Technical Communication

Dr. Deepmala Baghel

Assistant Professor
Department of Basic Sciences and Engineering
• Course Contents:

• Visual Appeal –
• Document Design – Graphics
• Electronic Communication –Email – Online help and Websites
• Report Strategies: Research - Summary – Types of Reports

• Course Outcomes
• 4. Develop skills to enhance Visual of document/online world
• 5. Develop skills that make student effective communicator during and after
their placement.
• 3. Develop skills to carry out research and to produce effective research and
workplace documents.
• Various forms of Internet communication

• Emails
• Blogs
• Websites
• Wikipedia
• Social media
 E-mail
• Specific to limited audience
• E-mail (electronic mail), in contrast to letters and
memos, can be used for both internal and/or
external communication.

• Some statistics
• E-mail messages outnumber first-class letters 30-1.
• 80 % of business employees say that e-mail has
replaced most of their written business communication.
• 45% of business employees say that e-mail has replaced
most of their business-related phone calls.
• 66 % of business employees say that they are e-mail
only communicators.
Why we write emails?
• To get information
• To communicate information
• To collaborate
• To resolve dispute
• To complain
• To explain: as you have complained about it.
• To enquire/ persuade
Importance of E-mail
• E-mails have become popular in business communication because

• They combine the speed of telephone conversations with the crispness of a

well-written memo.
• E-mail allows a writer to instantly communicate with a reader.
• E-mail allows the writer and reader(s) to chat with each other online: A real-
time dialogue is possible.
• E-mail means no telephone tag. No delays like in letters, and memos
 Format
• Subject: short/vital information/know recipients/never leave it blank

• Addressing to receiver-

• Greet/introduce yourself: introduce yourself if receiver is not well-known to you- I am

prof. working in IIITN/ e.g. I am writing in my capacity as……

• Describe: in as many paragraphs-opening sentence of new paragraph should begin with

introducing the topic of your email. E.g. I am writing……

• Sign off statement- with full name/depends on closeness of a person/don’t sign off with
a title (Prof. Gururaj)/ no jokes or tacky quotes in sign off

• Signature file- you can use title/prepare a proper sign file/can serve the function of
From/ can have address, contact details/
• Addressing to the receiver-
• Dear……
• Ms./Mr.
• Prof./Dr.
• Dear Prof. Guru, or Dear sir,

• Never use Dear Ms/Mr. or just Dear

• Avoid Respected, Esteemed etc
Norms of good email writing
• Never write all capitals- equivalent to shouting
• No unexplained abbreviations
• No grammatical, spelling mistakes
• Proper punctuations
• Email structure is very important: leave space between different parts of
the mail
• No single mass of paragraph
• Never mail any important mail immediately- take break, compose
elsewhere and cut-paste it
• Switch on the retract email option
• Never write email in frustration, anger, upset mood or in a hurry
• Emails are legal documents so treated with care
Checklist
• In professional space- email id should have your name to reduce
confusion or misrepresentation
• the writer of an e-mail should ensure that
• Correct punctuations to express correct flow of communication and have
tonal cues and body language
• caution should be exercised in marking blind carbon copies (Bcc) and
hitting “reply all” as this can lead to difficult situations.
• a successful e-mail contains a subject line with a topic and a focus, an
introduction, a body, and a conclusion.
• e-mail must be clear, concise, accessible, accurate, and achieve audience
recognition
E-mail problems and their solutions
• Instantaneous communication hinders the writer’s ability to double-check facts,
effectively proofread text, and achieve the correct tone.
• Rechecks are needed for – offensive language, grammatical or mathematical errors,

• People don’t like scrolling endlessly. Instead, e-mail should abide by the WYSIWYG
factor (What You See Is What You Get).

• Computer viruses, easily spread via e-mail, make readers cautious about opening e-
mail from unknown sources.
• To avoid this problem, you should use Sig. Lines in your e-mail. Ideal signature lines include your
name, your organization/company, contact information (phone and fax numbers), and your URL
and e-mail address.

• E-mail writers should limit themselves to: numbering, asterisks indenting (by using
the tab key or the space bar)

• The biggest problem in e-mail is lack of professionalism

Email etiquette

• Be prompt in your response-keep people posted

• Be simple, direct, concise, clear and accurate

• Show personal touch-don’t sign-up for services unnecessarily

• Keep to timeline

• Be careful with attachments

Example of Business E-mail
From: spcsupport@nuvocom.net
Date: December 30, 2003
To: Christy McWard
Subject: CREATING A NEW PROFILE
Thank you for contacting our 800-hotline. Recent online nuvocom.net updates have
modified existing customer profiles. These changes can affect your e-mail.
To solve the problems you encountered, create a new customer profile as follows:
1. Click on the nuvocom.net icon to open your account.
2. 2. Double click “Configure.”
3. 3. Right click on “Manage Profiles.”
4. 4. Scroll down to “New Profile.”
5. 5. Type in your password and 6-digit PIN.
6. 6. Click “Next.”
7. 7. Click “Finish.”
This will allow you to access your e-mail. If you have any more questions, you can
contact us either by e-mail, at our 800-hotline, or online at
http://www.nuvocom.net/support.
Difficult emails-Class Exercise

• You attended a conference and met some very interesting researchers

in your area of interest. Write an email to thank them for interactions.
However, the purpose of the email is to keep the contacts alive so
that when time comes you can utilize those contacts for professional
growth (like for postdoc). How would you do it without overt
signalling?
 Webpage and Website

• a Website is a collection of Web pages with information on a

subject, and a web page is a smaller part of a
larger website usually containing more specific information.

• Website and webpage-If a website were a book, then

a webpage would be a chapter in that book.

• Two important developments

• 1. the personal computer and the dial-up modem
• 2. the web browser
• The business requirements that underpin a website influence the
design of the website.
• For example, if the target audience is adolescent males, you probably
shouldn’t use pictures of bunny rabbits in shades of pink.

• Audience for website: potential clients, job seekers, potential

suppliers, and search engines.
• Viewers may be scattered across the globe, having conflicting requirements
• and English may not be their first language.

• A website must do more than just present information

 Importance of web based technical communication
• Skimming: The Internet, however, allows us to read differently: randomly. Websites can skimmed
and scanned
• Linking: With hypertext links, you can jump to any page within a website, in any order you prefer.
• Help to scan the text (reading it at a glance) rather than read it line by line. You can access the pages in any order.

• Reading with varying sizes: alternative to hard copy text

• Decentralized nature : open protocols that anyone could use.

• Possible to store data in many different places at once.

• Accessibility and control: Protocols play an important role in this, because they allow some degree
of control to exist without a central command structure.

• Affordability: low investment, time and personnel

Challenges of internet based communication

• Communication:
• The shortened attention span of Internet-based readers

• The technical writer must learn how to translate the same idea for several different types of social media and in a way that
reaches the intended audience.
• For example, what works on a blog post would not work in Tweet.

• Minimizing noise: paper abs

• Absorbs light hence creates stress-free reading. Whereas, online text reflect light, creates glare. Colours,
blinking text, animated graphics create distractions. So limiting these distraction is necessary.

• Ethical concerns: don’t use gendered, ageist, offensive to disability languages, pictures, graphics and words

• Security concerns: some websites need scripting and ActiveX. Typically, this is with database-driven websites
such as travel timetables, online shopping, and banking. In such websites security concerns are important.
• How to maintain security?

• Identity of the operator- company’s experience in business, list of satisfied

customers
• Easy access to customer service- toll-free number, hotlines, e-mail, rapid
response,
• Privacy policy- briefly state how your company ensures privacy of the
customer’s private information

• Security certifications- this will ensure customers that site is safe for browsing

• Maintaining proper records for security-

• HTTPS protocol-It is issued by a trusted certification authority (CA)
• Gives its owners accountability for the privacy and security of all their users and visitors.
• padlock icon the address bar- the identity of the website owner, the issuing CA, and the
encryption and connection mechanisms being used.
• The current standard for website security certificates is SSL certificates.
E-reader
• E-readers are topic specific
• E-readers wants information quickly
• They use diverse platforms to access information
• Important points to consider

• Professional Tone:
• created through word choice (diction), word order (syntax), sentence construction, and viewpoint.
• a formal tone through its use of specialized terminology, sophisticated vocabulary, complex sentence
structures, and third person voice.
• Constructive writing
• It is important to consider how you want your reader to feel, and what may make your reader feel that way.
• Use positive phrasing to convey your message to your reader.

• Adopt an adult-to-adult approach: that is to say, avoid talking down to your reader in a patronizing tone, or
unwilling to take responsibility. Aim to communicate respectfully, responsibly, confidently, and cooperatively
— as one responsible adult to another.

• Be courteous: focus on the reader as much as possible. Use “you” unless it results in blaming (one effective
use of passive verbs is to avoid assigning blame: “mistakes were made”).
• Use traditionally accepted forms of courtesy and politeness. Use gender-neutral phrasing and plural forms,
unless you are referring to a specific person and you know their gender.

• Focus on the positive: emphasize what you can do rather than what you can’t. Try to avoid negative wording
and phrasing (no, not, never, none, isn’t, can’t, don’t, etc.). Focus on what can be improved.

• Be genuine: Take responsibility and promise to do better. Be authentic in your expression. Avoid sounding like
marketing material (ad-speak). Make reasonable claims that can be backed with evidence.
Differences between destructive/negative and
constructive/positive
Negative Constructive
misunderstood understood
outraged conciliatory
disgusted pleased
guilty capable
belittled empowered
patronized respected
defensive proud
chastised valued
humiliated honoured
excluded a sense of belonging
 Negative Phrasing Constructive Phrasing

We cannot process your claim because the necessary Your claim can be processed as soon as we receive the
forms have not been completed necessary forms

We do not take phone calls after 3:00pm on Fridays You try …

Sophisticated transitional words

Addition Comparison Contrast Cause and Effect

also along the same lines although accordingly

and in the same way but as a result
in addition similarly in contrast consequently
in fact likewise conversely hence
indeed like despite it follows, then
so too even though since
as well as however so
furthermore nevertheless then
moreover whereas therefore
yet
Conclusion Example Concession Elaboration

as a result as an illustration admittedly by extension

consequently consider granted in short
hence for example of course that is to say
in conclusion for instance naturally in other words
in short specifically to be sure to put it another way
in sum a case in point conceding that to put it bluntly
it follow, then although it is true that… to put it succinctly
so ultimately
therefore
thus
• Exercise
• __________ many educators and parents have praised the Harry
Potter series, some Christian parents have called for a ban on the
books in their schools and libraries. Some churches have even gone
as far as burning the books, citing biblical injunctions against
witchcraft, __________ those in Exodus and Leviticus. __________,
some Christians believe the books are compatible with Christianity,
__________, that they embody basic Christian beliefs.
• However
• Although
• In addition
• Such as
• Indeed
Webpage
• These documents are written in HTML (hypertext mark-up language) and
are translated by your Web browser.
• A web page is accessed by entering a URL address and may contain text,
graphics, and hyperlinks to other web pages and files.

Two types
• Static pages show the same content each time they are viewed.
• Dynamic pages have content that can change each time they are
accessed. Use of scripting language
• Server-side web page- use of server side scripting language : PHP, ASP,
Python, Perl etc.
• Client-side Dynamic Web page uses client side scripting language :
JavaScript
Document design

• "Research has demonstrated that comprehension and retention are

controlled to a significant extent by the physical appearance of a
document.... The layout of a report can make it dull, dense-looking,
and hard on the eyes; or it can render a discussion with high technical
density visually inviting, easy to absorb, and hard to forget.“

• It’s said that 94% of first-impressions are design driven. Not only that,
but it takes less than half a second for a visitor to form an opinion of
your site.
• Goal of technical writing-Lay out the document for easy reading

• Exercise- critically analyse the webpages for their use of graphics,

text, document design

• https://blog.hubspot.com/marketing/product-pages-love-list
 Home Page of Website
• When you arrive at a website, by typing in its URL (Uniform
Resource Locator, the website address), you should see:

• Identification -A title of the product or service,

• Contact information: street address, e-mail address, phone number,
and/or fax

• A graphic representing the brand

• An introductory lead-to tell readers who the company is and/or what

product or service it entails
Navigation: Webpage layout should have a “Home” button on
each web page- Hypertext links (leading to the linked screens,
the major text and development for the website)
 Page Layout.

• A successful web page should only use

about 2/3 of the screen for text.

• 1/3 of the screen for your navigation bar

and 2/3 for the text.

• Your Pages Should Only Be as Long as

They Need to Be

• Work to make your content "evergreen."

• Webpage layout should be:

• Simple to Use

• Intuitive: 76% of consumers want a website that

makes information easy to find. Hence predictable
layout.
Webpage layout should allows an easy replication across
devices.
• Highlighting Techniques.

• Colored or patterned backgrounds.

• Be sure the text is clearly legible by
striving for “optimum contrast”—black
text on a white background or yellow
text on a blue background, for example.
• Horizontal divider lines
• Iconic bullets
• Colored text
• Different font sizes (first level headings,
second level headings, etc.)
• Tables and figures
Tips to make good webpage
• Cut the Clutter-clean and concise and clear
• Build Customer Confidence
• Provide Options
• Concise Copy with Conviction
• Awesome Product Photos
• Think Speed
• Clear Calls-to-Action: buttons clear, consistent and highly visible.
Information presentation

• Graphics (table and shape/figures)

• White space
• Boldface text
• Headings and subheadings
• Italics !Underlining
• Varied Font sizes
• Bullets
• Numbered lists
• Varied Font types (computers offer many options)
Exercise- Redesigning an Ineffective webpage-revise website of
industry

• First, prepare an analysis of the document’s intended audience, and purpose.

• After identifying the webpage’s strengths and weaknesses, redesign it.

• Finally, prepare a rationale explaining your revisions.

• Compare the original document, your revised version,

• And a page that includes your analysis and the rationale behind your
revisions.
Online help

• Instructional writing-to inform, explain, and educate.

 Document Design
Make technical document readable to all

• “[t]hat means games are no longer meant

to be a solitary activity played by a single
individual. Instead, the player is expected
to join a virtual community that is parallel
with the physical world, in which societal,
cultural, and economical systems arise”.

• Panayiotis Zaphiris, Chee Siang Ang, and

Andrew Laghos, “Online Communities,” in The
Human-Computer Interaction Handbook:
Fundamentals, Evolving Technologies, and
Emerging Applications, ed. Andrew Sears and
Julie Jacko (New York: Taylor & Francis Group,
2008), 607.
Information presentation

• Example:
• Regarding part number 315564-000, we received 541 units of
wafer #3206-2. These were rejected. For the same part
number, we received 643 units of wafer #3206-4. These were
accepted. Three hundred and twenty- nine units of wafer
#3206-5 from the same part number. These were accepted.
Next, 344 of part number 315564-000’s wafer #3206-6 were
accepted. However, the 143 units of wafer #3206-7 (same part
number) were rejected. Finally, all 906 units of wafer #3206-8
were rejected. These also were from part number 315564-00.
What do we miss in the document?
1. Heading and subheadings
2. Visually not appealing
3. Information presentation
4. Chunking is not done
Which one is more impressive and easy to understand?

Data of rejected and selected wafers

 • Importance of document design
• Improves readability- help readers to read,

• Readers locate information quickly

• Consistent elements creates a sense of unified document

• Visually appealing document attracts readers’ attention

• To avoid damages and dangers – instructions and user manuals

• To create corporate identity

• To save time and money

Considerations for document design

• Who will use the document?

• Specific situations need specific type of document design.
Eg. User manual for commuter operation differs from
children toy.

• How will the document be used?

• Whether it is reference purpose or training manual or
user manual for customers

• How do you want to be perceived by the readers?

• Friendly or Formal?
Components of Document design

• 1. Organization
• Chunking: Break text into smaller paragraphs- one objective in one
para..
• Heading, subheadings, space, rules
• Highlighting contents
• Talking headings- subject+ Verb + object
• ‘Science and Technology Review, 2014 explains growth of It sector in India’
• ‘Parking Lot Congestion Angers Employees’
• ‘Growing Population Signals Market Growth’
Example
• 2. Order
• Prioritizing information
• order of importance or chronology or
relevance
• Hierarchy of headings- use of
different font size
• Times New Roman, Ariel, Calibri- for formal
documents
• Ariel and Verdana- websites

Type size of text-

headings in 18-point type,
subheadings-16 and 14-point type
Text in 12-point type
• 3. Access
• White space- Indentation
• Bullets
• Numbering
• All caps
• Underlining
• Italics
• Text Boxes
• Fills
• Colors
• Variety

• Choosing different orientation- portrait or landscape (11x8.5 inch)

Document Qualities
•A document must be visually appealing to its audience.
•A document must be logically organized.
•A document must be able to provide clarity.
•A document must be readily accessible to its audience.
•A document must be able to provide a variety of user and printing options.
•A document must be able to appear relevant to the audience.

•Document Rules
•Keep the document simple; do not create a document that is going to intimidate an audience.
Make use of Document
templates if available.
Rules
•Keep the document consistent; do not use an extensive number of fonts, colors, or type sizes.
•Keep the document clear; do not include unnecessary words or pictures in an effort to fill space
or impress the audience.
•Keep the document short. Everyone has heard the phrase “less is more.” Do not ramble on: Get
to the point. That is why people are viewing the document; they want to know what it is about.

Document Considerations
•Try to leave a considerable amount of white space. Keep the document easy on the eyes of the audience.
•Try to avoid excessive spacing, graphics, and line length. These three aspects can really make a document
look elementary and unprofessional.
5 RULES for including visuals in a writing:
1. Tables and Figures are numbered separately and caption includes a clear
descriptive title

2. Discuss each visual in the body text, referring to the caption number.

1. Never omit, distort, or manipulate information to deceive or mislead

2. Cite the sources of visuals you did not create yourself

3. Clearly label all elements of a visual (legends, axes, scale, direction, etc.)
and provide a “key”
Why we use graphics, charts and tables
• To represent and discuss the content
• Objects
• Numbers
• Concepts
• Words
• To provide large data in concise way
• To enhance the impact of content
• Infographics

• Visuals should be chosen based on their

ability to communicate the intended
objective of the document.
Types of Figures (Visuals)
Graphs
Line graphs: to visualize the value of something over a period
of time.
• Bar graphs: presents
categorical data

• Histograms: the adjacent

bars touch each other to
illustrate continuous data
• Charts:a graphical
representation of data
• Flow charts

Pie Charts 3-D Topographical chart

Organizational charts
• Illustrations: visual explanation of a text, concept or process-minimal
detail to maximal
illustrations to be between one-half to one-quarter of the vertical size of the page

• Photographs-the most detail of all.

• feasibility, recommendation, and evaluation reports
• Drawings- simplify the situation and the objects so that the reader can
focus on the key details.

Figure: Bicycle drive train

• Schematics- to represent abstract information for technical readers
• Oscillator circuit

• CAD Drawings –computer aided design- to provide

Graphic view of a setting
Some important considerations
• Have more white space above the heading than below
• Do not apply-Referring to a heading with a pronoun
• Begin your paragraph as if the heading were not there.
• Don’t start a section with the word “this” or “these”
• Use the right number of headings
• Guideline: 2 to 4 headings per page

• Tables show the most amount of detail but require study. Use a table when detail
is needed; refer to the details in the text, and if necessary, move the table to an
appendix.
• Figures such as graphs and charts illustrate trends or contrast more dramatically
but lose the detail. Make the point with the graph, but back it up in the text.
Document-level Review
• Ensure that you have included all required content.
• Make sure your title, headings, subheading, and table/figure labels are clear
and descriptive. Headings should clearly and efficiently indicate the content
of that section; Figure and Table captions should clearly describe the content
of the visual.
• Make sure visual elements have appropriate passive space around them.
• Make sure ideas flow in a logical order and explanations come in a timely
manner. Make sure visuals illustrate your textual information.
• Write “Reader-Centred” prose: determine the relationship between your
purpose in writing and your reader’s purpose in reading. Give your readers
the information they want and need to get from your document as efficiently
as possible.
• Make sure you are using an appropriate tone (formal, neutral, objective,
constructive)
• Paragraph-level Review
• Add heading if necessary
• Make sure each paragraph begins with a topic sentence that previews
and/or summarizes the content to come.
• Add coherent transitions to link one sentence logically to the next.
• Cut unnecessary or irrelevant information.
• Avoid overly long or short paragraphs (5-10 lines long is a reasonable
guideline).
• Use concrete, strong, active verbs – avoid vague, passive, verbs and
“is/are/was/were/being” whenever feasible (move the –tion and –
ment words up the verb scale).
• Use concrete, specific, precise words; avoid vague, abstract, generalizing
words.
• Match your vocabulary to your audience: experts can tolerate complex
information with a lot of terminology; general readers require simpler, less
detailed descriptions/explanations.
Examine Figure below. Do you convey what information the following
figure conveys? What is missing here?

Figure:1
Figure: Water Consumption in Edmonton during the 2010 Gold Medal Hockey Game.
 Rewrite the paragraph with applying document design principles.
• Structuration processes also affect meaning construction. Weick noted that communication technologies "are
both a cause and consequence of structure. This dual role of technology occurs because structuring is an
ongoing process that shapes the meaning of artifacts through scripts, interaction, and tradition and is itself
shaped by those meanings" (1990: 22-23). Barley (1986, 1990) similarly posited that the reciprocal link
between structure and action is tied to scripts that carry the rules and resources of the interaction structure.
Scripts represent cognitive organization that reflects and reproduces social action. Poole and DeSanctis more
forcefully stated the inescapability of coordinated meaning construction in the social shaping of 922 October
a communication technology: "Objectification and decontextualization conceal the social nature of
technologies. Continually bombarded by such discourse, we forget that users constitute and give meaning to
technologies. Until applied by a user in a specific context, a GDSS1 or any other technology is simply dead
matter" (1990: 178). Within the realm of the mutual determinism of technology and social structure, what
specific social processes engage individuals? In their social influence model of technology use, Fulk and
colleagues (1990) identified multiple social psychological processes that can explain coordinated patterns of
meanings and behaviors toward technology within social groupings. Foremost among these processes are
those described by social learning theory (Bandura, 1986) and social information processing theory (Salancik
& Pfeffer, 1978). Social learning theory (Bandura, 1986) predicts coordinated behaviors and meanings that
arise through several processes of modeling. (1) Observational learning occurs when individuals acquire
cognitive skills, new behavior patterns, or both by observing the behavior of other individuals. (2) Inhibitory
and disinhibitory effects arise from observation of the consequences of a behavior for others who have
exhibited that behavior and from observers' estimates of the likelihood of experiencing the same
consequences. (3) Response facilitation is present when models' behavior serves as a social prompt for
behaviors for which previously there has been insufficient inducement. (4) Arousal occurs because emotional
reactions in individuals tend to elicit emotional reactions in observers. (5) Environmental enhancement
occurs when "a model's behavior channels the observers' attention to particular stimuli or draws observers
into settings which elicit similar behavior" (Bandura, 1986: 49)
• Circle the correct choice.

• 1) We produced a small (amount / number) of automobiles this year, even (fewer /

less) than last year.
• 2) The serum, which was (composed / comprised) of two antigens, had serious side
(affects / effects).
• 3) Every 250 years, Pluto completes (its / it's) orbit about the sun.
• 4) The talk centered (around / on) the (principal / principle) of virtual work.
• 5) This report discusses how the eruption (affected / effected) the surrounding
terrain.
• 6) Reduced weight was the (principal / principle) reason for choosing aluminum.
• 7) All the bombings involved explosives (that / , which) contained the chemicals PETN
and RDX.
• 8) All the bombings involved Semtex (that /which) contains the chemicals PETN and
RDX.
• 9) In the past three months, a new series of low‐priced computers (has / have) been
released.
• 10) When you receive my ( boss’ / boss’s ) memo, please respond quickly.
The correct choice is highlighted.
• 1) We produced a small (amount / number) of automobiles this year, even
(fewer / less) than last year.
• 2) The serum, which was (composed / comprised) of two antigens.
• 3) Every 250 years, Pluto completes (its / it's) orbit about the sun.
• 4) The talk centered (around / on) the (principal / principle) of virtual work.
• 5) This report discusses how the eruption (affected / effected) the surrounding
terrain.
• 6) Reduced weight was the (principal / principle) reason for choosing
aluminum.
• 7) All the bombings involved explosives (that /,which) contained the chemicals
PETN and RDX.
• 8) All the bombings involved Semtex (that / ,which) contains the chemicals
PETN and RDX.
• 9) In the past three months, a new series of low‐priced computers (has / have)
been released.
• 10) When you receive my ( boss’ / boss’s ) memo, please respond quickly.
 Interpretation of charts/graphs

• The primary purpose of graphs is to display relationships between

variables
• In a business world- profit and loss related information to sales and marketing
figures.
• Represent too numerous or complicated data into a meaningful manner for
general understanding in less space
• One good chart can explain your entire proposition.
• Manage to proceed from a time-and-work schedule to progress chart

• Visual impact-can tell a story with just a picture

• More meaningful and less time consuming
• Quantitative as well as Qualitative understanding
• Drafting and drawing ability must be good.
• Interpretation of
chart

• The amount of money

spent on two types of
electronic items in
country X

• Summarize the
information given in the
chart by selecting and
reporting the main
features. You can
compare the relevant
points between the two
items.
• Important points

• First paragraph is all about what, where, when and how.

• Subsequent paragraphs

• Discuss the trends that you witness in the chart.

• To sum up, highlight the most important results you can get from the
information given in chart.

• You can predict what is likely to happen in the future.

• Don’t try to provide explanation for the information given in the chart. You just have to describe what
happened.
Exercise: The bar chart below shows the number of men and women studying
engineering at universities.

Child Adult Senior Total

Irish 8 5 4 17

British 4 6 4 14

Mainland European 0 3 1 4

Rest of the world 6 4 2 12

Total 18 18 11 47
 Draw a chart to represent following information.

• What are the most important skills you've found in serving as a staff planner or
planning director? Please provide up to three responses.

We received a total of 471 comments from 170 planners (many provided two or three
comments). Many of the comments fell into fairly distinct categories:

• 1. Communication Skills in Writing or Public Speaking. This was mentioned as one of the most
important skill planning staff should have by 73 (43 percent) of those responding.
• 2. Listening. The ability to listen to what people are saying. This type of skill was cited by 43 (25
percent) of those responding.
• 3. Patience. Mentioned by 22 planners (13 percent)
• 4. Knowledge. Noted by 19 planners (11 percent)
• 5. Good People Skills. Cited by 18 planners (11 percent)
Course contents
• Report Strategies: Research - Summary – Types of
Reports

• Course Outcomes
• Develop skills to carry out research and to produce effective research and
workplace documents.
• Develop skills that would make them effective communicators during and
after their placement.
So, before writing consider

Who are the audience for your writing?

What is in it?

Why they are reading and how they are

reading?
Research Report- Research and Write
What is Scientific Research?

Philosophy of Scientific Research?

Elements of Scientific Research

What do you think?- decide what to observe

Who are you?- researcher’s bias
What process you need to follow?- Methodology

Researcher must convince why answer finding is worth knowing activity

To achieve this
Gathering, Sharing and sorting, Analysing of data- problem solving

Drawing conclusions and Prediction

Reasoning and logic on why we expect these results

Objective: to minimise scientist’s bias on the outcome

• Scientific Method

• Steps
• Observation: characterization of the
phenomenon- who/ what/ why of the
phenomenon

• Hypothesis: Theoretical explanation

of causative mechanism- falsifiability
and refutability
• Analysis- comparison- what others
have done in similar area
• Testing of hypothesis
• Result
• Scientific Research
• Example-

1. I am working on the topic of (topic),

2. because I want to find out (why/what/how)…..in order to understand
(significance)…..
3. If ………then this is my Hypothesis
• Hypothesis----Model---Theory
Research Report

• A large gap exists between what young engineers and scientists have
learned about writing in first-year English and what is expected in
laboratory courses, design courses, and internships.

• In a study of 1000 professional engineers by American Society of

Mechanical Engineering found what engineers need for success is:
• 1. Working in Team
• 2. Communication
• 3. Design for manufacturing
• 4. Professional ethics
• 5. Creative thinking
 Importance of Report

• At a professional space, one has to document different dealings….

• Employee achievements- failure assessment report, payrolls
• Travel expenses and procedures related to travel of employees,
• Impact assessment reports for new introductions
• Feasibility/recommendation report before introducing new technology,
projects
• A progress report for ongoing projects
• Long annual report for stock holders
• As a researcher –you need to write down research feasibility, proposal
and final report
Report

• Different lengths and formats serve to fulfill..

• Present information
• Supply a record of work accomplished
• Clarify complex information
• Record problems encountered
• Document schedules, timetables, and milestones
• Recommend future actions
• Document current status
• Record procedures
 Features of reports
Report features distinctions Characteristics

Length and scope Short 1-5 pages, limited scope

Long More than 5 pages, large scope,

Formality Informal Short reports-written as memo, email, letters
Formal Long with standardized components

Purpose Informational Focus on factual data, objective is providing information. What happened

Analytical Draws conclusion by analysing data, what and why happened

Persuasive Convey information and draws conclusions and justify recommendations.

What and why happened and now what we should do next.
Channels Email Company- internal and external audiences
Memo Short reports for internal audiences
Letter External audiences, long or short, informal or formal depending on topic,
audience, scope, and purpose
Criteria for writing Short reports

• Features
• 1. Identification lines- date, sender and receiver identity, subject
• 2. Headings – Introduction, Discussion, Conclusion, Background Information
• and talking headings- employee benefit packages, travel expenses of employees
• Example: Trip report:
• Mr. Baxi works as director of Information Technology in WIFI Nation situated in Kolkata, India

Date: 15/12/ 12
To: Rob, WIFI Nation
From: Mr. Baxi
Subject: Report on Conference about Communication in Business domain
• 3. Introduction- overview of report

• Purpose, personnel, other important information

Introduction
Report Objectives: I attended the Southwest Regional Conference on Workplace
communication in London, to learn more about how to communicate effectively. This
report address the conference and associated workshops I attended, consultants I met
with, and networks that I develop for future collaborations. It also contains pricing for
training seminars.
Conference Date: 14/10/12
Committee members:
• 4. Discussion – analysis- important and detailed information

Discussion
What have you done during conference?
Whom did you meet?
What do you learn or outcome of your attending conference.
• 5. Conclusion/recommendation- sum-up what have you done and
relate it to future recommendations
• Informs the reader about the successful completion of present task and what’s next.

Conclusions and recommendations

Benefits of the conference attending:

Learning benefits
Collaborations and meeting like minded people

Proposed next action

Future course of action in relation to attending such conferences

Long Technical Report: Audience, Objective and
Scope

Conclusion Appendices References

Middle sections
Middle sections

Title
Summary
Introduction
Structure of a Formal Research Report- Long Report

• Front Section Title Page

Table of Contents

• Main Section
Summary
Introduction
Discussion of Findings
Conclusions and Recommendations

• Back Section
Glossary
References

Appendix
Types of long research reports
• Informative
• Analytical
• Recommendation
1. Title
• Define the scope and purpose of the report
• Avoid using abbreviations. (Usually used in case of technical audience)
• Use words that create a positive impression and stimulate reader
interest.
• Use current nomenclature from the field of study.

Title:
Genetic analysis of arsenic accumulation in maize using QTL mapping
2. Introduction
3. Discussion and analysis
4. Conclusion

• In maize, kernels are the main edible parts for humans and animals. In
this study, the kernels contained the lowest As concentration, while the
main biomass products including the leaves, bracts, stems and axes had
relatively high As concentrations. Additionally, the As concentration in
the kernels was considerably lower than the limit of 200 μg/kg specified
in the National Standard of China (GB2762-2005). Maize is capable of
adapting to its environment and is widely planted globally. Therefore, it
is important to ensure maize production continue to satisfy the global
demand for edible corn and to decrease the As content in As-
contaminated soil by selecting and breeding As pollution-safe cultivars.
 Types of Reports

• Short reports
• Trip reports about an off-site visit
• Laboratory reports about the results of a procedure
• Status reports about their progress on a project
• Incident reports
• Long and short formal report
• Proposals to recommend the solution to a problem or to assess
the feasibility of a project
• Research report
• Annual report
Contents of different reports
Type of report Introduction Discussion Conclusion /Recommendation

Status report What is current what exactly have you So now what you plan to do
status? accomplished and what problems during the next reporting period
have you encountered

Trip report Details of trip- what have you done there-details your suggestions for the next
itinerary about the process
Laboratory Purpose, context, what procedure you followed and follow-up procedures and/or
report content what you learned from the task lessons learned and future
recommendations

Proposal Purpose, overview of what options exist as feasible Your recommendations to solve
variables, contents, solutions to a problem the problem
Research Definition and What did you research and why? What did you get out of your
report explanation of What is your analysis? analysis? What is next?
variables, objective,
research questions
1. Incident report
• Introduction
• Purpose- why are you writing this
report Pointers
Make a model
• Personnel- who was involved,
List contact persons-police,
• what role do you play in the incident?
medical, repairing, etc.
• Are you a supervisor who needs to
supervise the incident, are you a Name of witnesses,
investigating officer, or an employee Witness testimonies (if
responsible to take actions applicable)
• Discussion- Extent of damage- financial and
• Body, findings, agenda, work physical
accomplished, work needs to be Graphics- to display incident
fulfilled visually
• Conclusion/recommendation Follow up actions
2. FEASIBILITY REPORTS
• Report-studies a situation (for
example, a problem or
opportunity) and a plan for doing
something about it, and then
determines whether that plan is
“feasible”
• whether it is practical in terms of
current technology, economics, time
frame, social needs and preferences,
and so on.
• “Should we implement Plan X?”
• Is it possible?
• Is it financially viable?
• Will it be accepted by the
community?
3. RECOMMENDATION REPORTS
• Contains Answer for following
questions
• What should we do about Problem X?
• What is the best way to provide
Function or Service A?
• Should we use Technology X or
Technology Y to perform Function Z?
• Do we approve the training manual
proposed by the project team?
• Do we approve the research project or
not?
• Which option should we choose?
 Typical Recommendation Report Elements
1. Identify the need
2. Identify the criteria for responding to the
need
3. Determine the solution options you will
examine
4. Study how well each option meets the criteria Systematically study each option, and compare how well they meet each of the
5. Draw conclusions based on your analysis
6. Formulate recommendations based on your
conclusion
7. Requirements and Comparison
What is the “unsatisfactory situation” that needs to be improved?
What is the overall goal?
What are the specific, measurable objectives any solution should achieve?
What constraints must any solution adhere to?
Define the scope of your approach to the problem.
objectives you have set.
Based on the research presented in your discussion section, sum up your findings
and give a comparative evaluation of how well each of the options meets the criteria
and addresses the need.
Indicate which course of action the reader should take to address the problem,
based on your analysis of the data presented in the report.
Block and Alternative approach to compare the alternatives
To have logical conclusions
• PROGRESS REPORTS

• Progress reports answer the following questions for the

reader:

• How much of the work is complete?

• What part of the work is currently in progress?
• What work remains to be done?
• When and how will the remaining work be completed?
• What changes, problems or unexpected issues, if any, have arisen?
Progress Report

• 1. Introduction
• Review the details of your project’s purpose, scope, and activities.

The introduction may also contain the following:

• date of the project began; and is scheduled to be completed
• people or organization working on the project
• people or organization for whom the project is being done
• overview of the contents of the progress report.
• 2. Project status

• Direct reference to milestones or deliverables established in previous

documents related to the project
• Timeline for when remaining work will be completed
• Any problems encountered or issues that have arisen that might
affect completion, direction, requirements, or scope.

• 3. Conclusion- final statement about and persuasion to

accept the status

• 4. Reference section (if required).

• Forms of progress reports:

• Memo: a short, semi-formal report to someone within your

organization (can range in length from 1-4 pages)
• Letter: a short, semi-formal report sent to someone outside your
organization
• Formal report: a long, formal report sent to someone within or
outside of your organization
• Presentation: an oral presentation given directly to the target
audience.
Example of trip report
• Example of status report
Example of cover letter of proposal
Writing Proposals
• Proposals are often written in response to a Request For Proposals (RFP)
by a government agency, organization, or company.
• Proposal must persuade the reader that your idea is the one most worth
pursuing.

• Four Kinds of Proposals

• Solicited Proposals: request for proposal
• Unsolicited Proposals: writer’s initiation
• Internal Proposals: shorter, related to productivity, efficiency, profit, etc.
• External Proposals: sent outside of the writer’s organization to a separate entity
(usually to solicit business). Since these are external documents, they are usually
sent as a formal report (if long), introduced by a cover letter (letter of
transmittal).
Proposal terms

• Boilerplate
• RFP
• SOW
• T&C
• Solicited
• Unsolicited
Sections
• Title page
• Cover letter (e-mail for electronic submission)
• Table of contents
• List of illustrations
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Problem statement
• Purpose/motivation/goal/objectives
• Definition of scope and approach
• Discussion
• Review of the state of the art
• Project description
• Schedule of work/timeline
• Budget
• Conclusion
• Qualifications of proposal sender
• Glossary
• References
• Appendix
What to do to persuade the audience?

• Audience involvement- direct and indirect needs

• Refute opposing point of view through convincing
arguments and facts
• Provide proofs for feasibility of your proposed idea
• Motivate your audience
 Important consideration for proposals

• Researching for content in proposal- interview, survey, online exploring,

reading journals, books, reports, other hard copy and soft copy stuff.

• Communicating Ethically- accurate and honest content

• The Online Ethics Center for Engineering and Science- www.onlineethics.org

• Organizing content- comparison, cause-effect, chronology, analysis

• Use of graphics/tables/charts/graph
• Adhere to the 7 Cs by making sure that your writing is…

• Clear and Coherent: don’t confuse your reader with unclear ideas or an
illogically organized structure.

• Concise and Courteous: don’t annoy your reader with clutter, unnecessary
padding, inappropriate tone, or hard-to-read formatting.

• Concrete and Complete: avoid vague generalities; give specifics. Don’t

leave out necessary information.

• Correct: don’t undermine your professional credibility by neglecting

grammar and spelling, or by including inaccurate information.
Practices of good writing
• 1st DRAFT

• For the first draft especially, just write. Know it will not be perfect—get all
of the information out, even if it’s messy at first.

• Don’t get locked into writing beginning to end—skip around, leave space or
notes,
• Highlight text → Having a solid understanding of the document requirements and a
working outline of the document makes this much easier.

• Don’t worry about formatting, grammar, or mechanics—document the

information and content first, then address writing style and mechanics.
• 1st REVIEW

• Review the document by assessing your own progress and requesting

feedback from a variety of sources.

• Take a step back and look at what you have produced, assessing it against
the requirements—
• Does it meet the requirements? Are there gaps? Do you have any questions?

• Ask reviewers to read the draft and provide feedback, focusing first on the
ideas and organization (rather than mechanics and grammar).

• Review and assess the feedback—Do you agree with it? Does it align with
your understanding of the goals and requirements of the assignments?
• Remember, you need to understand and evaluate the feedback, not just apply all
“corrections” you are given.
• REVISE
• Re-write and re-organize the draft. “Re-vision” means “re-seeing” and “re-
working” the piece of writing. This is not an easy process—it takes practice and
time.

• Make significant changes to the writing. Work toward precise and concise
sentences, focused and coherent paragraphs, logical transitions. [add links to
Writing Style sections]

• Apply feedback from your reviews and go over the writing until all sections are
complete and the document is clear and consistent throughout—check that the
document is “whole,” has achieved its purpose (referring back to the assignment
or request), and makes sense from beginning to end. The final document should
be whole and logical.

• PROOFREAD
• Finally, proofread/copy edit and format the document—check for correct
spelling, tense usage, and punctuation; and consistent fonts, spacing, page
numbering, etc.
Guidelines for the good writing

• Represent, Plan, Visualize and Organize.

• Brainstorm, prewrite, and/or outline document sections
• Consider and discuss the voice and writing style for the document
(determined by audience and purpose)
• Create plan for drafting—What order will you draft the document
sections in?
• If working with a team, who is responsible for which sections? How will you
share progress and information?
• Some simple strategies to help during the drafting process:

• Add notes/reminders for yourself to come back to using the comment feature
or even just in text in brackets: [Need intro here–talk about the connection to
the previous week’s findings]

• Highlight or change text color to remind yourself that something needs

further attention and you should come back to it.

• Keep a “junkyard” at the end of the document where you can cut and copy
sentences or sections of text that you wrote but aren’t sure you should
keep—it can be difficult to delete, so this can allow you to make a needed
revision without feeling like you’re “losing” your work.
• Pointers for better group project-writing

• Complete the “Define” step of the writing process as a group.

• Use the “Drafting Plan” and the “Review” part of the writing process
to make time for the team members to review each other’s writing.
• Identify strengths and weaknesses of the team members’ writing
abilities, but do not exclude anyone from the writing process
• Allow adequate time for everyone to proofread the final document
(together in person or online in a collaborative environment, like
Google Docs)
• Particular attention to and revising the following:

• Formatting (line spacing, margins, heading styles, numbered or bulleted

lists)—errors in these visual elements are a giveaway that the document was
pasted together.
• Paragraph length—if the paragraphs in one section are much longer than the
paragraphs in another section, the writing begins to feel uneven.
• Writing style—issues related to Voice and Tone and Grammar and Mechanics
should be addressed consistently; check that a consistent vocabulary and
level of technicality are present across all sections.
• Transitions—it can be particularly helpful to focus on those points where one
section shifts to the next and ensure that it is not abrupt or confusing.
• Cohesion—try to take a step back and read the document as if you are seeing
it for the first time, asking if each piece works together and serves the overall
purpose of the document.
Summaries

• Why?

• Your boss wish to address the seminar, conference, business meeting

or upper level management…
• Your employee wants to decide on a course of action in relation to
product or process…
• Your guide doesn’t have enough time so he/she ask for a summary of
your research report
• You want to present an ides, product, process to gathering but time is
less…..
Facts
• Summaries should be between 5 to 15 % of original text

• Requires ability to research and present research in concise form

• Requires analytical skills

• Executive summary-before long formal reports

Organization

• Introduction-
• Author’s information, title and key words description

• Discussion-
• Main points and author’s ideas paraphrase using your own words to recreate
author’s vision

• Conclusion
• Reiterate the focus statement, remind the reader of the author’s key ideas
• Highlight the concluding remarks.
• Recommendation for future.
References for report writing
• http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/ScienceReport.html
• http://www.monash.edu.au/IIs/IIonline/writing/science/5.xml
• http://www.usyd.edu/learningcentre/wrise/