Experiment No:

Aim: Study various types of antenna scanning methods in radar system for Eg. Horizontal
Scanning, Nodding Scanning, Spiral Scanning Palmer Scanning.
Apparatus: Antenna
Theory:
Antenna Scanning Method
There are mainly four methods is used to scan an antenna are as follows:
1. Horizontal scanning antenna
2. Nodding scanning antenna
3. Helical scanning antenna
4. Spiral scanning antenna
5. Palmer Scanning.

1. Horizontal Scanning Antenna

a) The horizontal antenna is the simplest but it can scan only horizontal plane.
b) It is used in ship to ship radar.

2. Nodding Scanning Antenna

a) It is similar to horizontal scanning method.
b) But in this type of antenna scans rapidly in elevation while it slowly rotates in azimuth
c) Therefore scanning in both planes are performed in this type.

3. Helical Scanning Antenna

a) In this method of scanning the antenna scan rapidly in azimuth.
b) It perform slowly in the elevation direction.
c) The typical speed of rotation is 6 rotation per min.
d) The rise of 20/min in this 6 rotation.

4. Spiral Scanning Antenna

a) This type of scanning is used when the limited area of a circular shift is to be covered.
b) In radar scanning, varying the azimuth and elevation of the antenna continuously to
generate a spiral
pattern of the beam.
c) This scan pattern is used in fire-control and GCI (ground-controlled interception)
radars. Also called
spiral scanning.
 5. Palmer Scan

a) A radar technique in which conical scan is superimposed on some other form of

scanning.
b) For example, in Palmer sector, beam oscillates to and fro over azimuth sector while
continuously making small angel conical scan.

Result: This experiment has been studied.

Viva Question

Experiment No:
Aim: Study of different types of diodes for eg.IMPATT Diode and TRAPATT Diode.
Apparatus: Diodes
Theory:
IMPATT diode theory basics
The IMPATT diode has a very similar I-V characteristic to any other form of PN junction diode.
It conducts in the forward direction once the turn on voltage has been reached. In the reverse
direction it blocks current flow, until the diode breakdown voltage is reached. It this point
avalanche breakdown occurs and current flows in the reverse direction.

IMPATT diode I-V characteristic

IMPATT diode I-V characteristic

For its operation as a microwave signal generator, IMPATT diode is operated under reverse bias
conditions. These are set so that avalanche breakdown occurs.
Breakdown occurs in the region very close to the P+ (i.e. heavily doped P region). The electric
field at the PN junction is very high because the voltage appears across a very narrow gap
creating a high potential gradient. Under these circumstances any carriers are accelerated very
quickly.
As a result they collide with the crystal lattice and free other carriers. These newly freed carriers
are similarly accelerated and collide with the crystal lattice freeing more carriers. This process
gives rise to what is termed avalanche breakdown as the number of carriers multiplies very
quickly. For this type of breakdown only occurs when a certain voltage is applied to the junction.
Below this the potential does not accelerate the carriers sufficiently.
In terms of its operation the IMPATT diode can be considered to consist of two areas, namely
the avalanche region or injection region, and secondly the drift region.
These two areas provide different functions. The avalanche or injection region creates the
carriers which may be either holes of electrons, and the drift region is where the carriers move
across the diode taking a certain amount of time dependent upon its thickness.

Charge carrier movement within an IMPATT diode

IMPATT diode operation
Once the carriers have been generated the device relies on negative resistance to generate and
sustain an oscillation. The effect does not occur in the device at DC, but instead, here it is an AC
effect that is brought about by phase differences that are seen at the frequency of operation.
When an AC signal is applied the current peaks are found to be 180° out of phase with the
voltage. This results from two delays which occur in the device: injection delay, and a transit
time delay as the current carriers migrate or drift across the device.
 IMPATT diode voltage & current waveforms
The voltage applied to the IMPATT diode has a mean value where it is on the verge of avalanche
breakdown. The voltage varies as a sine wave, but the generation of carriers does not occur in
unison with the voltage variations. It might be expected that it would occur at the peak voltage.
This arises because the generation of carriers is not only a function of the electric field but also
the number of carriers already in existence.
As the electric field increases so does the number of carriers. Then even after the field has
reached its peak the number of carriers still continues to grow as a result of the number of
carriers already in existence. This continues until the field falls to below a critical value when the
number of carriers starts to fall. As a result of this effect there is a phase lag so that the current is
about 90° behind the voltage. This is known as the injection phase delay.
When the electrons move across the N+ region an external current is seen, and this occurs in
peaks, resulting in a repetitive waveform.

TRAPATT diode basics

The TRAPATT diode is based around the initial concept of the IMPATT but it has been
enhanced by increasing the doping level between the junction and the anode.
Typically the construction of the device consists of a P+ N N+, although where for higher
power levels an N+ P P+ structure is better. Silicon is also typically used in the fabrication of
these devices.

The TRAPATT is excited using a current pulse. This causes the electric field to increase to a
critical value where avalanche multiplication occurs. At this point the field collapses locally due
to the generated plasma.

The separation and drift of the electrons and holes are then driven by a very much smaller field.
It virtually appears that they have been 'trapped' behind with a velocity smaller than the
saturation velocity. After the plasma spreads across the whole active region, the holes and
electrons begin to drift to the opposite terminals and then the electric field begins to rise again.

Diagrammatic TRAPATT diode structure

The criterion for operation in TRAPATT operation is that the avalanche front advances faster
than the saturation velocity of the carriers. In general it exceeds the saturation value by a factor
of around three.
The TRAPATT mode does not depend upon the injection phase delay.
As the TRAPATT diode is biased beyond its breakdown point, the current density is larger than
that for an IMPATT. This decreases the field in the space charge region and increases the transit
time. As a result the frequency of operation is typically below about 10 GHz.
Although the TRAPATT diode provides a much higher level of efficiency than the IMPATT, its
major disadvantage is that the noise levels on the signal are even higher than they are when using
an IMPATT. It also has very high levels of harmonics as a result of the short current pulses that
are used. A balance needs to be made between the different options according to the particular
application.

Result: This Experiment has been studied.

 Experiment No: 23
Aim:-To study Magnetrons.
Apparatus:
Theory:
Operation:-
Basic Magnetron Structure The nucleus of the high-voltage system is the magnetron tube. The
magnetron is a diode-type electron tube which is used to produce the required 2450 MHz of
microwave energy. A magnetic field imposed on the space between the anode (plate) and the
cathode serves as the grid. While the external configurations of different magnetrons will vary,
the basic internal structures are the same. The ANODE is a hollow cylinder of iron from which
an even number of anode vanes extends inward. The open trapezoidal shaped areas between each
of the vanes are resonant cavities that serve as tuned circuits and determine the output frequency
of the tube. The anode operates in such a way that alternate segments must be connected, or
strapped, so that each segment is opposite in polarity to the segment on either side. In effect, the
cavities are connected in parallel with regard to the output. The FILAMENT, which also serves
as the cathode of the tube, is located in the center of the magnetron, and is supported by the large
and rigid filament leads. The ANTENNA is a probe or loop that is connected to the anode and
extends into one of the tuned cavities. The antenna is coupled to the waveguide, a hollow metal
enclosure, into which the antenna transmits the RF energy. The MAGNETIC FIELD is provided
by strong permanent magnets, which are mounted around the magnetron so that the magnetic
field is parallel with the axis of the cathode. Basic Magnetron Operation The theory of
magnetron operation is based on the motion of electrons under the combined influence of electric
and magnetic fields. For the tube to operate, electrons must flow from the cathode to the anode.

There are two fundamental laws that govern their trajectory:

1.The force exerted by an electric field on an electron is proportional to the strength of the field.
Electrons tend to move from a point of negative potential toward a positive potential. Figure 3-A
shows the uniform and direct movement of the electrons in an electric field.

2.The force exerted on an electron in a magnetic field is at right angles to both the field itself,
and to the path of the electron. The direction of the force is such that the electron proceeds to
the anode in a curve rather than a direct path.

Effect of the Magnetic Field

In Figure 3-B two permanent magnets are added above and below the tube structure. In Figure
3-C, assume the upper magnet is a north pole and the lower is south pole, is located underneath
the page, so that the magnetic field appears to be coming right through the page. Just as electrons
flowing through a conductor cause a magnetic field. to build up around that conductor, so an
electron moving through space tends to build up a magnetic field around itself. On one side (left)
of the electron's path, this self induced magnetic field adds to the permanent magnetic field
surrounding it. On the other side (right) of its path, it has the opposite effect of subtracting from
the permanent magnetic field. The magnetic field on the right side is therefore weakened, and the
electron's trajectory bends in that direction, resulting in a circular motion of travel to the anode.
The process begins with a low voltage being applied to the filament, which causes it to heat up
(filament voltage is usually 3 to 4 VAC, depending on the make and model). Remember, in a
magnetron tube, the filament is also the cathode. The temperature rise causes increased
molecular activity within the cathode, to the extent that it begins to "boil off" or emit electrons.
Electrons leaving the surface of a heated filament wire might be compared to molecules that
leave the surface of boiling water in the form of steam. Unlike steam, though, the electrons do
not evaporate. They float, or hover, just off the surface of the cathode, waiting for some
momentum.

Result: