Rigid body dynamics

Asaf Pe’er1

November 8, 2012

1. Rigid bodies

A rigid body is defined as a system of many particles, in which the distance between
each pair of particles is kept fixed.
We have seen earlier that if an external force and moment are acting upon the body, its
momentum and angular momentum change as
~
dP
dt
= F~ext
~ (1)
dL
= M~ ext .
dt

Here, P~ is the total linear momentum, corresponding to the center-of mass (CM) velocity
V~c , thus MdV~c /dt = F~ext , where M is the mass of the body.
As a specific example, consider a body of mass M having arbitrary shape, which is
located near the earth’s surface. The body can be thought of as comprising a large number
of small masses, m1 , m2 , ...mi ..., all being subject to the same gravitational force, mi~g . As-
suming that gravity is the only force in the system, one gets F~ext = i mi~g = M~g . Similarly,
P

the net external moment is M ~ ext = P ~ri × mi~g .

i

If C is the center of mass, then its displacement relative to the coordinate origin, O, is
defined by R ~ c = P mi~ri / P mi . The displacement of a single mass element can be written
i i
as ~ri = R~ c + ~ri′ , where ~ri′ is the displacement of mi relative to C. One can thus write the net
moment,
~ ext =
M
P P ~
~ri × mi~g = i (R + ~ri′ ) × mi~g
P ~ i P ′c
= i Rc P× mi~g + i ~ri × mi~g
~ P (2)
=
Rc × ( i mi ) ~g + ( i mi~ri′ ) × ~g
R~ c × M~g + (P mi~ri′ ) × ~g
= i
P
By definition of the center of mass, i mi~ri = 0, and we are thus left with
′

~ ext = R
M ~ c × M~g . (3)
We thus conclude that the moment acting on a rigid body is similar to the moment
that acts on a point-body of a similar mass, located at the center-of-mass.

1
Physics Dep., University College Cork
 –2–

2. Statics

For a rigid body at rest, namely P~ = 0, L

~ = 0, two conditions are met: the sum of
external forces and the sum of external moments - relative to any origin are zero,
F~ext = 0; M~ ext = 0. Note that these same conditions are also satisfied in the case where
the CM is moving at constant speed (P~ = const), and/or the body is rotating at constant
angular momentum (L ~ = const).

These conditions are sufficient in analyzing any system.

Examples.
1. Consider a rigid beam at rest, hanged from a point O located at distance d from its
CM (see Figure 1). On the beam, there are 3 masses hanged, such that the beam remains
horizontal. The net forces on the beam:

F~1 + F~2 + m~g + F~3 + F~R = 0, (4)

where F~R is the reaction exerted upward on the beam, and m~g is the weight of the beam.
Taking moments relative to O [point chosen arbitrarily],

(d~1 × F~1 ) + (d~2 × F~2 ) + (d~3 × F~3 ) + (d~ × m~g ) + (0 × F~R ) = 0. (5)

Since the moments extracted by forces 1, 2 are in the opposite direction to the moment
extracted by the force 3 and by the rod itself, equation 5 can be written as

|F~1 |d1 + |F~2 |d2 − |F~3 |d3 − m|~g |d = 0 (6)

Fig. 1.— A rigid beam hanged from point O, with masses attached to it. In a static situation,
the new forces and net moments acting on the bean is 0

2. Consider a uniform ladder of length l and mass m at rest against a vertical wall (see
Figure 2). The ladder is making an angle θ with respect to the horizontal. We neglect the
 –3–

friction between the ladder and the wall (but not the friction between the ladder and the
floor !).
Equilibrate the forces: in the x, y directions
|R| − |fR | = 0,
(7)
|N | − m|g| = 0.

Moments of forces relative to point B:

m|g|(l/2) cos θ − |R|l sin θ = 0, (8)

with the solution |N | = m|g| and |R| = |fR | = (1/2)m|g| cot θ.

Fig. 2.— A uniform ladder hanging against a wall.

3. Torque

Consider an arbitrary rigid body which is acted upon by several forces, F~1 , F~2 , ...F~j .
Denote by ~ri the displacement of a unit mass mi relative to some arbitrary origin, O, and by
~ the displacement between
~ri′ its displacement relative to a different origin, O′ . Denote by R
O and O . Then ~ri = R
′ ~ + ~ri .
′

The total moment experienced by the rigid body due to the forces relative to O is
~
Mext = i ~ri × F~i , and relative to O′ is M~ ext = i ~ri′ × F~i . Thus,
P ′
P

M~ ext = P ~ri × F~i = P (~ri′ + R) ~ × F~i

Pi ′ ~ P i ~ ~
= i~ri ×Fi + i R × Fi (9)
~ ~ P ~
= Mext + R × i Fi .
′
 –4–

Equation 9 has an important consequence: if the sum of external forces is zero,

P ~
j Fj = 0, then the net moment experienced by the body is independent on the
origin of the coordinates, M ~ ext = M
~ ′ . In this case, the moment M
~ ext is called torque,
ext
and is often denoted by T~ .
Example.
Consider two forces acting on a body, with similar magnitude and opposite directions, so
that the net force is F~1 + F~2 = 0. The torque exerted on the body is

T~ = ~r1 × F~1 + ~r2 × F~2 = (~r1 − ~r2 ) × F~1 ,

(10)
|T~ | = |F~ |d,
where d is the perpendicular distance between the lines of action of the forces.

4. Dynamics of a rigid body

Consider a rigid body, with an external force F~ext acting upon it. Denote by C the
position of the CM of the body, relative to arbitrary origin O. Applying equation 9, we find
that the total moment (relative to O) is
~ ext = M
M ~ ext
′ ~ c × F~ext ,
+R (11)
~ ext
where M ′
= i ~ri′ × F~ext is the moment relative to C. Using Equation 1, we find
P

~ ~
dP
dt
= F~ext = M ddtVc
~ (12)
dL
= M~ ext = M
~ ext
′ ~ c × F~ext = M
+R ~ ext
′ ~ c × M dV~c
+R
dt dt

We can interpret eq. 12 as follows: the motion of a body that is subject to external
force can be viewed as the sum of: (1) the motion of a point body of mass M located at the
CM due to the force F~ext ; and (2) rotation of the body around the CM due to the influence
of the net moment M ~ ext
′
.
If there is no net force, F~ext = 0, dV~c /dt = 0 and a rigid body will experience only
~ ext = M
torque, M ~ ext
′
= T~ext . Equation 12 becomes
~
dL
= T~ext (13)
dt

Example. If we want to rotate a wheel at a maximum rate (=change its angular

momentum), we need to apply maximum torque. We need to apply the force perpendicular
to the wheel surface.
 –5–

5. Rotation of a rigid body around a fixed axis: moment of inertia

Consider a rigid body rotating around a fixed axis. Every point moves in a circle, with
angular velocity ω~ about the axis of rotation. Assume that the point mass (mi ) is located
at radius vector ~ri from the rotation axis. The instantaneous (translational) velocity of the
particle in the direction perpendicular to ~ri (tangential to the circle) is ~vi = ω
~ × ~ri . Thus,
the angular momentum of the particle is L ~ i = mi~vi × ~ri , directed towards the rotation axis.

The magnitude of the total angular momentum of the rigid body is thus
X X X
|L| = mi |~vi ||~ri | = |ω|mi~ri2 = |ω| mi~ri2 . (14)
i i i

This result can be compared to the definition of the angular momentum, P~ = m~v =
~ replaces ~v and i mi~ri2
P P
~v i mi ; Thus, in analogue to linear motion, in rotational motion ω
replaces m. This quantity is called moment of inertia of a body, around a fixed axis,
A, X
IA ≡ mi ri2 (15)
i

The angular momentum, Equation 14 is thus

~ =ω
L ~ IA (16)

The moment of inertia depends on (1) the mass distribution of the body; and (2) the
rotation axis. Note that similarly to linear momentum, when the (scalar) mass represents
the body reaction to an applied force, the (scalar) moment of inertia represents the body
reaction to an applied torque.

6. Calculation of the moment of inertia: examples

6.1. Solid cylinder

Consider a uniform cylinder of radius R, mass M and length L, rotating around its axis
of symmetry. The cylinder mass can be written as M = πR2 Lρ, where ρ is its mass density.
We can think of the cylinder as being composed of many sub-cylinders, each of radius r,
0 ≤ r ≤ R and width ∆r. The mass element in each sub-cylinder is thus ∆M = 2πr∆rLρ.
The moment of inertia is
 –6–

RRR 2 RR
Ix = VR
r dM = 0
2πr3 drLρ
R 3
= 2πLρ 0 r dr = π2 LρR4 (17)
2
= (πLρR2 ) R2 = 21 M R2

6.2. Ball (uniform sphere) rotating around its diameter

Obviously, it is natural to use spherical coordinates, r, θ, φ. A volume element of the ball

is dV = dr(rdθ)(r sin θdφ) = r2 sin θdrdθdφ. The mass of a volume element is dm = ρdV ,
and its distance from the rotation (z) axis is r sin θ. The moment of inertia is thus

RRR
Iz = (r sin θ)2 dm
R R RV
= (r sin θ)2 ρr2 sin θdrdθdφ
R R V4 R π 3 R 2π
= ρ 0 r dr 0 sin θdθ 0 dφ (18)
5 Rπ
ρ R5 × − 0 sin2 θd cos θ × 2π


=
R1
= ρ 2π
5
R5 −1 (1 − λ2 )dλ = 43 2π 5
ρR5 = 52 M R2

6.3. The parallel axes theorem

Let us assume that IC , the moment of inertia of a body of mass M about an axis passing
through the center of mass (C) is known. We wish to calculate the moment of inertia about
an axis perpendicular to the first axis, yet passing through a different point, A. Denote by
l the perpendicular distance between C and A, so that the displacement of a mass element
be ~ri′ , ~ri with respect to A and C: ~ri′ = ~ri + ~l.
The moment of inertia about an axis passing through A is thus

m r′ 2
P
IA =
Pi i i
= m (r + l)2
Pi i 2i
ri · ~l + i mi l2
P P
= i m i ri + 2 i mi ~ (19)
2
ri ) · ~l + Ml2
P P
= i m i ri + 2 ( i mi ~
= IC + Ml2

Equation 19 is known as the parallel axes theorem, and is extremely useful in cal-
culating the moment of inertia about different axes.
 –7–

7. Conservation of angular momentum of rigid bodies

We have seen that when a torque is applied to a body, its angular momentum changes,
~
dL d(IA ω
~)
T~ext = = . (20)
dt dt

In the absence of external torque, T~ext = 0, we find that the angular momentum is
~ = IA ω
conserved, L ~ = const.
If, in this case, the moment of inertia changes, than so will the angular velocity.
Example. A spinning dancer putting his/hers hands outward.
Finally, we note the analogy between Newton’s second law for change of linear mo-
mentum, F~ = dP~ /dt = mdV~ /dt, and the equation for change of angular momentum,
T~ = dL/dt
~ = Id~ω /dt.

8. Mechanical energy of rotating bodies

As a body rotates, a mass element mi moves at a circle of radius ~ri around its rotation
axis. The kinetic energy associated with this motion is Ki = (1/2)mi vi2 = (1/2)mi ri2 ω 2 .
Thus, thus total kinetic energy is
X1 1 X 1
Ek = mi ri2 ω 2 = ω 2 mi ri2 = Iω 2 . (21)
i
2 2 i
2

This can be written as Ek = (1/2)L2 /I.

Note the analogy with the kinetic energy associated with the linear motion, EK,linear =
(1/2)mv 2 .
We can apply the parallel axes theorem, Equation 19, to write the kinetic energy associ-
ated with rotation around axis A as a function of the kinetic energy associated with rotation
around the center of mass, C,
1
EK (A) = I ω2
2 A
1
= (I + Ml2 )ω 2
2 C
1 (22)
= I ω 2 + 12 Ml2 ω 2
2 c
1
= I ω 2 + 12 MVC2
2 c

Example 1. A rolling cylinder.

Consider a wheel of radius R and mass M rolling on an inclined plane (see Figure 3). Assume
 –8–

that the cylinder is at rest at point A, and is rolling without sliding. What is its velocity as
it reaches point B, which is lower than point A by height h ? Conservation of energy gives

1 1
Mgh = MVc2 + Iω 2 (23)
2 2
The instantaneous velocity Vc of the center of mass is related to the angular velocity ω
by Vc = ωR. Moreover, we derived in Section 6.1, Equation 17 the moment of inertia of a
cylinder, I = (1/2)MR2 . We thus find
1 1 3
Mgh = MVc2 + MVc2 = MVc2 , (24)
2 4 4
p
from which we readily obtain that Vc = (4/3)gh. This is less than the result that would
√
be obtained if the cylinder was to slide without friction, Vc = 2gh, due to the energy that
was converted to rotation.

Fig. 3.— A cylinder rolling on an inclined plane.

Example 2. A physical pendulum.

Consider a rigid body that is hanged from a point A, such that it is free to rotate. If
the body is displaced from equilibrium, it oscillates back and forth under the influence of a
gravitational field (see Figure 4). We are interested in calculating the oscillation period of
the body.
Denote by l the perpendicular distance between its center of mass C and A. The point
C thus moves in a circle of radius l. The total energy is the sum of the gravitational potential
energy, and the kinetic energy associated with the rotation around A.
The potential energy is easily calculated, assuming that all the mass is concentrated on
the center of mass, thus V = mgy, where y is the displacement of C above its lowest point.
 –9–

Conservation of energy thus gives

1
E = mgy + IA ω 2 = const. (25)
2
Using y = l(1 − cos θ) and differentiating with respect to time one gets,

dθ 1 dω
mgl sin θ + IA 2ω = 0, (26)
dt 2 dt
and since ω = dθ/dt,
mgl sin θ d2 θ
+ 2 = 0. (27)
IA dt
For small angles, one can approximate sin θ ≈ θ, and get

d2 θ mgl
= − θ. (28)
dt2 IA
This is identical to the oscillation of a simple harmonic oscillator, with period given by
s
IA
T = 2π (29)
mgl

Fig. 4.— A physical pendulum (rigid body) hanged from point A.

 – 10 –

9. Summary

The following table summarized the analogy between linear motion and rotational mo-
tion.
Linear motion rotational motion
Displacement ~r Angular displacement θ~
~
Velocity ~v = d~r
dt
Angular velocity ω~ = ddtθ
IA = i mi ri2
P
mass m moment of inertia
Force F~ Torque T~ = ~r × F~
momentum P~ = m~v angular momentum L~ = IA ω ~ = ~r × P~
~ ~
Equation of motion F~ = ddtP = m d~
v
dt
T~ = dt = I d~
d L ω
dt
conservation laws F~ = 0 → P~ = const T~ = 0 → L ~ = const
Kinetic energy K = 12 mv 2 1
K = 2 IA ω 2
W = F~ · d~r W = T~ · dθ~
R R
Work