EBCDIC). In this code, it is possible to represent 256(28) different characters instead of 64(26).
Because EBCDIC is an 8-bit code, it can be easily divided into two 4-bit groups. Each of these 4-bit groups can
be represented by 1 hexadecimal digit. Thus, hexadecimal number system is used as shortcut notation for memory
dump by computers that use EBCDIC for internal representation of characters.
Zoned and Packed Decimal Numbers:- In the EBCDIC code, the digit values are the same as the numeric characters-0
through 9(0000-1001). But numeric values need some special consideration because we must have a way of
indicating whether the number is positive, negative, or unsigned (implies- positive). Thus, when a numeric value is
represented in EBCDIC, a sign indicator is used in the zone position of the rightmost digit. A sign indicator of
hexadecimal C is a plus sign, hexadecimal D is a minus sign, and a hexadecimal F means the number is unsigned. The
only zone affected by the sign is the zone of the rightmost digit. All other zones remain as F, the zone value for
numeric characters in EBCDIC. Because each decimal digit has a zone with it, numbers coded in EBCDIC are called
zoned decimal numbers.
5. Explain the following types of operating system in detail :
a. Batch Processing b. Time Sharing c. Multi Tasking d. Real Time e. Multi Processing
Ans. a. Batch Processing:-In order to reduce this idle time of the computer, a method of automatic job-to-job
transition was devised. In this method, known as batch processing, when one job is finished, the system control is
automatically transferred back to the operating system which automatically performs the housekeeping jobs (such
as clearing the memory to remove any data remaining from the previous job) needed to load and run the next job. In
case of batch processing systems, jobs were typically executed in the following manner:-
1. Programmers would prepare their programs and data on card decks or paper tapes and submitted them at
the reception counter of the computer centre.
2. The operator could periodically collect all the submitted programs and would batch them together and then
load them all into the input device of the system at one time.
3. The operator would then give a command to the system to start executing the jobs.
4. The jobs were then automatically loaded from the input device and executed by the system one-by-one
without any operator intervention. That is, the system would read the first job from the input device,
execute it, print out its result on the printer, and then repeat these steps for each subsequent job till all the
jobs in the submitted batch of jobs were over.
5. When all the jobs in the submitted batch were processed, the operator would separate the printed output
for each job and keep them at the reception counter so that the programmers could collect them later.
The batch processing mechanism helped in reducing the idle time of a computer system to a
great extent because transition from one job to another did not require any operator intervention. Another
major time saving made possible by batch processing was reduction in step-up time by batching of similar jobs
together by the operator. For example, if all FORTRAN compilation jobs are batched together, the system
needs to load the FORTRAN compiler only once for processing all these jobs.
b. Time Sharing :- Time-sharing is a mechanism to provide simultaneous interactive use of computer system by
many users in such a way that each user is given the impression that he has his own computer. It uses
multiprogramming with a special CPU scheduling algorithm to achieve this.

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A Time Sharing system has many, even hundreds of, user terminals, simultaneously connected to the same
computer. Using these terminals, multiple users can simultaneously work on the same system. The
multiprogramming feature allows multiple user programs to simultaneously reside in the main memory. The special
CPU scheduling algorithm used in a time-sharing system allocates a very short period of CPU time one-by-one to
each user process, beginning from the first user process and proceeding through the last one, and then again
beginning from the first one. This short period of time used by user process is known as time slice, time slot, or
quantum and is typically of the order of 10 to 100 milliseconds. It means, when the CPU is allocated to a user
process, the user process will use the CPU until the allocated time slice expires.
c. Multi Tasking :- Multitasking is the system’s capability to concurrently work on more than one task. This means
that whenever a task needs to perform I/O operations, the CPU can be used for executing some other task that is
also residing in the system and is ready to use the CPU. Even in a single user system, it is not necessary that the
system works on one job at a time. In fact, a user of a single –user system often has multiple tasks concurrently
processed by the system. For example, while editing a file in the foreground, a sorting job can be given in the
background. Similarly, while compilation of a program is in progress in the background, the user may be reading e-
mails in the foreground. In this manner, a user may concurrently work on many tasks. I such a situation, status of
each task is normally viewed on the computer’s screen by partitioning the screen into number of windows.
d. Real Time :- For many applications, successful processing means that the application produces correct results
when its processing completes. However, in real life, we often come across situations in which it is not only sufficient
to obtain correct results, but the results must be produced within some specified time frame to be useful.
A real- time system is a system that must satisfy the requirement of producing the desired results before a certain
deadline. It it delivers the correct result, but after the deadline, the system is regarded as having failed. Thus timely
production of the result of processing is as important as its correctness in a real-time system.
Operating system that are designed to handle the processing requirements of real-time systems are called real-time
operating systems. The goals of CPU scheduling in traditional time-sharing computer systems are optimal
throughput, optimal resource utilization, and fairness. In contrast, the main goal of CPU scheduling in real-time
systems is to allow as many time-critical processes as possible to be processed in time to meet their deadlines.
e.multiprocessing:- The use of I/O processors improves the efficiency of a computer system by making possible
concurrent input, processing, and output operators. The CPU can perform arithmetic and logic operations on parts of
one or more programs while I/O operations are concurrently carried out by I/O processors on other parts of
programs.
The idea of use of I/O processors to improve the performance of a computer system was carried one step further by
designing systems that make use of more than one CPU. Such systems are called multiprocessing systems. The term
multiprocessing is used to describe interconnected computer configurations or computers with two or more CPUs
that have the ability to simultaneously execute several programs. In such a system, instructions from different and
independent programs can be processed simultaneously by different CPUs or the CPUs may simultaneously execute
different instructions from the same program.
Multiprocessing systems are basically of two types- tightly-coupled systems and loosely-coupled systems. In tightly-
coupled systems, there is a single system-wide primary memory that is shared by all the processors. On the other
hand, in loosely-coupled systems, the processors do not share memory, and each processor has its own local
memory. In contrast to the tightly-coupled systems, the processors of loosely-coupled systems can be located far
from each other to cover a wider geographical area.
6. What do us mean by computer network ? Describe its advantages and disadvantages. Also explain various
types of network.
Ans. A computer network is a network o geographically distributed multiple computers connected in such a way that
meaningful transmission and exchange of information become possible among them. Sharing of information, sharing
of resources (both hardware and software), and sharing of processing load are some of the major objectives of a

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computer network. The computer on a network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves,
satellites, or infrared light beams.
In other words, when two or more computers are connected to each other to share their resources, the
phenomenon is called as networking.
Essential hardware :
i) Hub or repeater or switch
ii) Network interface card in a computer
iii) Bridges or router
iv) Modem
v) Wire(UTP/STP/CO-axial/Fiber optic)
vi) Terminal (Computer or printer)
Essential software:
i) Network Operating System(NOS)
ii) Protocols.
Advantages of Network:-
Speed:- Sharing and transferring files within Networks are very rapid. Thus saving time, while maintaining the
integrity of the file.
Cost:- Individually licensed copies of many popular software programs can be costly. Networkable versions are
available at considerable savings. Shared programs, on a network allows for easier upgrading of the program on one
single file server, instead of upgrading individual workstations.
Security: Sensitive files and programs on a network are password protected (established for specific directories to
restrict access to authorized users) or designated as “copy inhibit,” so that us do not have to worry about illegal
copying of programs.
Centralized Software Management:- Software can be loaded on one computer (the file server)eliminating that need
to spend time and energy installing updates and tracking files on independent computers throughout the building.
Resource Sharing:- Resources such as, printers, fax machines and modems can be shared.
Electronic Mail: E-mail aids in personal and professional communication. Electronic mail on a LAN can enable staff to
communicate within the building having tot to leave their desk.
Flexible Access: Access their files from computers throughout the firm.
Workgroup Computing:- Workgroup software (such as Microsoft BackOffice) allows many users to work on a
document or project concurrently.
Disadvantages of Network:-
 Server faults stop applications being available
 Network faults can cause loss of data
 Network fault could lead to loss of resources
 User work dependent upon network
 System open to hackers
 Decisions tend to become centralised
 Could become inefficient
 Could degrade in performance
 Resources could be located too far from users
 Network management can become difficult
Types of Networks:- The three basic types of networks include LAN , MAN and WAN
LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)
A network is said to be Local Area Network (LAN) if it is confined relatively to a small area. It is generally limited to a
building or a geographical area, expanding not more than a mile apart to other computers. LAN configuration
consists of
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  A file server:- stores all of the software that controls the network, as well as the software that can be shared
by the computers attached to the network.
 A workstation:- computers connected to the file server (Mac or PCs). These are less powerful than the file
server.
 Cables:- used to connect the network interface cards in each computer.
METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN) : Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) covers larger geographical areas, such
as cities. Often used by local libraries and government agencies often to connect to citizens and private industries.
WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN) : Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect larger geographic areas, such as London, the
UK, or the world. In this type of network dedicated transoceanic cabling or satellite uplinks may be used.
7. With the help of diagram explain various network topologies present in the computer networks.
Ans.Network topology defines the manner in which the nodes or terminals are geometrically arranged and
connected to one another. There are four types of topologies that are commonly used :-
a. Mesh topology :- In mesh topology every node has a dedicated point-to-point link to all the nodes within the
network. The link shares traffic between the two nodes only. Dedicated link between nodes ensure optimum
data rate and eliminated traffic problem. Mesh topology is robust. It has better privacy and security. Mesh
topology is difficult to install and reconfigure. Large amount of cabling and I/O ports are required in mesh
topology. LINK
NODE -1

NODE -2 NODE -3

NODE -4 NODE -5
MESH TOPOLOGY
b. star topology :- A star topology consists of number of devices connected by point-point point links to a central
device called hub. The devices are not directly connected to one another. If a node wants to send data to
another node, it sends the data to central hub, which then relays the data to the designated node. Each device
needs only one link and one I/O port makes star topology less expensive, easy to install and configure. It is
robust. If any link fails, it does not affect entire network. It is easy to modify and add new nodes to a star
network without disturbing to the rest of the network. If the central hub fails, the whole network fails to
operate. Each device requires its own cable segment. In hierarchical network, installation and configuration is
difficult. NODE -1 NODE -2

LINK
HUB

NODE -3 STAR TOPOLOGY NODE -4

Bus topology:- Bus topology uses multipoint cabling i.e., multiple devices are connected by means of connectors or
drop cables. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network.

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The signal becomes weak as it travel along the backbone link. When a device sends a signal down the bus, all the
computer or the bus receives the information, but only one accepts the information using address matching. Bus is
passive topology because it requires termination. Cable cannot be left un-terminated in a bus network. Bus topology
is easy to install. Because of back bone, less cable is required. The backbone can be extended by using repeater. Cost
of the network is low. Heavy network traffic can slow a bus considerably. It is difficult to add new node/device. In
bus topology, there is difficult reconnection and fault isolation. CABLE TERMINATION
SERVER NODE BUS NODE

NODE NODE NODE

BUS TOPOLOGY

c. Ring topology:- In ring topology, each device is connected by a dedicated point-to-point connection to its
adjacent devices, forming a ring type structure.
The signal travels along the ring in one direction from device-to-device till reaches to the destination. In between the
signal is regenerated by the repeater in the ring, therefore, it is a active network and termination is not required. A
ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. In ring topology, link failure can be easily found as each device is
connected to its immediate neighbours only. Because every node is given equal access to the taken no one node can
monopolize the network. Maximum ring length and number of devices is limited. Failure of one node on the ring can
affect the entire network. In ring topology, adding or removing nodes disrupts the network.
NODE

NODE NODE

NODE

RING TOPOLOGY
Hybrid topology:- another type of topology which is the combination of more than one topology above used is called
hybrid topology.
Different network configurations have their own advantages and limitations. Hence in reality, a pure star
or ring or completely connected network is rarely used. Instead, an organization will use some sort of hybrid
network, which is a combination of two or more different network topologies. The exact configuration of the
network depends on the needs and the overall organizational structure of the company involved. In some cases, the
hybrid network may have components of star, ring, and completely connected networks.
8. Explain the need of information in our lives. Also describe the essential components of information
technology.
Ans. Need of information:- Information is required for carrying out the decisions making activities of an
organization. The requirement of the information is important for the different activities in business. Some of the
common needs for information are given below:-
Information and Decision making:- Every job or task involves decision making. Decision making is the process of
identifying, selecting, and implementing the best possible alternative.

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 Information and Communication:- Information is vital for communication and critical resource for performing
work in organizations. Business managers spend most of their day in communicating with other managers,
subordinates, vendors and so on.
Information and Knowledge:- Information plays a vital role in the accumulation of knowledge. Within a
corporation, the importance of efficient use of information, for normal functioning of the corporation has gained to
the extent that it has become a major constituent for the growth and survival of corporation in a competitive
environment.
Information and productivity:- Information helps in working sense of our environment which assists in achieving
the performance objectives. In fact, productivity is directly related to the availability, value of information and its
application in the related context.
Components of information technology:- The components of information technology include hardware,
software, data and people. These components are essential in the proper functioning of a system in IT and
are discussed below:-
Hardware:- All the physical components of computer which we can see or touch is known as hardware.
Software:- Software is recorded set of instruction that control the action of machine or computer software
consists set of instructions that performs a row arithmetic and logical capabilities of the hardware.
Data:- Data is gathered for the purpose of communication, interpretation or processing of tasks.
People:- People play an important role in information technology. They perform various functions with the help
of hardware and software of produce the desired output using IT.
9. Describe the following networking devices in details :- a. Router b. Hub c. Gateway d. Bridge
Ans:- a. Router:- Router operate at the network layer of the OSI model. Therefore, routers do not care what
topologies or access-level protocols the interconnected network segments use. Since routers use the bottom three
layers of the OSI model, they are usually used to interconnect those networks that use the same high-level protocols
above the network layer.
Unlike bridges, routers do not view an internetwork from end-to-end. Routers only know which is the next router for
the data being transferred across the network. Routers copy a data from one network segment to another and also
choose the best route for the data by using information in a routing table to make this decision. That is, managing
traffic congestion is a big plus of routers; they employ a flow control mechanism to direct traffic on to alternative,
less congested paths. Routers are commonly used to interconnect those network segments of large internetworks
that use the same communication protocol. They are particularly useful in controlling traffic flow by making
intelligent routing decisions.
b. Hub:- It is multiple incoming connections need to be connected with multiple outgoing connection then a hub is
required. In data communication, a hub is a place of convergence where data arrives from one or more directions.
Hubs are multiport repeaters and as such they obey the same rule as repeaters. The operate at the OSI model in
physical layer. Hubs are used to provide a physical star topology. At the center of the star is hub , with the network
nodes located on the tips of the star. Hub receives data at its one port and broadcast it to all ports.
c. Gateway:- Gateway operate at the top three layers of the OSI model (session, presentation, and application). They
are the most sophisticated internetworking tools and are used for interconnecting dissimilar networks that use
different communication protocols. That is, gateways are used to interconnect networks that are built on totally
different communications architectures. For instance, a gateway may be used to interconnect two networks, one of
which uses the IP suite and the other uses the SNA protocol suite.
Since networks interconnected by a gateway use dissimilar protocols, protocol conversion is the major job
performed by gateways. Additionally, gateways sometimes also perform routing functions.
d.Bridges:- Bridges operate at the bottom two layers of the OSI model (physical and data link). Therefore, they are
used to connect networks that use the same communication protocols above the data-link layer but may or may not
use the same protocols at the physical and data-link layers. For example, bridges may be used to connect two
networks, one of which uses fiber-optic communication medium and the other uses coaxial cable; or one of which

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uses Ethernet technology and the other uses Token Ring Technology. But both networks must use the same high-
level protocols to communicate.
The similarity of higher-level protocols implies that bridges do not modify either the format or the contents of the
frames when they transfer them from one network segment to another. Hence, bridges feature high -level protocol
transparency. They can transfer data between two network segments over a third segment in the middle that cannot
understand the data passing through it. As far as the bridge is concerned, the intermediate segment exists for
routing purposes only.
Bridges are intelligent devices in the sense that they use a process of learning and filtering in data forwarding to
keep network traffic within the segment of the network to which it belongs. Therefore, bridges are also useful in
network partitioning. When the performance of a network segment degrades due to excessive network traffic, it can
be broken into two network segments with a bridge interconnecting the two segments.
10. What is multimedia? Discuss the role of multimedia in education, training and medical industry.

Ans. Multimedia is content that uses a combination of different content forms such as text, audio, images,
animation, video and interactive content. Multimedia contrasts with media that use only rudimentary computer
displays such as text-only or traditional forms of printed or hand-produced material.
Multimedia can be recorded and played, displayed, dynamic, interacted with or accessed by information content
processing devices, such as computerized and electronic devices, but can also be part of a live performance.
Multimedia devices are electronic media devices used to store and experience multimedia content. Multimedia is
distinguished from mixed media in fine art; by including audio, for example, it has a broader scope. The term "rich
media" is synonymous for interactive multimedia. Hypermedia scales up the amount of media content in multimedia
application.
Role of Multimedia:In Education, multimedia is used to produce computer-based training courses (popularly called
CBTs) and reference books like encyclopedia and almanacs. A CBT lets the user go through a series of presentations,
text about a particular topic, and associated illustrations in various information formats. Edutainment is the
combination of education with entertainment, especially multimedia entertainment.
Learning theory in the past decade has expanded dramatically because of the introduction of multimedia. Several
lines of research have evolved (e.g. Cognitive load, Multimedia learning, and the list goes on). The possibilities for
learning and instruction are nearly endless.
The idea of media convergence is also becoming a major factor in education, particularly higher education. Defined
as separate technologies such as voice (and telephony features), data (and productivity applications) and video that
now share resources and interact with each other, synergistically creating new efficiencies, media convergence is
rapidly changing the curriculum in universities all over the world. Likewise, it is changing the availability, or lack
thereof, of jobs requiring this savvy technological skill.
The English education in middle school in China is well invested and assisted with various equipments. In contrast,
the original objective has not been achieved at the desired effect. The government, schools, families, and students
spend a lot of time working on improving scores, but hardly gain practical skills. English education today has gone
into the vicious circle. Educators need to consider how to perfect the education system to improve students’
practical ability of English. Therefore, an efficient way should be used to make the class vivid. Multimedia teaching
will bring students into a class where they can interact with the teacher and the subject. Multimedia teaching is
more intuitive than old ways; teachers can simulate situations in real life. In many circumstances teachers do not
have to be there, students will learn by themselves in the class. More importantly, teachers will have more
approaches to stimulating students’ passion of learning.
Software engineers may use multimedia in Computer Simulations for anything from entertainment to training such
as military or industrial training. Multimedia for software interfaces are often done as a collaboration between
creative professionals and software engineers. In the Industrial sector, multimedia is used as a way to help present
information to shareholders, superiors and co-workers. Multimedia is also helpful for providing employee training,
advertising and selling products all over the world via virtually unlimited web-based technology.
In medicine, doctors can get trained by looking at a virtual surgery or they can simulate how the human body is
affected by diseases spread by viruses and bacteria and then develop techniques to prevent it. Multimedia
applications such as virtual surgeries also help doctors to get practical training.
11. Differentiate between the following : Memory Management and Device Management

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Ans. a. Memory Management :- The memory management module of an operating system manages the main
memory of the system. Its job is to keep track of which parts of memory are in use and which parts are not in use, to
allocate memory to processes when they need it and reallocate when they are done. The uniprogramming memory
model is used in uniprogramming system resources are exclusively available for the job till it completes. In a
multiprogramming memory model, multiple user processes can simultaneously reside in the main memory. The two
memory management schemes used to facilitate this are multiprogramming with feed number of memory partitions
and multiprogramming with variable number of memory partitions. In the former scheme, the user area of the
memory is divided into a number of fixed sized partitions. On the other hand in the latter scheme, the number, size
and location of the partitions very dynamically as processes come and go.
External fragmentation of memory is a situation when enough total free memory space exists to satisfy the
memory need of a process but still the process cannot be loaded because the available free memory is not
contiguous . Internal fragmentation is a situation when a process is allocated more memory than its actual memory
requirement and the additional memory allocated to the process remains unutilized because it is neither used by the
process to which it is allocated nor it can be allocated to any other process for use.
Paging is a memory management scheme used to solve the problem of external fragmentation of memory .
It does this by allowing a process memory to be non-contiguous, thus allowing a process to be allocated physical
memory wherever free memory blocks are available.
Virtual memory is a memory management scheme that allows the execution of process that might not be
completely loaded in the main memory. The three basic concepts used for the realization of virtual memory are on-
line secondary storage, swapping and demand paging.
Device Management: The device management module of an operating system takes care of controlling all the
I/O of a computer system and provides a simple and easy to use interface to these devices.
To perform an I/O operation, the operating system writes the relevant commands and their associated
parameters into the appropriate controllers register. After having finished loading the commands into the
controller’s registers, the CPU resumes with its normal operation. The device controller then examines the contents
of these registers and performs necessary actions for read request will be to transfer data from the specified input
device to its local buffer.
Once the transfer of data from input device to the controllers local buffer is complete, one of the two
methods;- (1) NON-DMA transfer and (2) DMA Transfer , is used to transfer the data from the controllers local buffer
to the appropriate memory area of the computer.
In the method of NON-DMA transfer, the CPU is involved in the transfer of data from the device controllers
buffer to the main memory which in the method of DMA transfer , the controller reads the data from the device
into its buffer and copies the data one byte or word at a time from its buffer into the main memory.
12.
a. What is spooling ? Do us think that advanced personal computers will have spooling as a standard feature in
the future ?
b. What is the difference between impact and non impact printer ?
c. Explain the principle and working of laser printers.

Ans-a:- spooling :- Spooling stands for simultaneous peripheral operation on-line. It is a mechanism to deal with the
following issues:-
(1) To reduce the speed mismatch between slow I/O devices and CPU for better utilization of the CPU.
(2) To convert mutually exclusively I/O devices into non-mutually exclusive I/O devices so that they can be
simultaneously used by multiple processes in a multiprogramming system.
Spooling reduces the idle time of the CPU by placing all data than comes from an input device or goes to an
output device on a magnetic disk. The primary reason for doing this is to keep the programme and data
readily available to the fast and expensive CPU on a high speed I/O medium such as a disk. Reading/writing

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 of data from to a disk is much faster than reading/writing from /to a slow I/O device resulting in
considerable reduction in CPU idle time during I/O operations involving slow devices.
In most computer systems, special low-cost I/O processors are used for spooling the input data from
a slow input device on to the disk or for outputting the spooled output data from the disk on to the slow
output device. These I/O processors function independent of the main processesor (CPU). This enables the
main high-speed, expensive CPU to be fully devoted to main computing jobs. The process of spooling is
transparent to the user programmes. In general, spooling makes better use of both the main memory and
the CPU.
There are several I/O devices that have to be used in dedicated mode for correct system operation.
Such devices are called mutually exclusive devices. Printer is a typical example of such a device. For effective
utilization of such devices, an operating system often converts them into non-mutually exclusive virtual
devices by using spooling .Now when a process makes a request to use the printer, instead of allocating the
printer to the process, the operating system opens a file for the processes output data in the spooling
directly , which is stored on the disk. All output data to be printed on the printer by the process is written in
this file. The file is closed when the process complete printing.
Printer is not the only device that can benefit from spooling in this manner. For example, file transfer
over a network often uses a network domain. To send a file somewhere, the system puts it in a network
spooling directory on the disk. Later on, the network domain takes it out from the directory and transmits it.
Thus advanced personal computer will have spooling as a standard feature in the future.
b.Impact Printer:- It uses the approach of hammering a type face against paper and inked ribbon to produce printed
output. Impact printer can produce multiple copies by using carbon in a single print cycle. An impact in operation
and is noisy and normally uses covers to reduce the noise level. These printers are used to print one character at a
time. Dot matrix, daisy wheel, line printers, drum printers, chain printers are the example of impact printers. Dot
matrix printers are very famous examples of impact printers. It prints each character as a pattern of dots. The print
head comprises of tiny needles typically 9 X 7 matrix which hammer out characters in the form of patterns of tiny
dots. The shape of each character in the dot pattern is obtained from information held electronically in the printer.
Non- Impact Printer:- Non-impact printers, as name implies do not impact or hit a ribbon to print unlike impact
printers. Non-impact printers use thermal, electrostatic, chemical or inkjet technology to produce printed output.
Non-impact printers cannot print multiple copies in a single print cycle. Non-impact printers are quiet in operation.
Laser printer, ink-jet printers, DeskJet printers are non-impact printers. They give the better printing quality than
impact printers. Laser printers are the best example of non-impact printers. They produce a very high quality output
with a resolution of 600-1200 dpi. A slow speed laser printer can print 4-12 pages per minute whereas a high speed
laser printer can print 500-1000 pages per minute .Non-impact printers are more expansive than impact printers.
c.Laser Printer:- Laser printers are non-impact printers use electrostatic technology . Laser printers are page printer
that prints one page at a time. The main components of a laser printer are a laser beam source, a multi-sided mirror,
a photoconductive drum and toner(high particles of oppositely charged ink). To print a page of output the laser
beam is focused on the electrostatic ally charged drum by the spinning multi-sided mirror. The mirror focuses the
laser beam on the surface of the drum in such a manner that it creates the patterns of characters/images to be
printed on the pages. As the drum is photoconductive, a difference in electric charged is created on those parts of
the drum surface that are exposed to the laser beam. As a result the toner , which is composed of oppositely
charged ink particles , sticks to the drum in the places the laser beam has charged the drums surface . The toner is
then permanently fused on the paper with heat and pressure to generate the printed output. The drum is then
rotated and cleaned with a rubber blade to remove the toner sticking to its surface to prepare the drum for the next
page printing.
Laser printers produce very high quality output because they form characters by very tiny ink particles. Laser
printers have resolutions of 600-1200 dpi and thus due to high resolution, these printers give excellent graphics art
quality. The majority of laser printers are monochrome, which can print multiple shades of gray. Low speed laser
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printers can print 4-12 pages per minute although very high speed laser printers are also available which can print
500-1000 pages per minute because of their better print quality and printing speed , laser printers are more
expensive than other printers. Due to non-inkjet in nature, these printers are very quiet in operations.

13. Describe the classification of programming languages.

Ans. The programming languages are of three types :-

a. Procedural Programming Languages : It specifies a list of operations that the programs must complete to reach
the desired state. This one of the simpler programming paradigms, where a program is represented much like a
cook-book recipe. Each program has a starting state, a list of operations to complete, and an ending point.
Integral to the idea of procedural programming is the concept of a procedure call. Procedures or functions or
subroutines or methods are small sections of codes that perform a specific task. By splitting the program into
functions code can be re-used. Examples of the procedural programming languages are FORTRAN, and BASIC.
b. Structured Programming Languages : It is a specific type of procedural programming that provides additional
tools to manage the problems that larger programs were creating. It requires that programmers break program
structure into small pieces of codes. It also performs upon the use of global variables for subroutines. It does not
allow the use of GOTO statement. It is often associated with a “top-down” approach to design. Examples of
structured programming languages are C, Ada, and Pascal.
c. Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) Languages : It is an approach that provides a way of modularising
programs by creating partitions memory area called objects for both data and functions tha can be used as
templates for creating copies of such modules on demand. Since the memory partitions are independent, the
objects can be used in a variety of different programs without modifications. OOP is a software development
philosophy based on the following ideas :-
i. Encapsulation : It combines both data and function into a single unit called class. Data is accessible only through
the methods or functions present inside the class.
ii. Inheri tance: it is the process of forming a new class from an existing class or base class which inherit some or all
of the properties of their base class.
iii. Information of data hiding: it means that the implementation details of an object’s state and behaviour are
hidden from users and other objects to protect the state and behaviour from unauthorized access.
iv. Data abstraction: it represents the needed information in the program without presenting the details.
v. Polymorphism: it uses dynamic binding and virtual methods by which different objects can respond in their own
unique ways to the same method. Examples of OOP languages are:-Java, Visual Basic, C#,C++,and Python.
14. A. Differentiate between Static RAM and Dynamic RAM.

Ans: Static RAM : Static RAM uses a completely different technology. S-RAM retains stored information only as long
as the power supply is on. Static RAM’s are costlier and consume more power. They have higher speed than D-RAMs.
They store information in Hip-Hope.
In static RAM, a form of flip-flop holds each bit of memory. A flip-flop for a memory cell takes four or six transistors
along with some wiring, but never has to be refreshed. This makes static RAM significantly faster than dynamic RAM.
However, because it has more parts, a static memory cell takes up a lot more space on a chip than a dynamic
memory cell. Therefore, we get less memory per chip, and that makes static RAM a lot more expensive. Static RAM
is fast and expensive, and dynamic RAM is less expensive and slower. Static RAM is used to create the CPU’s speed
sensitive cache, while dynamic RAM forms the larger system RAM space.
Dynamic RAM: Loses its stored information in a very short time (for milli sec.) even when power supply is on. D-
RAM’s are cheaper & lower. Similar to a microprocessor chip s an integrated circuit (IC) made of millions of
transistors and capacitors. In the most common form of computer memory, Dynamic Memory cell, represents a
single bit of data. The capacitor holds the bit of information- a 0 or a 1. The transistor acts as a switch that lets the
control circuitry on the memory chip read the capacitor or change its state. A capacitor is like a small bucket that is
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able to store electrons. To store a 1 in the memory cell, the bucket is filled with electrons. To store a 0 , it is emptied.
The problem with the capacitor’s bucket is that it has a leak. In a matter of a few milliseconds a full bucket becomes
empty. Therefore, for dynamic memory to work, either the CPU or the Memory controller has to come along and
recharge all of the capacitors holding it before they charge. To do this, the memory controller reads the memory and
then writes it right back. This refresh operation happens automatically thousands of times per second.
This refresh operation is where dynamic RAM gets its name. Dynamic RAM has to be dynamically refreshed all of the
time or it forgets what it is holding. The downside of all of this refreshing is that it takes time and slows down the
memory.
b. Discuss the memory hierarchy in modern computer system in details, comparing their various aspects.

Ans: Most modern programs can benefit greatly from a large amount of very fast memory. A physical reality,
however, is that as a memory device gets larger, it tends to get slower. For example, cache memories are very fast
but are also small and expensive. Main memory is inexpensive and large, but is slow. The memory hierarchy is a
mechanism of comparing the cost and performance of the various places we can store data and instructions.

The Memory Hierarchy

At the top level of the memory hierarchy are the CPU's general purpose registers. The registers provide the fastest
access to data possible on the 80x86 CPU. The register file is also the smallest memory object in the memory
hierarchy (with just eight general purpose registers available).The Level One Cache system is the next highest
performance subsystem in the memory hierarchy. On the 80x86 CPUs, the Level One Cache is provided on-chip by
Intel and cannot be expanded. The size is usually quite small (typically between 4Kbytes and 32Kbytes), though much
larger than the registers available on the CPU chip. Although the Level One Cache size is fixed on the CPU , the cost
per byte of cache memory is much lower than that of the registers because the cache contains far more storage than
is available in all the combined registers.
The Level Two Cache is present on some CPUs, on other CPUs it is the system designer's task to incorporate this
cache. For example, most Pentium II, III, and IV CPUs have a level two cache as part of the CPU package, but many of
Intel's Celeron chips do not. The Level Two Cache is generally much larger than the level one cache (e.g., 256 or
512KBytes versus 16 Kilobytes). On CPUs where Intel includes the Level Two Cache as part of the CPU package, the
cache is not expandable. It is still lower cost than the Level One Cache because we amortize the cost of the CPU
across all the bytes in the Level Two Cache. Below the Level Two Cache system in the memory hierarchy falls the
main memory subsystem. This is the general-purpose, relatively low-cost memory found in most computer systems.
Typically, this is DRAM or some similar inexpensive memory technology.
Below main memory is the NUMA category. NUMA, stands for NonUniform Memory Access. NUMA means that
different types of memory have different access times. Therefore, the term NUMA is fairly descriptive of the entire
memory hierarchy. In Figure, however, term NUMA describes blocks of memory that are electronically similar to
main memory but for one reason or another operate significantly slower than main memory. A good example is the
memory on a video display card. Access to memory on video display cards is often much slower than access to main

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memory. The term NUMA is used to describe these blocks of memory that look like main memory but run at slower
speeds.
Most modern computer systems implement a Virtual Memory scheme that lets them simulate main memory using
storage on a disk drive. While disks are significantly slower than main memory, the cost per bit is also significantly
lower. Therefore, it is far less expensive to keep some data on magnetic storage rather than in main memory. A
Virtual Memory subsystem is responsible for transparently copying data between the disk and main memory as
needed by a program.
File Storage also uses disk media to store program data. However, it is the program's responsibility to store and
retrieve file data. In many instances, this is a bit slower than using Virtual Memory, hence the lower position in the
memory hierarchy.
Below File Storage in the memory hierarchy comes Network Storage. At this level a program is keeping data on a
different system that connects the program's system via a network. With Network Storage us can implement Virtual
Memory, File Storage, and a system known as Distributed Shared Memory (where processes running on different
computer systems share data in a common block of memory and communicate changes to that block across the
network).
Virtual Memory, File Storage, and Network Storage are examples of so-called on-line memory subsystems. Memory
access via these mechanism is slower than main memory access, but when a program requests data from one of
these memory devices, the device is ready and able to respond to the request as quickly as is physically possible.
The Near-Line and Off-Line Storage subsystems are not immediately ready to respond to a program's request for
data. An Off-Line Storage system keeps its data in electronic form (usually magnetic or optical) but on media that is
not (necessarily) connected to the computer system while the program that needs the data is running. Examples of
Off-Line Storage include magnetic tapes, disk cartridges, optical disks, and floppy diskettes. When a program needs
data from an off-line medium, the program must stop and wait for a someone or something to mount the
appropriate media on the computer system. This delay can be quite long. Near-Line Storage uses the same media as
Off-Line Storage, the difference is that the system holds the media in a special robotic jukebox device that can
automatically mount the desired media when some program requests it. Tapes and removable media are among the
most inexpensive electronic data storage formats available. Hence, these media are great for storing large amounts
of data for long time periods.
Hard Copy storage is simply a print-out of some data. If a program requests some data and that data is present only
in hard copy form, someone will have to manually enter the data into the computer. Paper (or other hard copy
media) is probably the least expensive form of memory, at least for certain data types.
The whole point of the memory hierarchy is to allow reasonably fast access to a large amount of memory. The whole
idea of the memory hierarchy is that we can take advantage of the principle of locality of reference to move often-
referenced data into fast memory and leave less-used data in slower memory. Moving data between the registers
and the rest of the memory hierarchy is strictly a program function.
15. Write short notes on :- a. Internet chatting b. windows XP c. FTP d. Telnet e. E-mail f. 4 GL
Ans. Internet chatting : It involves real-time instant text messaging between two or more users in chat rooms. They
are many different types of Internet chats all with different purposes. Internet chatting has its advantages and
disadvantages; therefore it is important to understand them so that one do not fall victim to predators who would
seek to harm.
Benefits : Internet chat rooms allow us to communicate with different kinds of people from all over the world. They
allow us to meet different kinds of people who share similar interests, goals, hobbies and desires. Internet chats can
also be a great learning center ( e.g. chatting forums) where people can ask questions and receive answers on
products and services, computer troubleshooting and more.
Types : Singles chat rooms are probably the most common chats on the internet. They managed and run by dating
websites. Video/Webcam chats are also common forms of chatting because they allow us to view usr contact as us
chat. While video chatting is the most interactive form of chatting, they are also the most dangerous. Other Internet
chats include business chat rooms which allow speedy exchange of trade stock tips and business related information.
Christian chat rooms are other popular chats which users turn to for fellowship and good conversation.
Features : Internet chats not only allow us to send and receive instant messages, they also allow us to share pictures,
and files. Some Internet chat rooms include emoticons which are smiley faces used to describe what usr present
emotion is. Some Internet chats include sound effects which range from serious to silly and allow us to. Other chat
rooms allow us to change color combinations to create a theme or background that works for us as us are chatting.

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Warnings : Do not provide strangers with personal information when using Internet chat rooms. In this day and age
when identity theft and fraud are of great concerns, it is important to protect personal information at all costs. If us
have children who use chat rooms, monitor the conversations and the people they communicates with. There are
many Internet predators, pedophiles and sex offenders who send explicit information and pictures to underage
children. Always read the rules and regulations before using chat rooms.
Microsoft Windows XP: It was introduced in 2001 and is the most significant upgrade to the Windows operating
system since Windows 95. The previous version of Windows, called Windows Me (or Millennium Edition) still had the
look and feel of Windows 95 and was known to have stability issues and incompatibilities with certain hardware.
Windows XP addressed many issues of its predecessor and added a number of other improvements as well. It is a
stable operating system since it is built on the Windows 2000 kernel, which is known for its reliability. XP also has a
new, more modern look, and an interface that is more easy to navigate than previous versions of Windows. While
not written from the ground up, like Mac OS X, Windows XP is a substantial system update. The letters "XP" stand for
"eXPerience," meaning the operating system is meant to be a new type of user experience.
FTP: The file transfer protocol service (known as FTP in short) allows an internet user to move a file from one
computer to another on the internet. A file may contain any type of digital information-text document ,
image,artwork,movie,sound,software etc. Hence, anything that can be stored on a computer can be moved with FTP
service. Moving a file from a remote computer to one’s own computer is known as downloading the file and moving
a file from one’s own computer to a remote computer is known as uploading the file.
Telnet:- The telnet service allows an internet user to log in to another computer somewhere on the internet. That is,
a user can execute the telnet command on his/her local computer to start a login session on a remote computer.
This action is also called “remote login”.
To start a remote login session, the user types the command telnet and the address of the remote computer
on the terminal of his/her local computer. The user then receive a prompt asking to enter a login name(userID) and a
password to ensure that the user has the access rights for accessing the remote computer.

Electronic Mail:-The electronic mail service, also known as e-mail, allows an Internet user to send a mail(message)
to another internet user in any part of the world in a near-real-time manner .The message may not reach its
destination immediately , but may take anywhere from few seconds to several minutes, because it must be passed
from one network to another until it reaches its destination. With e-mail service, the internet has proved to be a
rapid and productive communication tool for millions of users.

4GL : A fourth generation (programming) language (4GL) is a grouping of programming languages that
attempt to get closer than 3GLs to human language, form of thinking and conceptualization.
4GLs are designed to reduce the overall time, effort and cost of software development. The main domains
and families of 4GLs are: database queries, report generators, data manipulation, analysis and reporting,
screen painters and generators, GUI creators, mathematical optimization, web development and general
purpose languages.
The concept of 4GL was developed from the 1970s through the 1990s, overlapping most of the
development of 3GL. While 3GLs like C, C++, C#, Java, and JavaScript remain popular for a wide variety of
uses, 4GLs as originally defined found narrower uses. Some advanced 3GLs like Python, Ruby, and Perl
combine some 4GL abilities within a general-purpose 3GL environment. Also, libraries with 4GL-like
features have been developed as add-ons for most popular 3GLs. This has blurred the distinction of 4GL
and 3GL. Some researchers state that 4GLs are a subset of domain-specific languages.
4GLs are more programmer-friendly and enhance programming efficiency with usage of English-like words
and phrases, and when appropriate, the use of icons, graphical interfaces and symbolical representations.
The key to the realization of efficiency with 4GLs lies in an appropriate match between the tool and the
application domain. Additionally, 4GLs have widened the population of professionals able to engage in
software development.
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Many 4GLs are associated with databases and data processing, allowing the efficient development of
business-oriented systems with languages that closely match the way domain experts formulate business
rules and processing sequences. Many of such data-oriented 4GLs are based on the Structured Query
Language (SQL), invented by IBM and subsequently adopted by ANSI and ISO as the standard language for
managing structured data.
Most 4GLs contain the ability to add 3GL-level code to introduce specific system logic into the 4GL
program.
The most ambitious 4GLs, also denoted as Fourth Generation Environments, attempt to produce entire
systems from a design made in CASE tools and the additional specification of data structures, screens,
reports and some specific logic.

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