Germination

Germination is the process by which the embryo grows and develops, eventually becoming a
fully mature plant. The pattern of germination is similar in most dicotyledonous seeds. When the
seed is shed, it is usually dry and hard, containing very little water. In this dehydrated state it is
best suited to withstand drought and extreme temperatures. When conditions become suitable for
germination, the seed takes in water through its micropyle. The tissues absorb water and swell
and the testa becomes soft. The radicle grows first, pushing through the testa and entering the
soil. Next, either the hypocotyl or the epicotyl, depending on the species, starts to enlongate and
carry the plumule upwards through the soil.
Elongation of the epicotyl brings the embryo out from between the cotyledons and through the
soil, leaving the cotyledons below ground. Elongation of the hypocotyl brings the cotyledons and
the plumule above ground. Whichever pattern of germination occurs, the energy and raw
materials required for growth come from the food (usually starch) stored in the cotyledon.

Conditions Necessary for Germination and their purpose

The conditions necessary for germination are:

1. Moisture- Seeds tend to remain dormant as long as they are dry. Water softens the seed
coat and expands the protoplasm.
2. Oxygen- All green plants need oxygen to “breathe” or respire. Like humans. They need
oxygen to live and grow. However dormant seeds need little oxygen.
3. Warmth- Warmth or a suitable temperature which is the optimum temperature for the
enzymes.
 Growth and Development in Plants

Plant A was grown in an open environment, Plant B was grown in a box.

The main differences between plants grown in the light and the dark is that those grown in the
light eventually grow taller and heavier than those grown in the dark. Also plants grown in light
are more likely not to die than those grown in the dark. There were anomalous results in both the
height and weight parts of this experiment. It could be expected that plants kept in the dark
would shrink after some time as they would become increasingly weak and begin to die, but for
some of the plants grow in the light to shrink, and by large amounts, is unexpected. In Plant B,
the box holds about eleven litres of water. There is a small hole in the side to drain out extra
moisture and keep from drowning the plants. Before the plants are put in the Earth-box, a thin
plastic cover is stretched over the top of the box. This protects the plants that if a storm should
bring a large amounts of rain, the cover protects the potting mix, fertilizer, and dolomite inside
the box. It also keeps weed and harmful insects out of the box. A small amount of fertilizer and
dolomite is placed in the plants. The fertilizer feeds the plant to help them grow, and the
dolomite helps to reduce acid in the potting mix.
After the seed has made it to a new location and is covered with dirt, it can begin germination.
First, environmental conditions must trigger the seed to grow. Usually, this is determined by how
deep the seed is planted, water availability, and temperature. The water activates special proteins,
called enzymes that begin the process of seed growth. First the seed grows a root to access water
underground. Next, the shoots, or growth above ground, begin to appear. The seed sends a shoot
towards the surface, where it will grow leaves to harvest energy from the sun.

Methods of how a Plant can be measured

1. Measuring plant height
2. Judging leaf size
3. Calculating growth rate with fresh plants
4. Finding the growth rate with dried plants

Environmental Conditions that affects the Growth of a Plant

 Light
 Soil Composition
 PH
 Nutrients
 Climate change
 Coordination by Hormones

Hormones Functions

Thyroxin Regulates the metabolic rate

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Stimulates the kidneys to reabsorb

water

Estrogen Stimulates the broadening of the hips

Glucagon Causes the conversion of glucose to

the glycogen in the liver

Testosterone Stimulates deepening of the voice

Adrenalin Causes the heartbeat rate to increase

When you eat carbohydrates, your body breaks down the sugars they contain
glucose. Your body can’t absorb most sugars without breaking them down first.
Simple sugars such as refined sugar break down very quickly; you absorb them
rapidly into your bloodstream, which raises your blood sugar. In healthy people,
the levels don’t rise very high and they drop back to normal quickly. If you have
diabetes, your levels after a meal will rise higher and stay high longer than levels
in other people. This occurs because your pancreas either don’t release enough
insulin, the hormone that helps cells absorb glucose, or because the cells don’t
respond properly to insulin release.
 Adrenaline
This hormone is produced by the adrenal glands which lie at the tops of the
kidneys. Normally a small amount of adrenaline is produced and this helps to
maintain normal blood pressure. In situations of stress, however, where the body
might be involved in “fight or flight” a large amount of adrenaline is produced
very quickly and this has a dramatic effect on the body. Eg. Bungee jumping will
cause an adrenalin release from fright and need for quick coordination
Some effects of adrenaline are:
 Increases the heart rate
 Increases blood flow to the muscles
 Reduces blood flow to the skin and intestines
 Widens the bronchioles
 Dilates the pupils
 Raises blood sugar levels by stimulating the liver to change glycogen into
glucose
 Causes fatty tissue to release fat into the blood

All of this means the body is ready for action. Unfortunately, in today’s world,
people from stress and produce adrenaline in situations where no physical activity
happens. Exams, family problems, work-related problems, lack of money, worry
about appearance, even sitting in a traffic jam can cause release of adrenaline. A
certain amount of stress is good and keeps our bodies working properly but
repeated and prolonged episodes of stress can cause ill-health.
 Sexual Secondary Characteristics of Human

Males Females

Larynx enlarges, so voice breaks Breasts enlarge

Beard grows Pelvic girdle widens

Penis and scrotum enlarge Uterus and vulva enlarge

Prostate enlarges and spermatozoa are Menstruation and ovulation starts

made
 Acknowledgement
The completion of this assignment would not have been possible without the help of a group of
persons:
 Thanks to God for giving me the strength, wisdom and understanding in order complete
the assignment.
 Thanks to my teacher for assigning this task, which enables us to utilize our research
skills to be more knowledgeable about growth and development.
 Special thanks to my mother for providing the necessary resources I need in order
complete this project.
 Also to my friend for helping me access the internet to gather the information needed.
 Table of Contents
Contents Page
Acknowledgement
Introduction
Pathogenic Deficiency
Physiological Disease
Hereditary Disease
Sickle Cell and Iron-Deficiency Anemia
Transmission and control of AIDS
Transmission and control of Syphilis
Transmission and control of Gonorrhea
The Life Cycle of the Fly
The Role of Mosquito as a Vector in the Transmission of Pathogenic Disease
Implications of Plant and Animal Disease on Humans, Plants and Animals
Appendix
 Table of Contents
Contents Page
Acknowledgement
Introduction
Growth Movement and Locomotion
Skeleton Function
Mechanism of Movement in a Human Arm
Biceps
Triceps
Importance of Locomotion in Animals
References
Diagram of a Labelled Humerus
 Table of Contents
Content Page
Acknowledgement
Introduction
Germination
Growth and Development in Plants
Coordination of Hormones
Adrenaline
Secondary Sexual Characteristics of Humans
Labelled diagram of the External Structure of a Seed
Labelled diagram of the Internal Structure of a Seed
Labelled diagram showing Cell Differentiation
Labelled diagram of the Endocrine System