An Introduction to the Cardiovascular System veins take blood from the lungs to the left atrium.
lungs to the left atrium. All the other
The cardiovascular system can be thought of as the transport
system of the body. This system has three main components:
the heart, the blood vessel and the blood itself. The heart is the
system’s pump and the blood vessels are like the delivery routes.
Blood can be thought of as a fluid which contains the oxygen and
nutrients the body needs and carries the wastes which need to
be removed. The following information describes the structure
and function of the heart and the cardiovascular system as a
whole.
Structure and Function of the Heart
Function and Location of the Heart
The heart’s job is to pump blood around the body. The heart is
located in between the two lungs. It lies left of the middle of the
chest.
Structure of the Heart
The heart is a muscle about the size of a fist, and is roughly cone-
shaped. It is about 12cm long, 9cm across the broadest point and
about 6cm thick. The pericardium is a fibrous covering which
wraps around the whole heart. It holds the heart in place but
allows it to move as it beats. The wall of the heart itself is made
up of a special type of muscle called cardiac muscle.
Chambers of the Heart
The heart has two sides, the right side and the left side. The heart
has four chambers. The left and right side each have two
chambers, a top chamber and a bottom chamber. The two top
chambers are known as the left and right atria (singular: atrium).
The atria receive blood from different sources. The left atrium
receives blood from the lungs and the right atrium receives blood
from the rest of the body. The bottom two chambers are known
as the left and right ventricles. The ventricles pump blood out to
different parts of the body. The right ventricle pumps blood to the
lungs while the left ventricle pumps out blood to the rest of the
body. The ventricles have much thicker walls than the atria
which allows them to perform more work by pumping out blood
to the whole body.
Blood Vessels
Blood Vessel are tubes which carry blood. Veins are blood vessels
which carry blood from the body back to the heart. Arteries are
blood vessels which carry blood from the heart to the body. There
are also microscopic blood vessels which connect arteries and
veins together called capillaries. There are a few main blood
vessels which connect to different chambers of the heart. The
aorta is the largest artery in our body. The left ventricle pumps
blood into the aorta which then carries it to the rest of the body
through smaller arteries. The pulmonary trunk is the large artery
which the right ventricle pumps into. It splits into pulmonary
arteries which take the blood to the lungs. The pulmonary
veins in our body drain into the inferior vena cava (IVC) or
the superior vena cava (SVC). These two large veins then take the
blood from the rest of the body into the right atrium.
Valves
Valves are fibrous flaps of tissue found between the heart
chambers and in the blood vessels. They are rather like gates
which prevent blood from flowing in the wrong direction. They are
found in a number of places. Valves between the atria and
ventricles are known as the right and left atrioventricular valves,
otherwise known as the tricuspid and mitral valves respectively.
Valves between the ventricles and the great arteries are known
as the semilunar valves. The aortic valve is found at the base of
the aorta, while the pulmonary valve is found the base of the
pulmonary trunk. There are also many valves found in veins
throughout the body. However, there are no valves found in any
of the other arteries besides the aorta and pulmonary trunk.
What is the Cardiovascular System?
The cardiovascular system refers to the heart, blood vessels and
the blood. Blood contains oxygen and other nutrients which your
body needs to survive. The body takes these essential nutrients
from the blood. At the same time, the body dumps waste products
like carbon dioxide, back into the blood, so they can be removed.
The main function of the cardiovascular system is therefore to
maintain blood flow to all parts of the body, to allow it to survive.
Veins deliver used blood from the body back to the heart. Blood
in the veins is low in oxygen (as it has been taken out by the body)
and high in carbon dioxide (as the body has unloaded it back into
the blood). All the veins drain into the superior and inferior vena
cava which then drain into the right atrium. The right atrium
pumps blood into the right ventricle. Then the right ventricle
pumps blood to the pulmonary trunk, through the pulmonary
arteries and into the lungs. In the lungs the blood picks up
oxygen that we breathe in and gets rid of carbon dioxide, which
we breathe out. The blood is becomes rich in oxygen which the
body can use. From the lungs, blood drains into the left atrium
and is then pumped into the left ventricle. The left ventricle then
pumps this oxygen-rich blood out into the aorta which then
distributes it to the rest of the body through other arteries. The
main arteries which branch off the aorta and take blood to
specific parts of the body are:
 Carotid arteries, which take blood to the neck and head
 Coronary arteries, which provide blood supply to the heart
itself
 Hepatic artery, which takes blood to the liver with branches
going to the stomach
 Mesenteric artery, which takes blood to the intestines
 Renal arteries, which takes blood to the kidneys
 Femoral arteries, which take blood to the legs
The body is then able to use the oxygen in the blood to carry out surface area which helps it to absorb oxygen. Furthermore, red
its normal functions. This blood will again return back to the blood cells do not contain a nucleus, this creates room inside the
heart through the veins and the cycle continues. cell allowing them to carry more oxygen.

Red blood cells contain a substance called haemoglobin, a red

chemical which contains iron. Haemoglobin helps red blood cells
absorb oxygen. In the lungs, haemoglobin combines with oxygen
to form oxyhaemoglobin. In the body’s tissues, oxyhaemlobin
breaks down to haemoglobin, releasing oxygen from the red blood
cell. The released oxygen can be taken up by cells.
Red Blood Cells

What is the Cardiac Cycle?

The cardiac cycle is the sequence of events that occurs in one White Blood Cells
complete beat of the heart. The pumping phase of the cycle, also White Blood Cells defend the body against infection from
known as systole, occurs when heart muscle contracts. The microorganisms. There are two different types of white blood cell;
filling phase, which is known as diastole, occurs when heart each type does a slightly different job. Both types are suspended
muscle relaxes. At the beginning of the cardiac cycle, both atria in the blood plasma.
and ventricles are in diastole. During this time, all the chambers
of the heart are relaxed and receive blood. The atrioventricular Phagocytes are the first type of white blood cell. Phagocytes kill
valves are open. Atrial systole follows this phase. During atrial microorganisms like
systole, the left and right atria contract at the same time and bacteria if they get
into the blood. White Blood Cells – Phagocyte
push blood into the left and right ventricles, respectively. The
next phase is ventricular systole. During ventricular systole, the Phagocytes have to be
left and right ventricles contract at the same time and pump very flexible as they
blood into the aorta and pulmonary trunk, respectively. In kill microorganisms
ventricular systole, the atria are relaxed and receive blood. The by surrounding and
atrioventricular valves close immediately after ventricular systole engulfing them. Once
begins to stop blood going back into the atria. However, the inside the phagocyte,
semilunar valves are open during this phase to allow the blood to the microorganism is
flow into the aorta and pulmonary trunk. Following this digested by powerful
phase, the ventricles relax that is ventricular diastole occurs. enzymes and killed.
The semilunar valves close to stop the blood from flowing back
into the ventricles from the aorta and pulmonary trunk. The atria
and ventricles once again are in diastole together and the cycle
begins again.

Components of the Heartbeat The other group of white blood cells are called Lymphocytes.
The adult heart beats around 70 to 80 times a minute at rest. Lymphocytes produce chemicals called antibodies. Antibodies
When you listen to your heart with a stethoscope you can hear stick onto foreign microorganisms in the blood, this either kills
your heart beat. The sound is usually described as “lubb-dupp”. the microorganisms or causes them
The “lubb” also known as the first heart sound, is caused by the to clump together, making it easier
for phagocytes to engulf and White Blood Cells –
closure of the atrioventricular valves. The “dupp” sound is due to
the closure of the semilunar valves when the ventricles relax (at destroy them. Besides helping to Lymphocyte
the beginning of ventricular diastole). Abnormal heart sounds are kill microorganisms Lymphocytes
known as murmurs. Murmurs may indicate a problem with the also protect the body as they are
heart valves, but many types of murmur are no cause for able to neutralise the harmful
concern. (For more information see: (see Valvular Heart Disease) poisons or ‘toxins’ produced by
microorganisms.
Blood Components

Blood contains a variety of cell types suspended in a liquid called Platelets

plasma. Each part blood performs a specific role. The features of Platelets are small fragments of
each component reflect the role that they carry out. cells, they have no nucleus and are suspended in the blood

Red Blood Cells

Platelets
Red blood cells are the most common blood cells, they travel
suspended in the blood plasma. Red blood cells are biconcave,
this means that they are shaped like a flat disc with a dimple on
each side. Red blood cells look like a Trebor mint or a doughnut
with the hole in the middle filled in.

The role of red blood cells is to carry oxygen in the blood. They
take up oxygen from the lungs and deliver it to cells in the body’s
tissues. Their biconcave shape means that the cell has a large
 plasma. Platelets play an important role in helping blood to clot
at a wound. When the wall of a blood vessel is damaged platelets
seal and clot the wound. This prevents blood cells from being lost
from the blood and also stop microorganisms entering the blood
through the wound.
If you did not have any platelets your wounds would never be
able to clot and heal.
Plasma
Plasma is a straw coloured liquid. Plasma carries all of the
different types of cell contained in the blood. Since the blood
plasma is a liquid some substances are carried by being dissolved
directly in the blood plasma. For example, Carbon dioxide is
produced as a waste product by cells in the body tissues, this
carbon dioxide is dissolved in the blood plasma so that it can be
transported to the lungs and removed from the body. The sugar
glucose is also carried to the body tissues by being dissolved in
the blood plasma.
The Lymphatic System
THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM IS COOPERATIVE
 The lymphatic system aids the immune system in removing
and destroying waste, debris, dead blood cells,
pathogens, toxins, and cancer cells.
 The lymphatic system absorbs fats and fat-soluble vitamins
from the digestive system and delivers these nutrients to the
cells of the body where they are used by the cells.
 The lymphatic system also removes excess fluid, and waste
products from the interstitial spaces between the cells.
THE TRANSFORMATION
Arterial blood carries oxygen, nutrients, and hormones for the
cells. To reach these cells it leaves the small arteries and flows
into the tissues. This fluid is now known as interstitial fluid and
it delivers its nourshing products to the cells. Then it leaves the
cell and removes waste products.
After this task is complete, 90% of this fluid returns to the
circulatory system as venous blood.
WHAT IS LYMPH?
The remaining 10% of the fluid that stays behind in the
tissues as a clear to yellowish fluid known as lymph.
 Unlike blood, which flows throughout the body in a continue
loop, lymph flows in only one direction within its own system.
This flow is only upward toward the neck. Here, it flows into the
venous blood stream through the subclavien veins which are
located on either sides of the neck near the collarbones.
 After plasma has delivered its nutrients and removed debris, it
leaves the cells. 90% of this fluid returns to the venous
circulation through the venules and continues as venous blood.
 The remaining 10% of this fluid becomes lymph which is
a watery fluid that contains waste products. This
waste is protein-rich due to the undigested proteins that were
removed from the cells.
LYMPHATIC CIRCULATION
The lymph is moved through the body in its own vessels making
a one-way
journey from the
interstitial
spaces to the
subclavian veins
at the base of
the neck.
 Since the lymphatic system does not have a heart to pump
it, its upward movement depends on the motions of the muscle
and joint pumps.
 As it moves upward toward the neck the lymph passes through
lymph nodes which filter it to remove debris and pathogens.
 The cleansed lymph continues to travel in only one direction,
which is upward toward the neck.
 At the base of the neck, the cleansed lymph flows into
the subclavian veins on either side of the neck.
Lymph returning to the
subclavian veins.
THE ORIGIN OF LYMPH
Lymph originates as plasma (the fluid portion of blood).
The arterial blood, which flows out of the heart, slows as it
moves through a capillary bed. This slowing allows some plasma
to leave the arterioles (small arteries) and flow into the tissues
where it becomes tissue fluid.
 Also known as extracellular fluid, this is fluid that flows
between the cells but is not into the cells. This fluid delivers
nutrients, oxygen, and hormones to the cells.
 As this fluid leaves the cells, it takes with it cellular waste
products and protein cells.
 Approximately 90% of this tissue fluid flows into the small
veins. Here it enters the venous circulation as plasma and
continues in the circulatory system.
 The remaining 10% of the fluid that is left behind is known
as lymph.
LYMPHATIC CAPILLARIES
In order to leave the tissues, the lymph must enter the lymphatic
system through specialized lymphatic capillaries. Approximately
70% of these are superficial capillaries located near, or just
under, the skin. The remaining 30%, which are known as deep
lymphatic capillaries, surround most of the body’s organs.
Lymphatic capillaries begin as blind-ended tubes that are only a
single cell in thickness. These cells are arranged in a slightly
 overlapping pattern, much like the shingles on a roof. Each of
these individual cells is fastened to nearby tissues by
an anchoring filament.
LYMPHATIC VESSELS
The lymphatic capillaries gradually join together to form a mesh-
like network of tubes that are located deeper in the body.

 As they become larger, and deeper, these structures become

lymphatic vessels.
 Deeper within the body the lymphatic vessels become
progressively larger and are located near major blood veins.
 Like veins, the lymphatic vessels, which are known
as lymphangions, have one-way valves to prevent any
backward flow.
 Smooth muscles in the walls of the lymphatic vessels cause the
angions to contract sequentially to aid the flow of lymph
upward toward the thoracic region. Because of their shape,
these vessels are previously referred to as a string of pearls.

LYMPH NODES

Lymph nodes kill pathogens and cancer cells. They also

remove debris and excess fluids.

There are between 600-700 lymph nodes present in the average

human body. It is the role of these nodes to filter the lymph before
it can be returned to the circulatory system. Although these
nodes can increase or decrease in size throughout life, any nodes
that has been damaged or destroyed, does not regenerate.

 Afferent lymphatic vessels carry unfiltered lymph into the node.

Here waste products, and some of the fluid, are filtered out.
 In another section of the node, lymphocytes, which are
specialized white blood cells, kill any pathogens that may be
present. This causes the swelling commonly known as swollen
glands.
 Lymph nodes also trap and destroy cancer cells to slow the
spread of the cancer until they are overwhelmed by it.
 Efferent lymphatic vessels carry the filtered lymph out of the
node so that it can continue its return to the circulatory
system.