Leonardo Pisano (1175 - 1250)

- Known as Fibonacci
- Grew up with a North African education under the Moors
- Traveled extensively around the Mediterranean coast
- Met with many merchants and learned their systems of arithmetic
- Realized the advantages of the Hindu-Arabic system
- In his 1202 book Liber Abaci, Fibonacci introduced the sequence to Western European
mathematics

Rabbit Pairs
Assuming that:
(1) All pairs of rabbits consist of a male and female;
(2) One pair of newborn rabbits is placed in hutch on January 1;
(3) When this pair is 2 months old they produce a pair of baby rabbits;
(4) Every month afterwards they produce another pair
(5) All rabbits produce pairs in the same manner

Therefore, every term is the sum of the ​two​ preceding terms:

Pairs this Month = Pairs Last Month + Pair of Newborns
Pairs this Month = Pairs Last Month + Pair 2 Months Ago

Fibonacci Sequence
- Series begins with 0 and 1
- Next number is found by adding the last two numbers together
- Number obtained is the next number in the series
- Pattern is repeated over and over
- Equation: ​F(n + 2) = F(n + 1) + F(n)
- First 15 Numbers of the Sequence: 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377,
610, 987, …

Golden Ratio
- The relationship of this sequence to the Golden Ratio lies not in the actual numbers of
the sequence, but in the ratio of consecutive numbers.
- The Golden Ratio is what we call an irrational number: it has an infinite number of
decimal places and it never repeats itself! Generally, we round the Golden Ratio to
1.618​.
- Represented by the Greek letter phi ​Ф
- Ratio of phi is 1 : 1.618 or 0.618 : 1
- The golden ratio arises from the Fibonacci numbers
- Obtained by taking the ratio of successive terms in the Fibonacci series
- Limit is the positive root of a quadratic equation and is called the golden ratio
Fractals
- Fractals are never-ending patterns, and are infinitely complex patterns that are
self-similar across different scales. They are created by repeating a simple process over
and over in an ongoing feedback loop.
- The word “fractal” was coined in 1980 by Belgian mathematician Benoit Mandelbrot
(1924-2010). Mandelbrot chose the name fractal because it reminds him of the word
“fraction”.

Fractals Example

- The Hausdorff Dimension

If we take an object residing in Euclidean dimension D and reduce its linear size by 1/r in
each spatial direction, its measure (length, area, or volume) would increase to N=r​D
times the original. This is pictured in the next figure.

Given a line segment, to have a length ½ (s = ½) of the original, the line segment must
be divided into two equal parts (n = 2). To achieve s = 1/3, the segment must be divided
into 3 equal parts (n = 3).
Reduction in Size 
Dimensions 
r = 1  r = 2  r = 3 
1  n = 1  n = 2  n = 3 

Given a 2-dimensional object (or plane), to achieve squares with lengths ½ of the
original (s = ½), 4 squares must be generated. Similarly, s = 1/3 requires 9 squares.
Reduction in Size 
Dimensions 
r = 1  r = 2  r = 3 
2  n = 1  n = 4  n = 9 

Given a 3-dimensional object (or plane), to achieve squares with lengths ½ of the
original (s = ½), 4 squares must be generated. Similarly, s = 1/3 requires 9 squares.
Reduction in Size 
Dimensions 
r = 1  r = 2  r = 3 
3  n = 1  n = 8  n = 27 
 We consider N=rD, take the log of both sides, and get log(N) = D log(r).

If we solve for D, then ​D = log(N)/log(r)

- Koch Snowflake
We begin with a straight line of length 1, called the initiator. We then remove the middle
third of the line, and replace it with two lines that each have the same length (1/3) as the
remaining lines on each side. This new form is called the generator, because it specifies
a rule that is used to generate a new form.

The fractal dimension of the Koch Snowflake is 1.26.

- Menger Sponge
There are 8 cubes on the front face, 8 cubes on the back, and then 4 in between,
making a total of 20 cubes, so N = 20.

Next, we need to figure out the magnification or scaling factor, r. The length of each of
the 1'st order cubes is 1/3 of the lengths of the 0-order cube, so the magnification factor
is 3. With these, the computation is ​D = log(20)/log(3)​.
 Therefore, the fractal dimension of the Menger Sponge is 2.727.

- Patterns and Isometries

- A pattern has symmetry if there is an isometry of the plane that preserves the
pattern
- A ​transformation ​is a process which shifts points of the plane to possibly new
locations in the plane. The initial set of points is called the pre-image and the final
set of points is the image of the transformation.
- Transformation which leave the dimensions of the objects and its image
unchanged are called rigid transformation, isometric transformation, or isometries

- Transformations
- A ​translation ​(or a slide) moves a shape in a given direction by sliding it up,
down, sideways, or diagonally. There are no fixed points. Every point moves by
exactly the same distance. The move is determined by a vector.
- If a shape or figure is translated, the orientation of the image is the same
as the pre-image. The image is also congruent to the pre-image.
- A ​reflection ​(or a flip) can be thought of as getting a mirror image. It has a line of
reflection or mirror line where the distance between the image and the mirror line
is the same as that between the original figure and the mirror line. This line is
unmoved by the reflection.
- The line or axis of reflection may be a vertical line, horizontal line, or any
straight line. In rotation, the image is congruent to the pre-image but the
orientation is reversed.
- A ​rotation ​(or a turn) has a point about which the rotation is made and an angle
that says how far to rotate. The rotation is completely determined by its center P
and angle of rotation θ.
- The ​point of rotation​ is made (called the center of rotation) can be
located within the object or somewhere outside the object. It is fixed while
every other point moves.
- In rotation, the image is congruent to the pre-image and the orientation is
the same. N-fold rotation is given by n = 360​°​/​θ
 - Example: to draw an image from a pre-image such that the image follows
a 90-degree rotation, the n-fold (n) is 4 (n= ​360​°​/​90​°​)​.
- A ​dilation ​is a transformation which changes the size of an object. In this aspect,
it is different from a reflection, rotation, and translation which manage to preserve
the object.

Translation Reflection

Rotation Dilation

- Rotational Symmetry
- If a figure can be rotated less than 360​° ​about a point so that the image and the
pre-image are indistinguishable, then the figure has rotational symmetry.
- Example: Rotational Symmetries of a square (0​°, ​90​°, ​180​°,​ and 270​°)
- Some mathematicians refer to 180​°​ rotational symmetry about a point as a point
symmetry
- Design and Pattern
- A design is a figure with at least one non-trivial symmetry. A pattern is a design
that has a translation symmetry. A plane pattern has symmetry if there is an
isometry of the plane that preserves it.

- Tessellation
- A tessellation is a repeating pattern of figures that completely covers a plane
without gaps or overlaps. Tessellations can be created with translations,
rotations, and reflections.
- If tessellation is formed by only one type of regular polygon, then it is called a
regular tessellation. There are only three shapes that can form such tessellations:
equilateral triangle, square and regular hexagon.
- Semi-regular tessellations are made from two or more regular polygons.
- Irregular tessellations can be formed from almost any kind of geometric shape.

- Rosette Pattern
- Rosette Patterns consist of taking a motif or element and rotating and/or
reflecting it. The two types of rosette patterns are cyclic 𝐶𝑛 and dihedral 𝐷𝑛 .
- 𝐶𝑛 has n-fold rotational symmetry and no reflection symmetry
- 𝐷𝑛 has n-fold rotational symmetry and reflection symmetry
- NOTE: Kindly check the presentation slide for the patterns.

- Freize Pattern
- A frieze pattern is an infinitely long strip imprinted with a design given by a
repeating motif.
1. Each (All) frieze pattern is symmetric under a translation (T) in the
direction of the strip
2. A frieze pattern might also be symmetric about a horizontal (H) reflection;
3. vertical (V) reflection;
4. a rotation (R) of 1800 about some point in the design;
5. a glide (G) reflection, or some collection of these 5 basic transformations.
- There are only seven (7) possible symmetry combinations for frieze patterns. The
naming convention from the International Union of Crystallography, referred to as
the IUC notation, is used to distinguish among the seven frieze symmetry types.
1. These names all begin with “p” followed by three characters
2. The first character is “m” if there is V; 1 if none
3. The second character is “m” if there is a H; “a” if there is G; and 1 if none.
4. The third is 2 if there is a R; and 1 if none.
- NOTE: Kindly check the presentation slide for the patterns.
- Wallpaper Patterns
- Whereas a frieze pattern can be mapped onto itself by a horizontal translation, a
wallpaper pattern covers the plane and can be mapped onto itself by translation
in more than one direction.
- It has been shown that there are exactly 17 different types of symmetry in wall
patterns due to the 17 different groups of isometries.
- The IUC notation consists of four symbols:
1. The first symbol is “c” (centered) if all rotation centers lie on the reflection
lines or “p” (primitive) if not.
2. The second symbol indicates rotation symmetry. It is either 1, 2, 3, 4, or 6
for rotational symmetries of 360​°​, 180​°​, 120​°​, 90​°​, or 60​°.​ If several
rotational symmetries are present, the largest corresponding number is
used. For example, if 60​°​, 120​°​, and 360​°​ are present, 6 is written.
3. The third symbol is either “m”, “g” or “l”, corresponding to the presence of
a mirror, glide, or no reflection symmetry. (First reflection or glide)
4. The fourth symbol (m, g or l) describes symmetry relative to an axis at an
angle to the symmetry axis of the third symbol.
- NOTE: Kindly check the presentation slide for the patterns.

- Set
- A set is a collection of distinct objects called elements or members of the set. No
two elements of a set are the same.
- Set braces, { }, are used to enclose the elements

- Finite and Infinite Set

- Finite set – countable elements
- Infinite set – all elements cannot be listed
- The three dots (ellipsis) show that the list continues in the same pattern
indefinitely.

- Empty Set
- The set containing no elements is called an empty set, or null set. It is usually
written as { } or ∅.

- Cardinality of the Set

- The cardinality of a set, denoted by |A|, refers to the number of elements in a set.

- Set Operations
- The ​union ​of two sets is a set containing all elements that are in A or in B
(possibly both). For example, {1,2}∪{2,3}={1,2,3}. Thus, we can write x∈(A∪B)
if and only if (x∈A) or (x∈B). Note that A∪B=B∪A.
 - The ​intersection ​of two sets A and B, denoted by A∩B, consists of all elements
that are both in A and−−− B. For example, {1,2}∩{2,3}={2}.
- The ​complement ​of a set A, denoted by Ac or A¯, is the set of all elements that
are in the universal set S but are not in A.
- The ​difference ​(subtraction) is defined as follows. The set A−B consists of
elements that are in A but not in B. For example, if A={1,2,3} and B={3,5}, then
A−B={1,2}.

Union Intersection

Complement Difference

- Sets Example
- If the universal set is given by S={1,2,3,4,5,6}, and A={1,2}, B={2,4,5},C={1,5,6}
are three sets, find the following sets:
1. A∪B
2. A∩B
3. A’
4. B’
 5. Check De Morgan's law by finding (A∪B)c and Ac∩Bc.
6. Check the distributive law by finding A∩(B∪C) and (A∩B)∪(A∩C).
- Solution:
1. A∪B={1,2,4,5}.
2. A∩B={2}.
3. A’={3,4,5,6} (A’consists of elements that are in S but not in A).
4. B’={1,3,6}.
5. We have (A∪B)c={1,2,4,5}c={3,6}, which is the same as
Ac∩Bc={3,4,5,6}∩{1,3,6}={3,6}.
6. We have A∩(B∪C)={1,2}∩{1,2,4,5,6}={1,2}, which is the same as
(A∩B)∪(A∩C)={2}∪{1}={1,2}.