STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAIN

Strength of material Maximum internal resistance offered by the

material to the externally applied forces
Strength of the depends upon its Type of loading, Internal
material structure
Strength of the Fixed quantity
material
In a 2 dimensional body , the number of stress can be 3

property of Due to which

the material
Hardness To resist the indentation or scratch
Toughness To resist fracture due to high impact load
Elasticity it does come back to original position after the
external forces are removed
Plasticity It does not retain the original state after the load
is removed
Ductility Drawn in to wires
Malleability Form in to thin sheets
Brittleness Breaks under load without permanent distortion

LOAD
Combined effect of the external forces acting Load
on a body
Load is one which is considering acting at a point load
point
Uniformly distributed Load Rectangular load
Uniformly varying load Triangular load

LIMIT
Elastic limit Stress up to which regain original shape when the
load is removed

Plastic limit Stress after that does not regain original shape
when the load is removed

Endurance Stress at which material fractures under large

limit number of reversal of stress

STRESS
Stress The internal resistance which the body offers
to meet the load or external force
Unit of stress is SI unit N/m2
Unit stress resistance developed by a unit area of the
cross section
Directstress Simple stress (Conventional stress ) When the
(Engineering stress) section is subjected to axial pull or push
acting normally across the section
Tensile stress axial pull
Compressive stress axial push
Stress Force per unit area.
Conventional stress based upon Original area of cross section
True stress based upon Instantaneous area of cross
(Natural stress) section, Depends upon the type of loading
Shear stress When a body is subjected to two equal and
opposite forces & tend to slide two adjacent
layers
Crushing stress Localized compressive stress at the area of
contact between 2 members
Proof Stress Stress necessary to cause a permanent
Offset stress extension equal to a defined percentage of
gauge length
Modulus of rupture Flexure stress at which beam breaks in
bending action
Stress corresponding There is always limiting value of the load
to load Elastic limit upto the strain totally disappears on the
removal of the load

STRAIN
Strain (No Unit) the deformation per unit length
Conventional strain Change in length per unit original
length
Linear strain The deformation of the bar per unit
length in the direction of the force
if l and x are length and strain ====== x/l
change in length
volumetric strain Ratio between change in volume and
original volume of the body
lateral strain Strain in a direction at right angles to
the direction of applied force
Natural strain Change in length per unit
(True strain) instantaneous length
(tensile or compressive force PL/AE
P acts on the body) the
change in length
total elongation produced in g l2/2E= PL/2AE
a bar due to its self weight is
given by (p is density)
Elongation of a circular 4pl/(3.14.Ed1.d2)
tapered rod is given by
(p=axial pull) (dia of two
ends= d1.d2)
strain roosters To measure the Linear strain

MODULUS

Stress/Strain=a Robert hooke discovered the

( constant) experimentally that with in elastic limit
Within elastic limit stress is directly proportional to strain
Modulus of elasticity Ratio between tensile stress and tensile
strain or compressive stress and
compressive strain
Modulus of elasticity (E) the ratio of the linear stress to linear
strain
Hookes law holds good Up to the proportional limit.
Modulus of rigidity Shearing stress to Shear strain
Bulk modulus Volumetric Stress to Volumetric Strain

POISON RATIO
Poisson’s ratio Ratio of the lateral to linear strain
Al 0.33
CI 0.22 to 0.25 (0.25 to 0.33)
Steel 0.23 to 0.27
MS 0.25
Concrete Least

RELATIONS BETWEEN E, G, K

E and G E=2G(1+1/M)
E=200 GN/m2 =0.25 G=80 GN/m2

K&E E=3k(1-2/M) E=3K (1-2 )

K&G
=

=0.5 If a piece of material neither

expands nor contracts in
volume when subjected to
stresses
E,G and K E=9KG/G+3K
Copper & Lead Copper more E Copper more Elastic

COMPLEMENTARY SHEAR STRESS

when a square of the rectangular block is subjected to the shear load
is in equilibrium, shear stress in one plane is always associated in the
complementary shear stress in the other plane at 1800

THERMAL STRESS

when bar is subjected to a stress induced is thermal

temperature and deformation is stress
prevented
Temperature stress developed in a Co-efficient of the linear
bar depends upon expansion, Change of the
temperature, Young’s
modulus.

Temperature strain in a bar directly Proportional to the

change in temperature
MOMENT OF INERTIA
The basic of the rigid body and strength of materials-----moment of inertia
moment of inertia of lamina about any axis in the plan of the lamina equls the sum of moments of
inertia about a parallel centroidal axis in the plan of lamina and the product of the area of the lamina
and the square of the distance the axis------------------parallel axis

the semi circular about its X-X .11r4

axis
the quadrant about its X-X axis .055 r4
moment of inertia the principal principal moment of inertia
axis
if the 2 axis about the product inertia found, are such that product of
inertia becomes 0--- principal axis
if the plane of loading passes through one of the principal centroidal
axis of the cross section of the beam the3 bending is---------------plane
plane of loading donot fall through one of the principal of the cross
section of the beam is said to be…plane

relation between
the true stress and
=1+
conventional stress

the natural strain and

conventional strain

Point in the stress strain curve

Upper Yield the cross sectional area of the test specimen
point starts decreasing
Lower yield Strain increases considerably without any
point increases the stress
Ultimate point Necking in the case of ductile materials begins at
Proportional Stress is directly proportional to strain
Limit
Elastic limit No residual strain left in the material due to
unloading if the load is removed at the instant
yield point of Ascertained by drawing a line parallel to the
the brittle stress strain curve at 0.2% of maximum strain
material
Free body diagram is the diagram Showing all internal & external
forces acting on the body
The extension produced by the self weight of the bar is equal to that
produced by the load of Half of its weight applied at the lower end
A vertical hanging bar of length l and weight w N/unit length carries a
load W at the bottom . The tensile force in the bar at a distance y
from the support will be given by W+w(l-y)
The unit of strain are m/m Dimensionless

Diameter of the rivet d

6 (plate thickness t in mm)

strength of a rivet in the double 1.875 times the strength in the

shear single shear
Strength of the plate in tearing based on the Rivet hole
diameter
longitudinal joint of a boiler Butt joint
shell
circumferential joint of a boiler Lap joint
shell
Throat of a fillet weld
(height h)

Efficiency of a riveted joint minimum value of all the

efficiencies
Riveted joints are Permanent joints
height h, length l under force P
Parallel fillet welded joint Shear stress

Transverse fillet welded joint Tensile stress

Tensile stress strain diagram for No yield point at all

cast irons
Actual fracture strength of Always less than
materials
Measure of the toughness of the Area under the stress strain
material diagram up to the fracture
If the radius of a wire stretched by modulus of elasticity will be
a load is doubled Remains unaffected
More elastic Steel > Rubber

COMPOSITE SYSTEMS AND TEMPERATURE STRESSES

composite individual components undergoes Equal
system changes in length
temperature function of Coefficient of linear expansion,
stress Temperature rise & Modulus of elasticity
Temperature arises when its expansion or contraction is
stresses prevented
No stress 5mm x 5 mm x 100 mm steel bar free to expand
is heated from 150 C to 400 C
Compressive copper bar of circular cross section is heated
stress and its expansion is constrained
Tensile stress copper bar of circular cross section cooled to -50
C

Bar of copper and steel form a composite system. They are heated
to a temperature of 400 C
Material coefficient of linear Stresses
expansion
Copper bar High Compressive
Steel bar Low Tensile
When a nut is tightened on the bolt, the nature of stress in the
bolt is Tensile stress
A steel rod of 10 mm diameter and 1 m long is heated from 200 C
to 1200 C. if E=200 GPa and α=12 x 10 -6 /0 C. If the rod is free to
expand, the thermal stress developed in it is zero
COMPLEX AND PRINCIPAL STRESS
UNIAXIAL STRESS

uni axial state normal to the plane makes an angle with

stress across which the the direction of loading
normal stress is 0˚
maximum,
uniaxial state normal to the plane makes an angle with
stress across which the the direction of
normal stress is loading ,which is equal
minimum to 90˚
uniaxial loading maximum shear uniaxial stress
stress
uniaxial state of the maximum shear 45˚ 135˚
stress stress
uniaxial loading material will fail in ratio of its shear
shear strength to tensile
strength is less than ½
In a state of simple shear, tensile and compressive stesses occurs a
plane inclined at 45˚ at the shear stress, whose ratio to the shear stress is 1
complex the state of stress number of principle plane are
may be in a body always 3
Principle plane are the planes maximum stress is the normal
stress

normal stress on a plane whose normal is σx/cos2θ

inclined at the angle with the line of action of

the uniaxial stress σx

shear stress on a plane whose normal is inclined (½) σxsin2θ
at angle θ with the line of action of the uniaxial
stress σx
resultant stress on a plane inclined at angle θ σx cos2θ
with the plane on which the uniaxial stress σx
if the angle between the two planes is θ then the angle between
the normal stress & the resultant stress on the oblique plane in
the case of uniaxial stress is θ

biaxial state of normal stresses

shear stress is maximum on a plane whose angle is 45˚
max shear stress half the difference of normal
stress
normal stress on 45· plane half the sum of normal
stress

MOHRS CIRCLE

2 dimensional stress system

centre of mohrs circle lies on the x-axis
centre of mohrs circle [( σx+σy)/2),0]
radius of mohrs circle value of max shear stress
Extremities of Mohrs circle Principal stress
 Ellipse of stress can be drawn for two normal stress only

Principal stress normal stress on planes on which the

shear stress are zero
2 dimensional stress normal stresses on two planes at right
system angles to one another are 150Mpa
(tensile) and 50Mpa (compressive).the
magnitude of the max shear stress at the
point is 150Mpa largest principal stress
at the point is 200Mpa (tensile)
one the principal magnitude of the other principal stress
stresses at a point is must be twice of the max shear stress
zero
pure shear principal stress are equal in magnitude
to the shear stress and opposite in
nature

PRINCIPAL STRAINS AND ELASTIC CONSTANTS

On a inclined plane of inclination θ

Normal strain θ

Shear strain

Maximum shearing strain Θ=450

Ratio of maximum shearing 0.5
strain to uniaxial strain
True Principal strains Maximum strains

For a biaxial strain system , the maximum shearing strain is

a) b) c) d)

Principal strains occur on three planes which are Mutually

perpendicular to each other

THIN PRESSURE VESSELS

 Thin cylinder Thin spherical vessel
Mean radius R Mean radius R,
< <
wall thickness t wall Thickness t under
under pressure P pressure p
Hoop stress
=

Longitudinal stress
=

Maximum shear
=
stress
Hoop strain
(2- )
Longitudinal strain
(1- )

volumetric strain
(5-4 ) 3 (1- )

Thin cylinder is wound with a Hoop stress in the cylinder shall

wire under tension be compressive in nature
Spherical pressure vessels are Hoop stress in them is lower in
preferable over cylinder value
shapes
Effect of built up ends on the To increase the stress developed
pressure vessel
Radial stress 0
Hoop to Longitudinal stress 2
Maximum shear stress to Longitudinal stress

Maximum shear stress to Hoop stress

Hoop stresses in a thin spherical pressure vessel and a thin

cylindrical pressure vessel (same mean radi, wall thickness and
same internal pressure)

BENDING MOMENTS AND SHEARING FORCES

First derivative of shear force Rate of Loading
Second derivative of bending Rate of Loading
moment
First derivative of bending Shear Force
moment
Shear Force in a beam is zero Pure Bending
Shear Force is zero along section BM is either maximum or
minimum
Shear Force Linear Transverse
displacement
Points of contraflexure bending moment is either zero
or changes sign (Overhanging
Point of inflexion (Virtual hinge)
Beam)

CB point load
SB PL
SSB Eccentric PL
SB MOMENT
SB UDL
SB PLS
 span l maximum SF (Area BM (Area of
bending of Load SF diagram)
moment diagram)
SSB PL at mid Linear Inclined
span straight line

SSB Eccentric PL

SSB UDL Right Parabolic

angle
triangle
SSB Couple Uniform Right angle
triangle
CB PL at free WL Fixed Linear Inclined
 end end straight line
CB UDL

OHB -ve -ve

Zero Maximum

A simply supported beam of length 3m carries a concentrated load of

12kN at a distance of 1m from left support. The maximum bending
moment in the beam is 8kNm
SIMPLE BENDING OF THE BEAMS
Beam structure whose length is very large as
compared to the other two dimension &
support transverse load
Pure bending of a Bending moment in the beam is uniform
beam throughout, shear force in the beam is
zero
Beam of uniform Bending stress is same in every section
strength along longitudinal axis

Section modulus of the beam

Z=
Bending formula
= =

Theory of simple bending is put forward by Bernoulli

When a beam is loaded transversely bending stress varies

Linearly
Maximum compressive Top fibre The plane of the load
stress coincide with the
centroidal plane
Zero bending stress Neutral The elastic constant
axis same in all the direction
Maximum tensile stress Bottom lower Z high
fibre
For a given stress the with its side horizontal
ratio of moment of compared to when
resistance of a square diagonal is horizontal
beam

Flitched beam
to equalize the beam in the tension and made up of timber
Compression &steel
equivalent moment of inertia in terms of It+m Is
timber
 equivalent moment of inertia in terms of
I s+
steel
In a loaded beam Maximum normal stress occurs at the outer
fibres
Maximum shear stress at the neutral fibres

Beam ratio of the maximum nature of the

maximum horizontal distribution of
horizontal shear shear stress horizontal shear
stress to the occurs at stress
mean shear
stress
circular neutral axis Parabolic

rectangular neutral axis Parabolic

SLOPE AND DEFLECTION

BEAM LOAD maximum maximum

slope deflection
simply concentrated
supported load W
beam
 simply UDL of
supported intensity w per
beam unit length
cantilever concentrated
beam load W
cantilever UDL of
beam intensity w per
unit length
fixed beam concentrated
load W
fixed beam UDL of
intensity w per
unit length

Point Load UDL

Fixed Beam
= =

Simply supported
4 = 5 =
Beam
Cantilever Beam
64 = 48 =

An elastic prop is one where the deflection is known

Moment area method for determining the Slope at a

method point, Deflection at a point
Conjugate beam method for determining the Slope at a
method point, Deflection at a point
three moment Clayperon
theorem
A continous beam is one which is Supported at more than two
supports
TORSION

Torsion formula for circular torsional rigidity of a shaft is

shafts = = given by

Hexagonal has max Torsional resisting moment

One metric horse power = 735.5 Watts

circular shaft shear stress under torsion

At the centre Zero varies Linearly
At the outermost Maximum
fibres

Two shafts connected D1/D2 T1/T2 θ1/θ2

Parallel θ1=θ2
Series T1=T2 2 1 16 8
A solid shaft of diameter d is replaced by a hollow shaft of the same

material and length and having outside diameter d and the inside

diameter d. The ratio of weight of the hollow shaft to the weight

of the solid shaft will be same

COMBINED SRESSES

Under the combined action of bending moment M and torque T

equivalent bending moment (
(M+ )

equivalent twisting moment (

Maximum Principal Stress

= (M+ )

Minimum Principal Stress

(M- )
Maximum Shear Stress
=

For a masonry dam of base eccentricity< B/6

width B to avoid tension
Shear stress in the rivets under proportional to the distance
eccentric loading from the centre of gravity of
rivet group
maximum shear stress occurs located Nearest to the load
in the rivet in a rivet group
under eccentric loading

STRAIN ENERGY

Resilience Property of the material to store the strain energy

Proof resilience Maximum strain energy that can be stored in the
 material
Modulus of Maximum strain energy that can be stored in the
resilience material per unit volume

Modulus of Maximum Strain

resilience Energy
under simple tension
(Gradually applied
Load)
under simple shear

under simple bending

Total strain energy per

( + + -2
unit volume

Shear strain energy per

( + + )
unit volume
The ratio of suddenly applied load to the gradually applied load is 2
A material may be said to be ductile if its percentage elongation is
>5%
THEORY OF FAILURE
Maximum Mohr & Rankine =
Brittle materials
principal
stress theory

Maximum Tresca & Guest

Ductile = =
shear stress
materials
theory
(conservative)

Maximum
( )=
Principal
strain theory

Maximum Haigh &

( )=
strain energy St.Venant
theory

Shear strain Von Misces

( )=
Ductile
energy theory
materials 0.577 =
(Distortion)
(Accurate)

BUCKLING OF COLUMNS
the stress due to suddenly applied load is 2 times that of gradually applied load

Member under tension Tie

Member under compression Strut : piston rods, connecting
 rods

side links in forging machinces.

Member inclined at 900 to Column
horizontal and carrying an
axial compressive load
Failure of the struts may by pure compression., by buckling
occur
& by combination of pure
compression and buckling
depending upon the slenderness
ratio

Ratio of equivalent length of the column to buckling factor

the minimum radius of gyration
Columns which have length less than 8 short columns
times than there dia of slenderness the
ratio less than 32
Slenderness ratio of a column is more than long columns
120
Ratio between the buckling load and safe Factor safety
load
Buckling in case of the columns takes place Minimum radius of
about the axis having gyration
Strength of the column depends on Slenderness ratio, end
conditions
Ratio of its length to the minimum radius Slenderness ratio of a
of gyration column
Column subjected to initially straight and Euler’s buckling
subjected to only axial loads formulas
(long columns)
Effect of direct compressive stress rankine formula
Material constant ( Rankine formula) mild 1/7500
steel
Long columns under eccentric loading the secant formula
carry’s axial as well as transverse load beam column
to avoid the tension in a short column the load must lie------
within in the middle
third of the cross
section
Eccentrically loaded struts Hollow sections are
preffered
Euler’s critical load for a column of length l, moment of inertia I, and

modulus of elasticity E is given by

radius of gyration of circular

column of diameter d
To avoid tension in a short load must lie within the middle
column third of the cross section
column shall buckle about an moment of inertia is minimum
axis
Radius of gyration is minimum
Equivalent length of column, having one end fixed and the 2
other hinged, to its length
Equivalent length of column, having one end fixed and other 2
end free ,to its length
Equivalent length of column, having both end fixed to its ½
length

End Condition changed the critical load

FROM TO
both ends hinged both ends fixed Increase by 4 times
both ends hinged one end of the increase by 2 times
hinged column is
made fixed
both ends hinged one end of the decrease by 4 times
hinged column is
made fixed and
the other free
 SPRINGS

Cantilever laminated springs --------------quarter elliptical springs

Strain energy stored by the body within elastic Resilience
limit when loaded externally
Mechanical property of material which indicates proof resilience
the capacity to bear shocks
Load at which the plates becomes straight proof load
(laminated spring)
Mean coil diameter to the diameter of the spring Spring index
wire
Curvature of coils Wahl factor for
Direct shear stress springs

closed coil helical spring the angle of helix > 50 ,mean coil
diameter D, wire diameter d, number of turns n
shear stress under axial load W

axial deflection under axial

load W
angle of twist under axial
couple Mo

Resilience of closed coil helical spring

under axial load

under axial twist

Two springs having stiffness 2 N/m and 3 N/m

connected in parallel The total stiffness should be 5N / m
connected in home The total stiffness should be (6/5)

N/m

When two springs of equal length are arranged to form a cluster spring Deflection
of both the springs will be equal, Shear stress in each spring will be equal

the maximum shear stress in an open coiled to closed coiled spring 1

of same mean coil diameter and wire diameter under same axial
load is
Maximum bending stress in a flat spiral spring of rectangular cross 2
section to the maximum bending stress in a beam of the same
rectangular cross section
Bending stress in the full length leaves to the graduated leaves

maximum bending stress in a flat spring of rectangular

cross section b x d under bending moment M
proof resilience of a flat spiral

resilience of a semi elliptic spring

Leaf spring space is a no problem, Huge amount of energy is to

 be absorbed
full length Take transverse shear at the ends
leaves
Flat spiral Watches
springs
THICK PRESSURE VESSELS

Stress variation
>

Cylinder radial Compressive Parabolic

Cylinder hoop Tensile Parabolic maximum
Inside
surface
Cylinder Longitudinal Tensile Constant
Spherical Radial Cubic
Spherical hoop Cubic
Compounding Uniform
shrink fitted the outside diameter of the inner cylinder is made
cylinder Larger than the inside diameter of the outer
cylinder
force fitted the radial and hoop stress every where in the shaft
shaft are Equal to each other Constant
Wire wound hoop stress is Compression
Graphical method -------- Hearn
FRAME
perfect frame M=2j-3 M is no of members
Deficient frame M<2j-3
redundant frame M>2j-3
SHAFTS
SHAFT MATERIALS mild steel , alloy steel ,copper
alloys
shafts design strength, rigidity
shafts with keyways with usually 75% of the value given
allowable stresses
angle of twist directly proportional to the
twisting moments

CONDITION COMPARISON
same material, length & weight Hollow shaft < solid
torque shaft
same length ,material & strength hollow shaft > solid
weight shaft
same power, shear stress N, 2N D, D/21/3
.