Argumentation – It is reason giving in communicative situations by people whose purpose is the justification of acts,

beliefs, attitudes, and values.

Examples

o Senator Richard presents an argument why the R.A. NO. 8552 should be amended.

o Atty. Abraham presents an argument why his client should be given full custody of her children.

o Dr. Jamil presents his argument to the Chief of Surgery why having interns with juvenile record should
not be accepted in his hospital.

DIFFERENCE OF:

Having an Argument - Process of argumentation.

Making an Argument- Involves preparation for argumentation.

Inquiry as Argumentation- Involves discovering ideas within self and to others.

Advocacy as Argumentation- Strategizing, managing the arguments.

Limits of Argumentation

1. Emotion

Examples

o Acueza is one of the jury deciding on the case of Mark Lemuel. Acueza voted ‘guilty for manslaughter’
without listening to the defense lawyer because for him, Mark deserved it for breaking his heart back in
college.
o Stephen Barraza argued that his girlfriend shouldn’t dye her hair “blonde”, because it reminds him of
his ex-wife, Jervy Barbadillo.
o Timothy Badong argued that the terrorist should be released because he looked like his dead brother.

2. Self-interest

Examples

o King Caday argued that the waiters in the Bikini Bottom should have 3% of the tips they’re receiving.
o Sen. Pacquiao presented to the Senate that there should be a Philippine Boxing Commission.
o Karly Marzan argued to her parents that eating junk foods is not dangerous to your health, it even gives
you comfort.

3. Ignorance

Examples

o Leika Leal argued that not eating breakfast is a good diet and should be promoted for those who want
to lose weight.
o Sam Paril argued that substituting water for Red Bull gives you more energy in the morning and is
completely healthy.
o Cherlene Malabag argued that dancing in the rain is a good exercise and can replenish your soul.

4. Group pressures

Examples

o Ruth Fesalbon argued to her parents that she should be allowed to smoke crack every Friday.
o Jenny Bravo argued to her brother that she really wanted to have a bottle of soy sauce tattooed on her
forehead, but what really happened was she was pressured by her boyfriend who is the son of the soy
sauce company.
 o Draco Malfoy argued that replacing Pottery Business with Malfoy Business is a good idea, given the
fact that his parents wants him to be the next Most Successful Businessman in the Rowling
Corporation.

What is Critical Thinking?

 The ability to analyze, criticize, and advocate ideas;

 To reason inductively or deductively;

 To reach factual or judgmental conclusions based on sound inferences drawn from unambiguous
statements of knowledge or belief.

Limitations of the Certainty of Argumentation:

Set forth by our perception

Limitation to know
 CRITICAL THINKING
Decision Making - Thoughtful process of choosing among a variety of options for acting or thinking.

Note: The ability to make reasoned decisions relies on critical thinking

Critical thinking – It is the ability to analyze, criticize, and advocate ideas.

Enables: analysis and evaluation of arguments

Improves: the use of information as well as advocacy

(According to Michael Scriven and Richard Paul)

An effective critical thinker:

 raises vital questions

 gathers and assesses relevant information

 thinks open-mindedly within alternative systems

 communicates effectively with others

Argumentation - Reason giving in communicative situations by people whose purpose is the justification of acts,
beliefs, attitudes, and values.

Note: It relies on good reasons

Good reasons - Reasons which are psychologically compelling for a given audience.

METHODS OF DECISION MAKING: Debate, Individual Decision, Group Decision, Propaganda, Coercion,
Combination of Methods

1. Debate - Process of inquiry and advocacy, a way of arriving at a reasoned judgment on a proposition.

Provides: reasoned arguments for and against a proposition

Requires: two competitive sides engaging in bipolar clash

Examples

1. The voting age in the Philippines should be lowered.

2. Animal testing should be banned.

3. Performance enhancing drugs should be allowed in sports.

Ancient Greeks

- First to recognize the importance of debate

Plato defined rhetoric as a “universal art of winning the mind by arguments, which means not merely arguments in
the courts of justice, and all other sorts of public councils, but in private conference as well.”

4 functions for Rhetoric:

1. It prevents the triumph of fraud and injustice

2. It is a method of instruction for the public

3. Makes us see both sides of a case

 4. Means of defense

2. Individual decisions

 Personal decision- through this decision we can solve problems and complex
problemswhenever an individual controls the dimensions of a problem.

 When we make an individual decision, we can put it into effect if we control necessary
conditions

Examples

Zayn Malik decided to leave the band “One Direction”.

Edward Snowden, a former contractor for the CIA, decided to leak the media details of extensive
internet and phone surveillance by American intelligence.
Judge Aaron Persky gave sentenced Brock Allen Turner to six months confinement in the Santa Clara
County jail to be followed by three years of probation.

3. Group discussions

Conditions for Group Discussions:

The GROUP should:

 Agree that a problem exist

 Have compatible standards or values

 Have compatible sources

 Willing to accept the consensus of the group

 Relatively few

Standard Agenda for Group Decision Making:

o define and analyze the problem

o research the problem

o establish criteria

o generate solutions

o select best solutions

o implement and monitor solution

Examples

The Senate of the Philippines votes in favor of Martial Law extension, 16 senators voted in the
affirmative at the joint session of the Congress.

The band “My Chemical Romance’ decided to breakup after 12 years in the music industry.

On March 8, 201,7 women all over America decided to join the Women’s March.

4. Persuasion - Communication intended to influence the acts, beliefs, attitudes, and values of others.

Persuasion is NOT:

x limited to seeing carefully reasoned judgments

x require logical arguments both for and against a given proposition

 Persuaders

-reach a decision before they begin the process of persuasion

-continue until they persuade others to accept their decision

Necessary in Influencing Others:

1. Join other persuaders and become propagandists

2. Face the opposition and became debaters

Examples

Celebrities encouraged people to vote by posting selfies with the American Flag.

Kim Kardashian- West released a short video in Snapchat exposing Taylor Swift’s knowledge of the
lyrics, in defense of her husband Kanye West.

Vogue Magazine released a ‘Diverse Cover Issue’ to promote diversity in the fashion industry.

5. Propaganda - Use of persuasion by a group in a sustained, organized campaign using multiple media
for the purpose of influencing mass media.

Note: It may be viewed as good or bad only to the degree that it is based on true evidence and valid reasoning.

Propagandists:

-reach a decision on a problem before they begin the process of propaganda

-continue until they solve the problem by persuading others

Examples

The United States dropped leaflets over Iraq telling people that Saddam Hussein was responsible
for their suffering.

“Buy War Bonds!” poster was an incredibly popular propaganda during WWII, it implies that if you
don’t support the war financially, harm could come to your children, playing on people’s fear.

Rosie the Riveter was created in 1943 by Norman Rockwell, and represents the American women
that worked in the munitions and war supplies factories in WWII.

6. Coercion - The threat or use of force

 It may be employed to influence a decision

 It is socially acceptable and effective when the decision is made after full and fair debate.

Examples

Chowder pointed a gun to the student and ordered to give him his tuition money.

The manager threatened to fire Cathy if she won’t give him sexual favors.

The America decided to release a nuclear bomb in Japan to end the World War II.

7. Combination of methods

 It is often necessary to use a combination of methods in making a decision.

Social Context- Used in determining the most suitable methods in a particular case.

 The solution to a problem may warrant use of all the decision making.

Examples
 1. Anna determined that an access to clean drinking water in her community has been a
problem, and the government should take action. Since Anna is powerless to
implement such a decision alone, she must use persuasion to influence friends to join
in the effort and use the process of group discussion to decide how to proceed toward
their objective. They might find it necessary to organize a group for raising funds
through bake sale and to work together for a period of months or years conducting a
propaganda campaign directed toward the voters of the state. During this campaign,
many supporters plays a role in persuading or debating. Eventually a bill might be
introduced into the state legislature. After discussion in committee hearings and a
number of debates on the floor of the legislature, a final debate determines the
disposition of the bill. If the bill is enacted into law, coercion will be provided to ensure
compliance. The validity of the law probably will be tested by debates in the courts to
determine its constitutionality. When the law is violated, coercion can be applied only
as the result of debates in the courts.

2. Male suicide rates at their highest since 2001, must raise awareness.

3. Environmental Contamination.

8. Ethical decision making

Ethics- set of constructs that guide our decision making by providing standards of behavior telling how
we ought to act.

X Failure to consider ethical constructs range from business failures to incarceration, to the
destruction of personal relationships.

Examples

1. Journalist decided to not include the name of the victim in the Standford Rape Case.

2. The U.K. decided to welcome the Syrian Refugees in their homeland.

3. Innocent man who was convicted for 17 years was given a pardon from the court.
 PROPOSITION
Propositions - The careful phrasing of a statement expressing the basis of controversy.
Different Forms of Propositions

Motions - Used in business meeting.

Examples

o “I move that five hundred thousand pesos be allotted for the improvement of Grab Car’s GPS
system.”

o “I move that Ms. Ulibarri be nominated for the position of CEO”

o “I move that Mr. Samson be in charge for tomorrow’s activity”

Bills - Used in legislative assemblies.

Examples

o “Be it enacted that Grab & Uber services be suspended”

o “Be it enacted that Federalism as a form of government be adopted by the Philippines”

o “Be it enacted that Smoking be banned in all public places”

Specific questions - Used in board inquiries.

Examples

o “Why did the Grab, Uber accreditation papers got lost?”

o “Why did BPI’s servers got hacked?”

o “When will the Marawi Seige end?”

Resolution - Used in academic debate.

Examples

o “Whether or not the Martial Law in Mindanao is constitutional”

o “Whether or not imposing additional beverage taxes is exorbitant”
o “Whether or not US Imperialism is prevalent in Philippine politics”

Type of Propositions

Proposition of Fact or Value -These are descriptive, predicative, or evaluative statements that assert the
existence or worth of something.

Examples

o “There is an increase of Extra Judicial killings during the Duterte Administration”

o “Manny Pacquiao will defeat Jeff Horn in their rematch”
o “The Maute group are muslim extremists”

Proposition of Policy - It is a statement that asserts that a course of action should be taken.

Examples
 o “The Philippine Dragon boat team should have a meet-and-greet with President Duterte”

o “Grab, UBER, and other transport network companies should be allowed to operate”

o “The University Student Council should focus on Student rights and welfare programs”

Phrasing Proposition

1. Change from Existing Beliefs or Policies - The proposition should be phrased to indicate a change from
present beliefs or policies.

Examples

o “A communist society should be adopted by developing countries”

o “Divorce shall be enacted in the Philippines”

o “The 1987 Philippine Constitution must be amended”

2. Nature and Direction of the Change - The statement of the proposition should indicate both the nature and
direction of the change desired.

Examples

o “The Philippine Government should cut all its diplomatic ties from the US”

o “Resolved: That President Duterte should lift the Martial Law in Mindanao”

o “Resolved: That Civil Service Exam passers be exempted from PHILSAT”

3. One Central Idea - The statement of the proposition should contain one central idea.

Examples

o “The Philippine Economy is not performing well.”

o “Manny Pacquiao is the best boxer from the Philippines”

o “The Philippine Congress should allocate more funds to Education”

4. Neutral Terminology - The proposition should be phrased in neutral terminology.

Examples

o “Resolved: That US military bases in the Philippines be removed”

o “I move that Ms. Juliano be an ex-officio member of the COMELEC”

o “Mobile technology is affecting Millennials’ perception of the world”

Presumption - Describes the inherent advantage in opposing change; makes no judgment concerning the wisdom of
present beliefs or policies.

Institutionalized Concept

A. In Courts
Ex. A is charged by B of committing murder. B cannot present sufficient evidence to condemn A.
Hence, A shall be released and be deemed as a free, innocent man due to the presumption of
innocence.

B. Policy making bodies

Ex. 261 lawmakers voted for the Extension of Martial law in Mindanao as compared to 18 congressmen
 who voted otherwise. However if no more than half of the lawmakers voted for the continuity of the case
at hand, Martial law in Mindanao shall be lifted.

C. Scientific Community
Ex. Tawa-Tawa leaves are said to have elements to cure Dengue. However, no strong scientific
evidence supports this claim. Hence, there is no wide acceptance as to its medicinal value because of
the presumption that the present cure shall be maintained.

D. Personal Life
Ex. Eric has the idea of running as President of the University Student Council however he is not
convinced that he is fit for the position, there is a presumption that Eric will remain as a regular student.

Purpose of Presumption

A. Provides fundamental decision rule

B. Identifies the existence of a kind of mental and physical intertia

C. Recognizes that failure to make positive decision is a decision nonetheless

D. Recognizes an advantage inherent in any decision making situation

Burden of Proof – It is the inherent obligation of those advocating change to provide sufficient evidence and
arguments to overcome the presumption of existing beliefs or policies. It resides with the advocate of change; it never
shifts during the controversy.

Burden of Rebuttal - It is frequently used to refer to the obligation that all parties in a controversy have to respond to
the arguments once they are advanced and supported.

Examples

o Anti-Marcos protesters have the burden of proof to show that Ferdinand Marcos actually committed
the atrocities accused to him.

o The burden of proof resides with the advocates who think that Martial Law in Mindanao is
unconstitutional.

o It is incumbent upon Mr. Jader to prove that the University of the East College of Law committed
negligence.

Issues - These are inherent questions vital to the advocate’s cause.

Note: Arguments are used to support issues. Advocates must win every issue in order to establish the truth of the
proposition. Advocates can lose any number of arguments and still win the issue.

Two Kinds of Issues

Potential Issues - Are all the issues that exist within a given proposition.

Example

The pursuance of Martial law in Mindanao is necessary

1. Is the declaration of Martial Law in Mindanao constitutional?
2. Is there really a need for Martial Law in Mindanao?
3. Who will benefit/ be affected by this declaration?

Real Issues – Are issues that become the actual basis of a clask.
Examples

1. Is there really a rebellion in Marawi?

2. Does the congress need to convene for the realization of this declaration?

3. How will we differentiate “voting jointly” from “voting in joint session” in relation to the declaration of
Martial Law in Mindanao

Prima Facie Case - It literally means “at first sight” or “on the face of it” and defined as a case that is initially adequate
to overcome the presumption of the present system and to force its defenders to respond.

Examples

o A plain white heavily tinted van is often seen by the highway patrol group traveling from Antipolo to
LRT santolan. Along Marcos Highway, a police officer apprehended the driver to move the van
aside. Upon opening the van, various people composed of students, professionals, and workers
are found riding it. There is a prima facie case that the plain white heavily tinted van is a kolorum
vehicle.

o The waving of the ISIS flag by the Maute group is a prima facie evidence that they sympathize with
the international terrorist group.

o A fire broke out in the 3rd floor of ABC building. The accused was seen entering the vicinity with a
container of petroleum and a mini blow torch. This is a prima facie evidence that the accused may
be the one who started the fire. It compels the defenders to respond or justify the possession of the
objects by the accused. The presumption of evidence is moved aside because of the prima facie
case established.
 NATURE OF ARGUMENT
Argument - It is a complete unit of proof.

Components of Argument

Data, Reasoning process, and Conclusion

Data - It is the raw material of an argument. Also known as starting points of an argument and the substance from
which we reason.

Note: this is the foundation of an argument, therefore to have a good argument, one must have satisfactory data.

Types of Premises

Perceptual Premises - Assumptions about the nature of things.

Note: Assumptions are based on personal views. Perceptual premises function as data because they are accepted
without serious question.

Value Premises - Judgment concerning the worth of something.

Examples

o I saw Jerry coughing that’s why I said that Jerry has a cold

o Alice is always at the library that’s why I assume that Alice loves to read.

o Ordinary citizens sitting in the side of the courts.

Note: The data that looks at the two sides of a topic. It does not only focus on one thing, but it focuses more on
theoverall.

Note: Value Premises provide the basis of many arguments.

Types of Evidence

Factual Evidence - It consists of potentially verifiable statements that describe real objects and events.

Note: Factual evidence needs verification from people who witnessed the incident.

Verbal Examples - Detailed descriptions of specific cases, instances, and situations.

Statistics - Appears in forms like raw numbers, percentages, ratios, average, but are more convenient in expressing
large numbers of examples

Descriptive Historical Statements -Reports that something happened at a certain time and place.

Note: Descriptive historic statements are closely related to verbal examples but are less detailed.

Expert Opinion Evidence- Consists of authoritative statements that explain factual evidence.They interpret the
meaning of factual evidence.

Examples

o When a doctor examines Jerry because of his cough and concludes that Jerry has a cold.
o When a ballistics expert examines a gun and stray bullet and concludes that the bullet was fired
from the gun.
o When an architect assesses the and gives an evaluation regarding the condition of a house.
Note: Ordinary citizens are not permitted to make judgments or interpret situations. They may only provide factual
evidence.

Note: People who have special credentials are the only ones who are authorize to make expert opinion evidences.
Reasoning Process - Process of interpreting the data

Inductive Reasoning-Sometimes defined as reasoning from the specific to general

Synthetic Process- bringing together elements into a whole

Begins with the particulars- Specific cases, instances, or situations

Probable Conclusion- Less certain than the original data

Examples

o Jason is a man; Jason is bald; therefore All man are bald.

o Alice is smart; Alice is a UE student; therefore all UE students are smart.
o Jerry love cake; jerry is a man; therefore All man loves cake.

Deductive Reasoning-Often defined as reasoning from the general to the specific.

Analytic Process- Breaking down a whole into parts

Begins with the generalities- Begins with general statements to be broken down and analyzed later on

Structurally certain conclusions- Does not extend beyond the original data, but is contained within the initial
generalization.

Examples

o All man are bald; Jason is a man; therefore Jason is bald.

o All UE students are smart; Alice is a UE student; therefore Alice is smart.
o All man loves cake; Jerry is a man; therefore Jerry love cake.

Conclusion - Expresses the specific interpretation

Types of Conclusions

Conclusion of Existence-Assert that something is real or manifest or in a state of being.

Examples

o The light in that house is open so you assume that there someone at that home.
o I can hear my neighbour house some loud screaming so you assume that your neighbours are
arguing.
o When economists note sharply reduced employment, declining investment, and lower population,
they declare that we are in a state recession.
Conclusion of Essence- Identify an essential feature or basic attribute or a characteristic property of something.

Examples

o You always see students from UE studying at coffee shops so you conclude that students from UE
are essentially studious.
o Soldiers are always atthe frontline of conflicts so you conclude that soldiers are fundamentally
brave.
o You often see women get haircuts after a heartbreak so you conclude that women who cut their
hair are essentially heartbroken.

Conclusion of Explanation - Relate phenomena so as to account for there existence or to make their existence
intelligible.

Examples

o When you gain a lot of weight in summer and also you eat a lot of chocolate that’s why you
 conclude that chocolate is the cause of extra weight.
o When you failed the math quiz and also you didn’t study that’s why you conclude that because you
didn’t study that’s why you failed the math test.
o When you are late in school and you played dota up till 3 am in the morning that’s why you
conclude that you are late because you played last night.

Assumption of Uniformity - Ability to relate data and reach conclusions through reasoning process. Expresses the
belief that there is order and predictability in the universe

Note: If there is no assumption of uniformity, people cannot build on experiences, understand the past or predict the
future. Assumption of uniformity is essential for learning. Having the knowledge of the assumption of uniformity is
helpful because it provides fundamental understanding and a standard for evaluating the adequacy of arguments.

.
 DISCOVERING DATA
General Ways of Discovering Premises

Conscious Expression/Consciously Expressed Premises - It recognize the important of premise and also clearly
define the value of arguments basis.

Symbolical Revelation/Symbolically Revealed Premises - In this premise we need to examine-well the values and
language used in premise.A careful examination of the language used in argument is vital to discovering perceptual
premise.

Community Inference/Community inferred Premises - It is based from the assumption and perception of audience.
We are going to argue based on the opinion of the audience as well as on our own personal premises.

Ways of Discovering Community Inferred Premises

Examining Personal Premises - In this premise we need to examine carefully first our own beliefs and assumption,
and explain also the basis of our belief.

To separate self-evident premises from less fundamental beliefs we should ask first ourselves three
questions.

1. What do I believe in?

2. Why do I believe it?

3. Can the basis of my belief reasonably denied?

Conducting Audience Analysis - The second way in which we can discover community premises is by performing
audience analysis. Although audience analysis fails to guarantee the discovery of universally self-evident premises. It
does allow us to discover premises that are acceptable to a particular community or audience.

To conduct audience analysis one makes use of the following resources:

1. Audience Published Reports

2. Interviews
3. Demographically Based Inferences

Researching for Evidences

It is important in argumentation as it is solving a problem before we can get the answer for the problem in
argumentation we need to conduct first a systematic research. It is helpful to think of the process of researching for
evidences as one that will be challenging and adventuresome. When we start to researching evidence the first
question inside our mind is “Where do I begin?”

We seek to answer the questions

Where do I begin?

Where do I find evidence?

How do I read the evidence?

How do I record the evidence?

Developing Research Plan

There are two types of research plan the GENERAL ISSUE RESEARCH AND SPECIFIC ARGUMENT RESEARCH.

General Issue Research - It is used when the advocate first learn of the proposition to be debated.

We suggest asking the following questions:

 1. What do I already know about the proposition?

2. Why is it important to debate this proposition?

3. What have I read recently in newspaper and newsmagazine that may guide my research?

4. Do the terms of the proposition have clearly defined, obvious meaning?

5. Do I know any groups or individuals who favor the proposition? Who oppose the proposition?

6. Will specialized sources of information be needed to understand the proposition?

7. Will very recent information be important in dealing with the preposition?

8. What issue will be important in the topic?

The purpose of these question is to help us to decide on particular research strategies

Specific Argument Research - It is used after we have developed a basic familiarity with the key issue within the
proposition.

Compiling the Bibliography

Searching Index Manually

After familiarizing yourself with the library. We need to learn also how to use a variety of reference guides, and
understand also how indexing works.These guides will help us in developing a bibliography of sources from which to
find evidence.

Sources of Data

Books

Advantages - Abook it is useful because it generally provides the facts and information of the topic.

Disadvantages - It may not contain the recent information available in the subject.

Examples

o Obligations and Contract by Atty. Hector de leon

o Partnerships and Corporation by Atty. Hector De Leon
o Torts and Damages by Atty. David Aquino

Periodicals

Advantages - Provides current information and perspective on a topic.

o Modern Fiction Studies

o The Economist
o Scientific American

Newspapers

Advantages - Contain the very recent information or detailed contemporary commentary.

Examples

o Manila Bulletin
o Philippine Inquirer
o Philippine Star

Editorials

Advantages - Shows the opinion and arguments of others.

Almanacs and Fact Books

Advantages - Provides information on vast number of topics.

Examples

o The World Factbook

o Poor Richard’s Almanac
o Nautical Almanac

Government Documents

Advantages - provides information regarding all sides of the controversy. It provides data for policy debates.

Examples

o Philippine Statitistics Authority Population Report

o SCRA
o Legislative Journals

Essays

Advantages - Provides the opinion of others regarding a topic

Disadvantages - Difficult to find an essay specific to your topic

Bibliography

Advantages - Provides source to the data to avoid plagiarism.

Reading for Evidence

Reading for evidence and gathering the necessary source of evidence is the first step in research. Finding the right
source does not automatically guarantee that you will discover the necessary evidence

Recording Evidence

Recording evidence is important since few of us have photographic memories. It is necessary for us to record the
evidence that we discover, evidence must be recorded for future references.

Filling Evidence

After the gathering a large number of evidence cards, you will need to organize the evidences so that you can
retrieve specific pieces of evidence efficiently whether you are writing a term paper or preparing for a public debate,
being able to quickly retrieve necessary information is important to successful advocacy.
 TEST OF DATA
General Tests of Data

The test of Internal Consistency

“Are the data consistent with the other data from same source?”

The test suggests that we must look carefully at the premises, facts, and opinion expressed by the source to
determined whether or not they are consistent with each other.

While there are few instances when a shop owner can use deadly weapon to stop the shoplifter, guns are
still best protection.

The test of External Consistency

“Are the data consistent with the other data from the unrelated sources?”

The test suggests that each piece of data must be examined in the light of the other known data from other sources.

The Test of Relevancy

“Do the data support the conclusion they are asserted to support?”

This test suggests that data can be credible in every other respect but may still insufficient basis for argument
because they are tangential to the conclusion being forwarded.

Specific Test of Perceptual and Value Premises

Clear Definition

“Are the terms used in the premise clearly defined?”

Example

In the proposition, “Love is blind”. You ask whether the term love is clearly defined

Premises, especially those based on values, are highly abstract linguistic constructs. Whenever we use value
premises as data, we must be sure that the premises are meaningful.

Appropriate justification

“Is an appropriate rationale provided to justify the judgment expressed?”

Although premises often become so ingrained in us that we take them for granted, careful introspection should lead
us to the reasons we have adopted a particular perceptual or value premise.

Example

A person saying that love is blind must provide a justification for his opinion.

Result in Good

“Does accepting the premise result in good?”

Premises can be pragmatically tested by applying them to the particular situations in order to determine if they result
in good.

Example

Will the imposition of additional beverage taxes result in good?

Sacrifice of More Important Premises

A premise is frequently tested by asking whether or not more important or meaningful premise should be applied to a
given situation.

Example

Sacrifice of the freedom of the press for national security.

Wide acceptance

“Is the premise widely accepted?”

o Is the extension of Martial Law until December widely accepted by the public?

o Is the Executive Order 26 which sets guidelines on designated smoking areas and bans them
altogether in schools, smoking universities, and recreational facilities for minors are widely
accepted by the public?

o Is the government’s decision to impose identification cards on Muslims widely accepted by the
public?

“Do subject area expert support the premise?”

This test is based on the assumption that subject area expert have devoted considerable tine to investigating the
basis for their beliefs and thus are in a being position to assess the adequacy of premises.

Specific Tests of Evidence

The Test of Recency

“Is the statement of the evidence based on recent observations of the real situation?”

The test of recency simply asks if recent enough so that important facts have not changed in the elapsed time.
Factual evidence concerning wage levels in a given profession. Expert opinions interpreting such dated facts must
also be carefully examined. Beware of recent statement of old facts.

Example

Is the nationwide smoking ban implemented strictly?

The Test of Source Identification

“Is the source of the evidence identifiable?”

This test suggests that each piece of evidence should be traceable to a specific source. Without adequate source
identification, complete testing of evidence in impossible.

Example

Topics are Labor, Capitalism, Industry. – Source would be, The wealth of nations by Adam Smith (1776);
principles of Industrialization such as labor equals wealth and division of labor.

Topic is World War II and racism – Source would be, The lonely Londoners by Samuel Selvon (1956); the
trial the windrush generation raced in Great Britain.

Topic is the Estates General Meeting and National Assembly – Source would be, Travels by Arthur Young
(1789); Events preceding the French Revolution.

The Test of Source Ability

 “Is the source of the evidence able to report or interpret the situation accurately?” Because the factual and
expert opinion evidence used in argumentation must be reported, it is necessary to examine the source of the
evidence as well as the fact or expert opinion itself. In addition to examining source accessibility one must also
consider source expertness, experience, specific training, and positions.

o Experience: An architect is more reliable and accurate in designing buildings and houses than a
carpenter who doesn’t have any formal education about architecture.

o Specific training: A professional boxer is more capable of winning a boxing match against a person
who doesn’t have a formal training in boxing.

o Positions: The DFA secretary has the power to decide and expedite the process on matters which
concerns foreign policies and issues.

The Test of Source Willingness

“Is the source of the evidence willing to report or interpret the situation fairly?”

In examining source willingness to report or interpret accurately, we must consider both the self-interest and writing
style of the source. We must question not only the self-interest of the source but also the interest of the organization
for whom the source works. And the desire to write in a style thoughts to be interestificed to the public may
compromise accuracy. This is also important when we evaluate the reporting sources who write for popular
periodicals.

The Test of Context

“Is the evidence used in a manner consistent with the meaning and intent of the source?”

It is vital to examine the context of any piece of evidence to ensure that the meaning or intent of the source is not
misrepresented. The test of contextual accuracy is one of the more difficult tests of evidence to apply because of its
inherent subjectivity.

Examples

The public misinterpreted what Vice President Leni Robredo said about the summary execution in Duterte’s
anti-drug war.

Test of Statistical Evidence

When evidence takes the form of statistics, a variety of special tests of the measurement procedures must be
applied.

4 Special Tests:

1. Adequate Sampling

2. Appropriate Statistical Unit

3. Appropriate Time Period

4. Comparable Units

Adequate Sampling

“Are the statistics based on adequate sampling techniques?”

The advocate must look for explanation and justification of the sampling techniques when examining statistical
evidence.

Example

Using 100 individuals to represent the opinion of 1,000 people.

Appropriate Statistical Unit

“Is the statistical unit an appropriate one”?

Mean, median, and mode are the three commonly used statistical measures.

The more we know about appropriate statistical procedures, the more likely we are to select an appropriate unit.

Example

Using line graphs and pictograph to represent population growth.

Appropriate Time Period

“Do the statistics cover an appropriate time period?”

The cause of truth dictates the base years be selected not on the basis of personal advantage but on the basis of
representativeness and reasonableness.

Example

Using a statistics conducted by the PSA during the baby boom period to support an argument about the
effect of economics on population growth.

Comparable Units

”Are comparisons between comparable units?”

Before attempting to compare, it is vital for an advocate to determine whether or not the statistical units are
comparable.

Example

Is the economic growth of the Philippines comparable to that of Indonesia’s?