11/8/2019

EE453: Power System Protection and

Stability

Farhan Mahmood, PhD

Department of Electrical Engineering
UET, Lahore

May 23, 2016

Outline

Overcurrent Protection of Transmission Lines

• Introduction
• Types of overcurent relays
• Inverse, time-delay overcurrent relays
• Instantaneous overcurrent relays
• Directional overcurrent relays

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Introduction

• The most obvious effect of a shunt fault is a sudden build up of current. Therefore, it
is only natural that the magnitude of current be utilized as a positive indication of
existence of a fault.
• An overcurrent (OC) relay is a type of protective relay which operates when the
current exceeds a pickup value.

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Types of Overcurrent Relays

• Overcurrent relays are classified into three types,

˗ Instantaneous overcurrent relay
˗ Definite time overcurrent (DTOC) relay
˗ Inverse time overcurrent relay

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Types of Overcurrent Relays

Instantaneous overcurrent relay

• Instantaneous actually means no intentional
time delay.
• Howsoever fast we want the relay to
operate; it needs a certain minimum amount
of time.
• The operating time of an instantaneous
relay is of the order of a few milliseconds.
• Such a relay has only the pick-up setting
and does not have any time setting.

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Types of Overcurrent Relays

Definite time overcurrent (DTOC) relay

• The definite-time relay operates with some delay.
This delay is adjustable as well as the current
threshold.
• Thus, it has a time-setting adjustment and a
pick-up adjustment

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Types of Overcurrent Relays

Inverse time overcurrent relay

• Inverse time characteristic fits in very well, with the requirement that the more severe
a fault is, the faster it should be cleared to avoid damage to the apparatus.
• The operation time of the relay is smaller as the current gets larger.
• Inverse time overcurrent relays are further classified into three types,
˗ Inverse definite minimum time (IDMT) relays
˗ Very inverse time overcurrent relays
˗ Extremely inverse time overcurrent relays

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Types of Overcurrent Relays

Inverse definite minimum time (IDMT) relays

• The characteristic is inverse in the initial part,
which tends to a definite minimum operating
time as the current becomes very high.
• The reason for the operating time becoming
definite minimum, is that in electromechanical
relays, the flux saturates at high values of
current, and the operating torque, which is
proportional to the square of the flux, does not
increase substantially after the saturation
occurs.

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Types of Overcurrent Relays

Very inverse time overcurrent relays

• The inverseness of this characteristic is
higher than that of the IDMT characteristic.

Extremely inverse time overcurrent relays

• The inverseness of this characteristic is
higher than that of the very inverse
characteristic.

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Inverse, Time-Delay Overcurrent Relays

• The principal application of overcurrent relays is on a radial system where they

provide both phase and ground protection.
• Overcurrent relays are also used in industrial systems and on subtransmission lines
that cannot justify more expensive protection such as distance or pilot relays.
• The time-delay overcurrent relays have two settings:
˗ Pickup (or current) setting
˗ Time-delay (or dial) setting

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Inverse, Time-Delay Overcurrent Relays

Pickup (or current) setting

• The first step in applying inverse, time-delay, overcurrent relays is to choose the
pickup setting of the relay so that it will operate for all short circuits in the line
section for which it is to provide protection.
• The minimum current in the relay coil at which the relay starts to operate is
known as pickup (or current) setting.
• As long as the current in the relay is less than the pick-up value, the relay does
not operate and the breaker controlled by it remains in the closed position.
• However, when the relay coil current is equal to or greater than the pickup value,
the relay operates to energise the trip coil which opens the circuit breaker.

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Inverse, Time-Delay Overcurrent Relays

• It is often desirable to adjust the pick-up current to any required value. This is usually
achieved by the use of tappings on the relay operating coil.

• The taps are brought out to a plug bridge as shown in figure. The plug bridge permits
to alter the number of turns on the relay coil. This changes the torque on the disc and
hence, the time of operation of the relay.

• The current plug settings usually range from 50% to 200% in steps of 25% for
overcurrent relays.

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Inverse, Time-Delay Overcurrent Relays

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Inverse, Time-Delay Overcurrent Relays

• The values assigned to each tap are expressed in terms of percentage full-load
rating of C.T. with which the relay is associated and represents the value above
which the disc commences to rotate and finally closes the trip circuit.
Pick-up current = Rated secondary current of C.T. × Current setting
• For example, suppose that an overcurrent relay is connected to a supply circuit
through a current transformer of 400/5 A has current setting of 125% . The rated
secondary current of C.T. is 5 A. Therefore, the pick-up value will be 25% more than
5 A i.e. 5 × 1.25 = 6.25 A. It means that with above current setting, the relay will
actually operate for a relay coil current equal to or greater than 6.25 A.

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Inverse, Time-Delay Overcurrent Relays

• Thus, Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM) is the ratio of fault

current in relay coil to the pick-up current and
represents the number of times the relay current is in
excess of the current setting i.e.
PSM = Fault current in relay coil / Pick-up current
• A typical curve between time of operation and plug
setting multiplier of a typical relay is shown in figure.
• If the P.S.M. is 10, then the time of operation (from the
curve) is 3 seconds.

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Inverse, Time-Delay Overcurrent Relays

Time-delay setting
• The operating time of a relay mainly depends upon two factors :
˗ How long distance to be travelled by the moving parts of the relay for closing
relay contacts
˗ How fast the moving parts of the relay cover this distance.
• To adjust the operating time of relay, both of the factors to be adjusted.
• The adjustment of travelling distance of an electromechanical relay is commonly
known as time dial setting (or time setting multiplier) of relay.
• In electromechanical relays, a time dial is provided that positions the moving contact
relative to a fixed contact. The dial is marked from a setting of ½ to 10, fastest to
slowest operating times, respectively.

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Inverse, Time-Delay Overcurrent Relays

10
½
10

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Inverse, Time-Delay Overcurrent Relays

• By adjusting only the time dial setting, we cannot set the actual time of operation of a
relay because the time of operation of a relay also depends upon the speed of
operation.
• The speed of moving parts of relay depends upon the force due to current in the
relay coil. Hence, it is clear that the speed of operation of a relay depends upon the
level of fault current. In other words, time of operation of relay depends upon plug
setting multiplier.
• The relation between time of operation and plug setting multiplier (in terms of
multiples of the pickup (× pu value)) is plotted on a log-log graph paper.
• This allows the same curves to be used, regardless of the actual input value
corresponding to a specific tap setting.

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(or PSM)

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Inverse, Time-Delay Overcurrent Relays

• From this graph one can determine, the total time taken by the moving parts of an
electromechanical relay, to complete its total travelling distance for different PSM.
• This is an inverse time–current relationship, that is, the greater the operating current,
the less time it takes to travel from the reset position to the operating position.
• In solid-state relays, timing is achieved by electrical circuits using R–L–C timing
circuits.
• In digital relays, the time delays are established within the algorithm using the
internal clocks or by accessing external timers.
• The purpose of the time-delay setting is to enable relays to coordinate with each
other.
• A family of curves must be provided; so two or more relays, seeing the same fault as
defined by the multiples of pickup, can operate at different times.

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Inverse, Time-Delay Overcurrent Relays

Example 1:
• Referring to figure, determine the operating time for a relay with a 4.0 A pickup,
time dial setting of 1.0, and 12.0 A operating current.
• The input current of 12 A corresponds to a value of 12/4 = 3 × pu, that is, PSM =
3. Using this value from the curve and the corresponding curve for the time dial
setting of 1.0 gives us an operating time of 1.375 s.
Example 2:
• As another example, for a relay with 5.0 A pickup, time dial setting of 2.0 and 15.0
A operating current, the operating current is 3 × pu, that is, PSM = 3 and the
operating time corresponding to a time dial setting of 2 is 2.25 s.

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Example 3
• Determine the time-delay lever setting to achieve an operating time of 1.0 s for a
relay set at 10.0 A pickup and an operating current of 50.0 A.
• The input current of 50.0 A corresponds to a value of 50/10 = 5 × pu, that is, PSM =
5. Using this value on the abscissa and the operating time of 1.0 s on the ordinate,
the corresponding time dial curve is 2.0.
Example 4
• Consider a relay with a pickup setting of 5.0 A and the same operating time of 1.0 s
and fault current of 50 A. The operating current is 50/5 = 10 × pu on the abscissa,
that is, PSM = 10 and 1.0 s operating time on the ordinate, corresponding to the
curve of a time dial setting of 5.0.

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Inverse, Time-Delay Overcurrent Relays

Example 5
• Finally, consider a relay with the same pickup setting of 5.0 A, the same operating
time of 1.25 s, and an operating current of 35.0 A. The input current is 35/5 = 7 ×
pu, that is, PSM = 7, which at an operating time of 1.25 s, corresponds to a time dial
setting between the curves labelled 3 and 4.
• In electromechanical relay design, the time dial is a continuous adjustment; so
interpolation between two settings is possible, and a setting of 3.5 can be made.

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Inverse, Time-Delay Overcurrent Relays

• Inverse, time-delay overcurrent relay must be set so it will always operate for faults in
its zone of protection. This will require margins above normal operating currents and
below minimum fault currents.
• Rules for relay setting:
˗ For phase relays, it is necessary to calculate the maximum load current, and
minimum phase fault current through system planning studies.
˗ The relay should then be set somewhere between twice maximum load current
and a third of the minimum fault current value.
˗ The actual setting must be an evaluation of setting closer to the maximum load,
increasing dependability and decreasing security or achieving less than three
times pickup for minimum fault, decreasing dependability, and increasing security.

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Inverse, Time-Delay Overcurrent Relays

• A ground relay must “see” all phase-to-ground faults within its zone of protection, and
under conditions that give a minimum fault current. Note that in calculating ground
current, it is the zero-sequence current that is of interest (ground current = 3I0).
• There is no concern for load current, but normal phase and load unbalance and CT
errors must be considered and the relays set above these values.
• Again, setting between twice the “normal” ground current and a third of the minimum
fault value is desirable.
• In the absence of any other information, the normal ground current may be taken to
be 10% of the load current.

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Inverse, Time-Delay Overcurrent Relay

Example:
• Determine the CT ratio, pickup, and time dial settings for the relay at breaker 1,
assuming that no coordination with any other relay is required.

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Inverse, Time-Delay Overcurrent Relay

• Select a CT ratio to give 5.0 A secondary current for maximum load, that is, 95/5 =
19 : 1. Since this is not a standard CT ratio (refer to Table 3.1), we select the nearest
CT ratio of 20 : 1 or 100 : 5.
• The relay pickup setting should be bracketed by twice the maximum load and one-
third of the minimum fault. Using the actual CT ratio, twice maximum load is 190 A
divided by 20, or a relay current of 9.5 A.
• Assuming the relay has taps 4.0, 6.0, 8.0, 10.0, and 12.0, we would select the 10.0 A
tap, giving a primary current relay pickup of 200 A. Dividing by 95 A load current
results in a margin of 2.1 × pu to prevent false operation (security).

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• The minimum fault is 600 A divided by the relay pickup of 200 A, which gives 3 × pu
to ensure correct operation (dependability).
• For this configuration, no coordination is required; so one can set the time delay at
the lowest dial setting (fastest time) of ½.

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Inverse, Time-Delay Overcurrent Relay

Principle of Relay Coordination

• All protective devices are able to detect a fault at the same instant. If each device
that sensed a fault operated simultaneously, large portions of the system would be
de-energized every time a fault needed to be cleared. This is unacceptable.
• A properly designed scheme will incorporate time delays into the protection system,
allowing certain devices to operate before others. This practice is known as relay
coordination.
• The time setting of the relays is graded in such a way that smallest part of the
system is isolated in the event of fault.
• Thus, as soon as the fault takes place, it is sensed by both the primary and the back-
up protection.

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Inverse, Time-Delay Overcurrent Relay

• A relay must get an adequate chance to protect the zone under its primary
protection. However, if the primary protection does not clear the fault, the back-up
protection should initiate tripping.
• Naturally, the primary protection is the first to operate, its operating time being less
than that of the back-up relay.
• In the light of the above discussion, the correct procedure for the relay coordination
would be to start the setting from the tail end of the feeder system.
• The relay, which is at the end of the radial feeder, can be made to operate without
any delay, as it does not have to coordinate with any other relay.
• The main drawback is that the closer the fault is to the source, the greater the fault
current magnitude, yet the longer the tripping time.

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Inverse, Time-Delay Overcurrent Relay

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Inverse, Time-Delay Overcurrent Relay

• Example: Given the magnitudes of all the loads and the fault currents at all the
buses, set the OC relays at buses A, B, C and D so that the entire feeder gets over-
current protection arranged as primary and back-up protection.

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Inverse, Time-Delay Overcurrent Relay

• For fault F1 at the end farthest from the generating source, relay Rd, tripping breaker
(4), operates first; relay Rcd at breaker (3) has a higher time lever setting which
includes a coordinating time delay S to let breaker (4) trip if it can.
• Similarly, relay Rbc, at breaker (2), coordinates with the relay at breaker (3) by having
a still longer time delay (including the same coordinating time S);
• Finally, relay Rab at breaker (1) has the longest time delay and will not trip unless
none of the other breakers trips, provided it can see the fault, that is, provided the
fault current is greater than its pickup setting.
• If a fault occur between breakers (3) and (4), relay Rd will receive no current and
therefore will not operate; relay Rcd will trip, since its operating time is faster than that
of relay Rb.

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Inverse, Time-Delay Overcurrent Relay

• For the settings shown in figure, relay Rab will not see this fault. Relay Rb must still
provide backup relaying for this fault.
• Thus, the following rule could be established for the overcurrent relay coordination:
TRd = 0.1 sec (fastest)
TRcd = TRd + TCB, Rd + Safety margin
• A fault at the end of the line should be cleared by Rd and CB4. Rcd sees the same
fault as Rd and starts to close its contacts.
• Assuming electromechanical relays, if the circuit breaker clears the fault, Rcd will
reset after some over-travel (or overshoot). Thus, contact over-travel is included in
the margin of safety.

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Inverse, Time-Delay Overcurrent Relay

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• Over-travel does not apply to solid-state or digital relays that do not have moving
parts although some safety margin would be provided.
• If the fault is not cleared, Rcd continues to close its contacts and initiates a trip of CB3
at the end of its operating time. To be sure that Rcd does not close its contacts before
the fault is cleared by CB4, it must be set longer than Rd operating time (U), plus CB4
clearing time (V), and a factor of safety (X) (including overtravel, VV).
• It is usual to add 0.3 – 0.5 s coordinating time to the operating time of Rd, which is
calculated at its maximum fault. The same fault current is used to determine the
operating time of relay Rcd.

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Inverse, Time-Delay Overcurrent Relay

• Assume we have a radial system with two adjacent line segments. The relay
protecting the next line segment closest to the source must protect its own line and,
if possible, back up the relays protecting the next line.

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Inverse, Time-Delay Overcurrent Relay

• From the previous example, the pickup setting of Rb is 10.0 A, and the time dial
setting is ½.
• Theoretically, to ensure that Rab backs up Rb, it should be set for the same pickup
current, that is, it sees the same faults, but is set at a slower (higher) time dial.
• The operating time of Rb is determined at the maximum fault current at bus B (1500
A) divided by its pickup setting (20 × 10 A) or 7.5×pu and the ½ time dial, resulting
in 0.25 s. Add 0.3 s coordinating time and Rab operating time should be 0.55 s.
• Now, at the same maximum fault current of 1500 A at bus B and pu of 20 × 10 A,
the multiple of the tap setting is 7.5 × pu and the operating time is 0.55 s.
• Interpolating between the time dial setting curves of 1 and 2 gives a setting of 1.5.

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Inverse, Time-Delay Overcurrent Relay

• In a network, the coordination of time-delay overcurrent relays is complicated by the

problem of infeed and outfeed.

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Instantaneous Overcurrent Relays

• In order to properly apply the instantaneous overcurrent relay, however, there must
be a substantial reduction of short-circuit current as the fault is moved away from the
relay toward the far end of the line.
• The relay must be set not to overreach the bus at the remote end of the line and
there still must be enough of a difference in the fault current between the near-and
far-end faults to allow a setting for the near-end fault.
• This will prevent the relay from operating for faults beyond the end of the line and, at
the same time, will provide high-speed protection for an appreciable portion of the
circuit.

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Instantaneous Overcurrent Relays

• In simple inverse-time overcurrent relays, the closer the fault is to the source, the
greater the fault current magnitude, resulting in a longer the tripping time.
• Thus, the simple inverse-time overcurrent relays cannot be used without additional
help and the addition of instantaneous overcurrent relays makes this system
protection viable.
• If an instantaneous relay can be set to see almost up to, but not including, the next
bus, all of the fault-clearing times can be lowered.

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Instantaneous Overcurrent Relays

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Instantaneous Overcurrent Relays

Setting Rules
• Since the instantaneous relay must not see beyond its own line section, the values
for which it must operate are very much higher than even emergency loads.
• Therefore, load is not usually a consideration for the instantaneous relay setting. As
a result, there is no need to set an instantaneous overcurrent relay with margins
such as 200% of load and one-third of fault current.
• However, in addition to the inaccuracies of the relay itself, there is a factor called
“transient overreach” that must be considered.
• Transient overreach is the tendency of a relay to instantaneously pick up for faults
farther away than the setting would indicate.

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Instantaneous Overcurrent Relays

• It is therefore common to set an instantaneous relay about 125 – 135% above the
maximum value for which the relay should not operate, and 90% of the minimum
value for which the relay should operate.
• Assignment: For the data specified in previous example, set the instantaneous
relays at buses A and B.

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Combined IDMT and Instantaneous OC Relay

• Instantaneous overcurrent relay provides high-speed primary protection to 80-90% of

the line length. Its pick-up value is higher than IDMT/DTOC relay.
• IDMT/DTOC provides back-up protection.

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Directional Overcurrent Relays

• Directional relays require two inputs, the operating current and a reference, or
polarizing quantity (voltage or current) that does not change with fault location.
• The operating torque of a two-input relay, which may be used to provide the
directional feature is given by universal relay torque equation.
• Directional overcurrent relaying is necessary for multiple source circuits, when it is
essential to limit relay tripping for faults in only one direction.
• It would be impossible to obtain correct relay selectivity through the use of a non-
directional overcurrent relay in such cases.
• If the same magnitude of the fault current could flow in either direction at the relay
location, coordination with the relays in front of, and behind, the non-directional relay
cannot be achieved except in very unusual system configurations.

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Directional Overcurrent Relays

• Therefore, overcurrent relaying is made directional to provide relay coordination

between all of the relays that can see a given fault.
• Consider a system of parallel feeders as shown in figure (next slide). At the sending
end of the feeder (at A and B), non-directional relays are required whereas at the
other end of the feeder (at C and D), directional are required.
• The arrow mark for directional relays placed at C and D indicate that the relay will
operate if the current flows in the direction shown in arrow.
• For a fault at F, the directional relay at D trips as the direction of current is reversed.
The relay at C does not trip, as the current flows in the normal direction.
• The relay at B trips for a fault at F. Thus, the faulty feeder is isolated and the supply
of the healthy feeder is maintained.

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Suggested Readings

• Read Chapter 4 (4.3 – 4.5) from Horowitz’s book.

• Solve all examples and end problems.

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THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION

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