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Variable Frequency Drives

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 Variable Frequency Drives
Robert J. Scoff, PE, PA, OH, TN, & MS

Copyright © 2007, Robert J. Scoff

Copyright © Robert J. Scoff 1

Table of Contents Page
1. Introduction 4
2. Definitions 4
2.1 Voltage 4
2.2 DC Voltage 5
2.3 AC Voltage 5
2.4 Current 5
2.5 Resistance 5
2.6 Ohm’s Law 5
2.7 Energy and Power 6
2.8 RMS 6
2.9 Capacitors and Capacitance 7
2.10 Inductors and Inductance 7
2.11 Diodes 7
2.12 Single Phase Full Wave Bridge Rectifier 8
2.13 Three Phase Full Wave Bridge Rectifier 9
2.14 Bi Polar Transistors 11
2.15 Field Effect Transistors 12
2.16 Insulated Gate Bi Polar Transistors (IGBT) 12
2.17 Power Control With One IGBT 13
2.18 Full Wave Single Phase Bridge DC to AC Converter 13
2.19 Full Wave Three Phase Bridge DC to AC Converter 15
2.20 Contactors 16
3. Inverters – How They Work 17
3.1 Block Diagram 17
3.1.1 The Input Full Wave Bridge Rectifier 17
3.1.2 The Surge Suppressor Resistor/Contactor 18
3.1.3 The Filtering Capacitor 18
3.1.4 The Three Phase Full Wave IGBT Output Circuit 19
3.1.5 Inverter Internal Power Supply 20
3.1.6 Inverter Control Circuit 21
3.1.7 Inputs and Outputs 21
3.1.8 The Microprocessor 22
3.1.9 What VFD’s Look Like on the Outside 22
3.1.10 Some Other Considerations 23
4. Conclusion 24

Copyright © Robert J. Scoff 2

List of Illustrations Page
2.1 Simple Circuit Showing Ohm’s Law 5
2.2 Sine Wave With Peak Voltage Value of 1 7
2.3 Symbol for Solid State Diode Showing Allowed Direction of Current Flow 7
2.4 Diagram Showing the Effect of Reversing a Diode in a Simple One Resistor Circuit 8
2.5 Half Wave Rectifier Showing Waveforms of Input and Output Voltages 8
2.6 Diagram Showing the Operation of a Single Phase Full Wave Bridge Rectifier 8
2.7 Another Way to See a Single Phase Full Wave Bridge Rectifier 9
2.8 A Three Phase Full Wave Bridge Rectifier 9
2.9 Waveforms of the Three Voltages In a Three Phase Source 10
2.10 Graph Showing Full Wave Rectified Waveforms of the Three Phases of Circuit of Figure 2.8 10
2.11 Graph Showing Actual Full Wave Three Phase Bridge Output 11
2.12 Diagram Showing Operation of a Bi Polar Transistor 11
2.13 Symbol for JFET or Junction Field Effect Transistor 12
2.14 Symbol for Power FET or Insulated Gate FET 12
2.15 Symbol for Insulated Gate Bi Polar Transistor (IGBT) 12
2.16 IGBT Sown Amplifying a Voltage Pulse 13
2.17 Full Wave Single Phase DC to AC Converter 14
2.18 Input and Output Voltages for the Circuit of Figure 2.17 15
2.19 Three Phase Full Wave DC to AC Converter 15
2.20 Output of the Three Phase Full Wave DC to AC Converter 16
2.21 Symbol for a Contactor or Power Relay 16
3.1 Block Diagram of a Typical Inverter 17
3.2 480 VAC – RMS Sine Wave Showing Peak Value of 680 Volts 17
3.3 Filtering and Protection Circuit Found In Many Inverters 18
3.4 Typical Single Phase PWM Signal 19
3.5 Sine Wave Approximation to a PWM Signal 19
3.6 Pulse Wave Modulated Waveform of a Single Phase of a Three Phase Voltage and
The Line Current for a Wye Connected Load 20
3.7 Block Diagram of the Typical Power Supply for Many Inverters 21
3.8 Potentiometer Used for Speed Control 22
3.9 Block Diagram for a Typical Variable Frequency Drive System 23
3.10 Circuit Showing Addition of Regen Resistor to Absorb Energy from Overhauling load 23

Copyright © Robert J. Scoff 3

1. Introduction
In today’s industrial and commercial world, variable frequency drives (also known as VFD’s, Frequency
Drives, AC motor controllers, and Inverters) are becoming a more and more important method of speed
control. They are used for all but the most demanding speed control applications. Large rolling mills are
among the few places where DC motors and controls are still used. One of the reasons for this is that AC
motors and their associated controls are much more reliable than the DC motors and the associated controls
that to a large extent they have replaced. According to the Rockwell Automation website, they make VFD’s
to control ¼ to 30,000 horsepower. I put the comma in there just so there would be no confusion. The
website really says 30,000 horsepower.

Let’s give a brief history of VFD’s. The first inverters were made in the 1960’s. They had a rather limited
application due to the small size and reliability of the solid state devices of the day. When higher power
transistors became widely available in the 1980’s, larger inverters were made and many more applications
opened up. Reliability and Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF) was still a problem. All of these earlier
devices used linear amplifiers and controls for their basic operation. Small potentiometers and dip switches
were used to set their operating characteristics. In the 1990’s digital controls began to be used more and
more in Inverters. Solid state devices were also developed that allowed higher voltage and current ratings.
This made it possible for inverters to be used on larger motors. Micro processors have also made the
Inverter a much more versatile device. In the last decade or so they have become much more flexible and
reliable. For many applications, the Inverter can be removed from a packing box, wired to a motor, and
turned on and operated without additional set up. Of course, for some applications, additional effort is
needed to program and tune a drive to the application.

The motors that are usually controlled by VFD’s are induction motors. A three phase induction motor is
one of the simplest power conversion devices ever made. It has one moving part. Of course, if the motor
has ball bearings, and we call ball bearings moving parts, then an induction motor with ball bearings does
have more than one moving part. In any case, they are very simple, and hence very reliable. They have a
winding on the stator, or part that stands still, and a winding on the rotor, or the part that turns. When
voltage is applied to the stator, a voltage is induced (Hence – induction motor) in the stator coil. This causes
a current to flow in both the stator and the rotor. The design of the motor is such that the magnetic fields of
the two currents act against each other to cause a force on the rotor and make it rotate. The designers of
these motors have done an excellent job in making motors with a very high efficiency and power factor.
Efficiencies of over 90 % and power factors of over 80 % are common at full load. Some larger motors
have power factors of up to 90 % when fully loaded. However, lightly loaded AC induction motors typically
have low efficiency and low power factor.

To really understand VFD’s, a review of some of the concepts that apply to inverters will be given. Also, a
description of some of the components that are a part of most Inverters will be given.

2. Definitions

2.1 Voltage

Voltage is similar to the hydraulic pressure that exists in water and hydraulic oil systems. This pressure can
exist without anything happening. Consider a hydraulic oil pump turning and generating pressure. Nothing
will happen unless or until a valve is turned on to allow the oil pressure to move something, such as a
hydraulic cylinder. Electrical pressure, or voltage, is similar. This voltage, or pressure, can exist and not do
anything. Consider a simple battery. It has voltage across the terminals, but nothing happens unless the

Copyright © Robert J. Scoff 4

battery is put in your i-pod, or whatever else you desire to make work. One important thing to notice here is
that both terminals of the battery, or voltage source, have to be connected. This will be explained when we
get to current.

2.2 DC voltage

DC voltages have pressure in only one direction. Batteries are examples of DC voltage sources.

2.3 AC Voltage

AC voltages periodically change direction. Most of the electrical power generated in the world is in the form
of a sine wave. This is because the circular design of electrical generators naturally generates a sine wave. It
would be difficult to do anything else. The voltage changes polarity in a periodic fashion, going positive and
negative, just like a sine wave generated by a mathematical expression.

2.4 Current

We can think of current as the flow of electricity. Even though you can’t see it like water flowing, it does
flow nevertheless. There is a difference between turning on a water valve and seeing the water flow out of a
pipe and electricity flowing. Electricity has to return to something, such as the source. Water can just flow
out of the pipe and down the drain. Even though you can’t see electricity flow, under the right conditions it
can be felt.

2.5 Resistance

There is a property of materials called electrical resistance. When a material called a conductor is placed
across a voltage source, current can flow. This resistance limits the current flow. Resistors are mentioned
here because some of the circuits of an inverter use resistors. The unit of resistance is the Ohm.

2.6 Ohm’s Law

Ohm’s Law is perhaps the most important principle in the electrical field. It is very simply stated as:

E=I*R
Equation 2.1

This simple equation has given more beginning electrical students more trouble over the years than almost
anything else. Here is a simple circuit illustrating Ohm’s Law.

Figure 2.1 Simple Circuit Showing Ohm’s Law

Copyright © Robert J. Scoff 5
Notice in Figure 2.1, that the voltage arrow points toward the positive end of the voltage source and the
current arrow points in the direction of conventional current flow, or from plus to minus. If we always keep
that in mind, understanding how electrical stuff works becomes easier.

2.7 Energy and Power

Almost everything that works in the electrical field concerns energy and power. Energy is the ability to do
work. Consider a ¾ pound brick, held 1 foot off of the ground. That brick has a potential energy of about 1
joule or ¾ ft-pounds. It’s not doing anything, just being held there in the air. This is called potential energy.
Now if this brick falls to the ground in one second, it has power during that one second. As a matter of fact,
the power of the brick during that one second is one watt. The definition of a watt is a joule per second.
Another way of saying this is that power is the rate of doing work. Power is a very active thing. Now
looking at figure 2.1, we can say that resistor R is dissipating power, or getting hot. The relationship for
power (and this is the second important equation in the electrical world) is:

P=E*I
Equation 2.2

With these two expressions, E = I * R and P = E * I, many of the electrical problems that the world presents
can be solved.

2.8 RMS

In understanding how Inverters work, it is important to at least be introduced to the concept of RMS voltages
and currents. RMS comes from Root Mean Square, and it is sometimes called the effective value. To get
RMS, what we do is take the square root of the mean of the squares of whatever voltage or current that we
are concerned with. When we talk about the 120 VAC that is in our homes, the 120 volts is the RMS value
of the waveform. If a DC voltage of a certain value is placed across a resistor (causing it to dissipate heat) it
gives off heat. If an equal RMS voltage is placed across the same resistor, it gives off the same amount of
heat. For practical sine waves, the following equation is all we need to know:

VRMS = 0.707 * Vpeak

Equation 2.3

For the waveform shown in Figure 2.2, the peak value is 1, and the RMS value is 0.707 volts. That means
that a one ohm resistor placed across a voltage with that waveform will have 0.707 amps RMS flowing
through it, and dissipate 0.5 watts. Show that this is true using E = I * R and P = E * I

T
[Vpeak * f (t)]2dt Equation 2.3A Mathematical Expression for
RMS = 0 Volts Determining the RMS Value of Any Waveform
T
I have shown the expression for finding the RMS value of any waveform. An easy way to check this is to let
Vpeak be equal to 1, f(t) = sin (2 π f) t, the time for one cycle be 2 π, which makes f = 1/(2 π), and T = 2 π. If
you do that, RMS will equal 1 / √2 or 0.707.

Copyright © Robert J. Scoff 6

 Sine wave with peak value of 1

1.5

0.5
Voltage

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
-0.5

-1

-1.5
Electrical Degrees

Figure 2.2 Sine Wave With Peak Voltage Value of 1

2.9 Capacitors and Capacitance

A capacitor is another electrical device. It consists of two metal plates separated by an insulator. If a DC
voltage is placed across the capacitor, it will store a charge, and hold a voltage. Capacitors can be thought of
as shock absorbers. When holding a charge, they can shock a person. They are used to make a DC voltage
smoother and closer to ideal. One of the primary uses in an Inverter is to take a pulsating DC voltage and
make it closer to a non varying DC voltage.

2.10 Inductors and Inductance

An inductor is another electrical device consisting of a wire wrapped around a core. The core can be a
magnetic material such as iron, a non magnetic material such as brass, or air. When inductors are used in
Inverters, they usually have an iron core. An inductor with an iron core has much more effect on the electric
circuit. Another way of saying this is that the inductance is higher. One of the uses of inductors in inverters
is to keep electrical noise out of the motor and the input power.

2.11 Diodes

Diodes are semiconductor devices that only allow current flow in one direction. Following is a symbol of a
diode showing the allowed direction of current flow:

Figure 2.3 Symbol for Solid State Diode Showing Allowed Direction of Current Flow

When current flows through a diode there is a small voltage drop called the forward voltage drop (VFD).
For the voltages and currents used in VFD’s, this voltage is small enough to be ignored. It is on the order
of 0.2 to 1.0 volts, depending on diode type and current. Following is a drawing showing the voltage across
a resistor load with a forward biased diode and with a reversed biased diode:

Copyright © Robert J. Scoff 7

Figure 2.4 Diagram Showing the Effect of Reversing a Diode in a Simple One Resistor Circuit

If the DC voltage source in Figure 2.4 is replaced with an AC source an interesting thing happens. The
output voltage turns into a pulsating DC voltage as shown in figure 2.5. It is a DC output voltage because it
never goes below 0. It does have a lot of ripple. This circuit is called a half wave rectifier. Notice that the
peak output voltage is shown as equal to the peak value of the input voltage. This can be done since the VFD,
the forward voltage drop of the diode is small compared to the peak voltage of VAC for the typical inverter.

Figure 2.5 Half Wave Rectifier Showing Waveform of Input and Output Voltages

2.12 Single Phase Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

A full wave bridge rectifier uses 4 diodes in what is called a Bridge Circuit. It turns both the positive half
of a sine wave and the negative half of that same sine wave into positive voltages. Look at Figure 2.6 to see
how a Single Phase Full Wave Bridge Rectifier works.

Figure 2.6 Drawing Showing the Operation of a Single Phase Full Wave Rectifier

Notice that when the input waveform is positive (in red), the current flows through the resistor from right to
left. Also notice that when the input waveform is negative (in blue), the current also flows through the
resistor from right to left. Since the current is always flowing through the resistor in the same direction, the
polarity of the output voltage is always the same. I have shown the right hand side of the resistor as positive.
And with this particular circuit, drawn as it is drawn, it will always be positive.

Copyright © Robert J. Scoff 8

 2.13 Three Phase Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

One way to look at a three phase full wave bridge rectifier is to consider the three phase voltage to be three
single phase voltages. The three phase full wave bridge rectifier only contains six diodes. It works because
each phase uses four of the six diodes, but not the same four. The way to see this is to look at another
diagram. I will first take the single phase full wave bridge rectifier and draw it a little differently, as shown
in Figure 2.7.

Figure 2.7 Another Way to See a Single Phase Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

Look at Figure 2.7 carefully and you will see that it is the same as Figure 2.6 with the diodes arranged a little
differently. The input voltage is still a sine wave and the output is still a time varying DC voltage. The next
thing that we are going to look at is a full wave three phase bridge rectifier.

A B C

1
R
2
3
D E F

Figure 2.8 A Three Phase Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

The way to think about this circuit is to look at the three voltage sources as independent of each other. This
is much easier to see if a Delta three phase source is used. Voltage source 1 is only connected to diodes
A,B,D, and E. Voltage source 2 is only connected to diodes A, C, D, and F. Voltage source 3 is only
connected to diodes B, C, E, and F. What we really have is three single phase circuits. The only thing
needed to make this circuit make sense now is to look at voltage sources 1, 2, and 3 independently of each
other. Figure 2.9 shows the waveforms of these three voltages.

Copyright © Robert J. Scoff 9

 Three Phase Waveforms

1.5

1
Relative Voltage
0.5
Voltage # 3
0 Voltage # 1
0 100 200 300 400 Voltage # 2
-0.5

-1

-1.5
Electrical Degrees

Figure 2.9 Waveforms of the Three voltages In a Three Phase Source

One thing to notice here is that each of the three voltages can be thought of as independent of the other two.
They are offset from each other by 120 electrical degrees. So voltage # 3 goes through zero volts at 0
degrees, voltage # 1 goes through zero volts at 120 degrees, and voltage # 2 goes through Zero volts at 240
degrees. So the next thing to do is to full wave bridge rectify the three voltages, one at a time, and
superimpose the resulting waveforms to get an output voltage that looks like Figure 2.10.

Three Phase Full Wave Bridge Output

1.2
1
Relative Voltage

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Electrical Degrees

Figure 2.10 Graph Showing Full Wave Rectified Waveforms of Three Phases of Circuit of Figure 2.8

One more thing has to be done now. The output voltage can never go below the highest voltage at any time.
To do this, erase all voltages that are less than the maximum voltage at any given time. Then the output of
the three phase full wave bridge rectifier will look like Figure 2.11.

Copyright © Robert J. Scoff 10

 Thre Phase Bridge Rectifier Output Voltage

0.8

Relative Voltage 0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Electrical Degrees

Figure 2.11 Graph Showing Actual Full Wave Three Phase Bridge Output

At this stage you may well wonder why did we go through this process. It will soon become obvious, when
we see how an Inverter is actually made.

2.14 Bi Polar Transistors

A Bi Polar Transistor is a three terminal device that amplifies current. The three terminals are called the
Emitter, Collector, and Base. There is an input current (called the base current) that controls an output
current (the collector or emitter current). It is one of the oldest and most reliable solid state devices made. If
we concentrate on what it actually does, it is easy to understand how it works. Some integrated circuits
contain hundreds of bi polar transistors on a single chip. Following is a diagram, Figure 2.12, of a bi polar
transistor showing how an input current called the base current (ib) controls an output current called the
collector current (ic or ß * ib). ß is called the current gain of the transistor. Typical current gains of present
day transistors range from 100 to 300.

Figure 2.12 Diagram of a Bi Polar Transistor

Bi Polar transistors are not used much in the power sections of modern Inverters. It is presented here for the
historical perspective, and to introduce 2 other types of transistors.

Copyright © Robert J. Scoff 11

 2.15 Field Effect Transistors

Field effect transistors come in two basic varieties, Junction FET’s and Power FET’s. The symbol for a
junction field effect transistor, or JFET is shown below in Figure 2.13.

Figure 2.13 Symbol for JFET or Junction Field Effect Transistor

Generally JFET’s have not had a high enough current rating to be used for motor control, and are presented
here for information purposes only. They are devices where an input voltage on the gate controls a current
flow through the Drain – Source channel. The connection of the gate to the drain source channel is actually
a reverse biased diode. This means that the input impedance is very high. A disadvantage of the JFET for
Inverter applications is that the Drain Source resistance is relatively high. This results in high power losses.

The Power FET on the other hand has an insulated gate. The symbol for a Power FET is shown in Figure
2.14.

Figure 2.14 Symbol for Power FET or Insulated Gate FET

Power FET’s have a high enough current rating to be used for motor control, but most of the present state of
the art VFD’s use another type of transistor called the Insulated Gate Bi Polar Transistor (IGBT).

2.16 Insulated Gate Bi Polar Transistors (IGBT)

IGBT’s work almost like regular Bi Polar transistors, except that the gate is insulated from the rest of the
transistor, as in power FET’s, and a voltage controls current flow through the transistor. Figure 2.15 shows
a symbol for an Insulated Gate Bi Polar Transistor.

Figure 2.15 Symbol for IGBT

Copyright © Robert J. Scoff 12

The IGBT is the device used on most of the low and medium power inverters made today. They have a high
enough switching speed to work with today’s technologies, and a high collector emitter breakdown voltage.
They also have a high enough current rating, and relatively low power losses when used in switching
applications such as Inverters.

2.17 Power control with one IGBT

An IGBT can be used to control the current flow in a load. To show this we will use a resistor load and
show an input voltage controlling an output current that will show up as a voltage drop across the resistor.
The IGBT still controls current , even though we see a voltage across the resistor, R. Look at Figure 2.16
to see this.

Figure 2.16 IBGT Shown Amplifying a Voltage Pulse

Something to notice here is that the input voltage pulse has very little current because the base is an open
circuit. The resistor, R, however has a current flow limited only by VCE and R, and the current rating of the
transistor. This current can be a hundred amps or more for current day transistors. The voltage can be 1000
volts or more. It thus is capable of controlling power. Remember P = E * I. We could almost use the circuit
of Figure 2.16 to run a small DC motor. The reason that the IGBT transistors have low losses is that when
the transistor is on, the voltage drop across it is almost 0, and when it is off the current through it is
almost 0. Since P = E * I, if one of the two parts of the expression is almost 0, the product is also almost 0.
This makes the power controlling devices smaller, because they don’t have to dissipate a lot of power
compared to the power that they are controlling.

2.18 Full Wave Single Phase Bridge DC to AC Converter

Next, let’s make a full wave bridge circuit using 4 IGBT transistors, and turn a DC voltage into a single
phase AC voltage. For simplicity, we will generate a square wave. Let’s look at Figure 2.17

Copyright © Robert J. Scoff 13

 +
C C
VDC

B B Vout
1 2
E
E
R
C C

B B
3 4
E
E
-
Figure 2.17 Full Wave Single Phase DC to AC Converter

Notice the similarity between circuits 2.7 and 2.17. In Figure 2.7, we are converting AC to DC. In
Figure 2.17, we are converting DC into AC. Now let’s see how we can make this circuit work. The VDC
is some value of voltage, called the bus voltage. The numbers within the small circles, 1, 2, 3, and 4 are
connected to the bases of their respective transistors and also to a control circuit that does nothing other that
make the 4 terminals 0 volts, which turns the transistor off, or some positive voltage high enough to turn the
transistor on, which makes the transistor a short circuit or conductor of current.

If the transistor leads numbered 1 and 4 are turned on, current will flow downward through transistor 1,
downward through the resistor R, and downward through the transistor 4, as shown in blue. This will cause
a voltage to appear across R with the top of R being positive.

If transistor leads numbered 2 and 3 are turned on, current will flow downward through transistor 2, upward
through resistor R, and downward through transistor 3, as shown in red. This will cause a voltage to appear
across R, with the bottom of R being positive, which makes the top negative. Let’s look at Figure 2.18 to see
input and out put voltages for the above scenario.

Note that if we turn on transistors 1 and 3 at the same time, a short circuit results. This will either blow a
fuse, or destroy the transistors, maybe both. The same thing is true if we turn transistors 2 and 4 at the same
time. The programmers who actually make the above circuit work have to be very careful of the timing of
the control signals. When 6 transistors get involved, as in a full wave bridge, even more care has to be
exercised.

Copyright © Robert J. Scoff 14

 1&4 1&4 1&4
on on on
+VDC
VDC Vout

-VDC
2 &3 2 &3
on on
Figure 2.18 Input and Output Voltages for Circuit of Figure 2.17

What has happened is that an AC output voltage has been generated from a DC input voltage. Of course,
the output is a square wave, but there are ways to make the output an approximate sine wave. What I wanted
to show here was the concept and how it can really work. The control circuit that turns the transistors off
and on is usually derived from a micro processor controller. This makes it easier to keep track of the time
scale so that the frequency of the square wave that we generated can be changed. If we do change the
frequency of the output voltage we have made a variable frequency generator. This is pretty close to a
Variable Frequency Drive.

2.19 Full Wave Three Phase Bridge DC to AC Converter

C C C

1
B 2
B B
3

E E E
VDC
RC RB

RA
C C C

B B B
4 5 6

E E E

Figure 2.19 Three Phase Full Wave DC to AC converter

Copyright © Robert J. Scoff 15

To understand the operation of the three phase DC to AC converter, we only need to look at 4 transistors at
a time, connected to one load at a time. I used a Delta load because it is easier to see this concept than with a
Wye load. It can be shown that any Wye load has an equivalent Delta load, and vice versa. First observe
that RA is connected to transistor numbers 1, 2, 4, and 5. Let’s let the four transistors be turned off and on
just like the single phase example in Figure 2.17. A square wave output across RA, like Figure 2.18, would
result. The next thing to notice is the angles at which the other two loads (RB & RC) are drawn. RB is drawn
at 120o, and RC is drawn at 240o. We can say that one electrical cycle takes 360o, and use transistors
number 1, 3, 4, and 6 to also generate a square wave, but have that square wave start at 120 electrical
degrees. That voltage will be across RB. Then, use transistor numbers 2, 3, 5, and 6 to generate another
square, except that square wave will start at 240o. Without further explanation, Figure 2.20 will show the
three phase square wave output voltage of the DC to AC converter.
V

0
60o 120o 180o 240o 300o 360o

Figure 2.20 Output of the Three Phase DC to AC Converter

I have offset the black waveform up a small amount and the red waveform down a small amount so that the
places where the waveforms are the same voltage at the same time would not cover each other up. Notice
that the blue waveform, representing the voltage across RA starts at 0 degrees, is positive for 180 degrees,
then goes negative for 180 degrees. The red waveform, representing the voltage across RB is negative for the
first 120 degrees, goes positive and then stays there for 180 degrees, before going negative for the rest of the
cycle. The black waveform, representing the voltage across RC, is positive for the first 60 degrees, goes
negative for 180 degrees, and then go positive at 240 degrees for the remaining 120 degrees. This is very
similar to Figure 2.9. Figure 2.9 is a three phase sine wave, where Figure 2.20 is a three phase square wave.
If the voltage and current were high enough, this would run a three phase induction motor.

2.20 Contactors

A contactor is a relay rated for higher currents. It consists of a coil and one or more contacts. When
voltage is applied to the coil of a contactor, its contact changes state. Figure 2.16 shows a symbol for a
contactor. Notice that the coil and the contact are both identified by the same symbol, in this case CR.

Copyright © Robert J. Scoff 16

 Figure 2.21 Symbol for a Contactor or Power Relay

3. Inverters - How They Work

Figure 3.1 Block Diagram of a Typical Inverter

3.1 Block Diagram

Figure 3.1 shows the four major power parts of a typical inverter. They are the input full wave bridge
rectifier, the surge suppressor resistor/contactor, the filter capacitor, and the full wave bridge IGBT transistor
output.

3.1.1 The Input Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

Now that we have looked at the parts of an inverter, let’s see how they all work together. Look at Figure 3.1
and follow this through. First, the three phase full wave bridge takes the three phase input voltage and full
wave rectifies it. If the input voltage happens to be 480 VAC - RMS, the DC voltage out of the three phase
rectifier will be about 680 VDC. This is because the peak voltage of a RMS rated sine wave is the RMS
voltage times the square root of two. Refer to Figure 3.2 to see this.

480 VAC RMS Sine Wave

800
600
400
200
Volts

0
-200 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
-400
-600
-800
Electrical Degrees

Figure 3.2 480 VAC – RMS Sine Wave Showing Peak Value of 680 VDC

Copyright © Robert J. Scoff 17

Refer to Figures 2.10 and 2.11 to see how a three phase voltage would give a pretty good DC output voltage
with a peak value of close to 680 VDC. Most inverters have a warning label saying DANGER DO NOT
TOUCH HIGH VOLTAGE. This is the reason. That 680 volts is really there on a 480 volt input
inverter. For a 240 VAC input inverter, this voltage is only about 340 VDC. That is still high enough, and
with enough charge behind it, to hurt. The inverters are designed so that the high voltage will dissipate in 2
or 3 minutes after power is removed. In any case, read the manual or the warning label to see how much
time is necessary to allow the charge to dissipate.

3.1.2 The Surge Suppressor Resistor/Contactor

Referring to Figure 3.1 again, notice that there is a contactor, CR, whose coil is across the 480 VAC input
line. Most inverters have a variation of this circuit. Its function is to simply short the resistor, R, shortly
after power is turned on to the inverter. This limits the initial current trying to charge capacitor, C, when
power is applied. Without this time delay circuit (it really is a time delay that depends upon the inertia of the
relay parts) the inrush current trying to charge capacitor C could cause the full wave diode bridge to burn
out. After the relay contact closes, the output of the full wave diode bridge is connected to the capacitor.
The capacitor smoothes out most of the ripple that exists in the DC waveform. Sometimes an inductor is
placed in series with the resistor to give better filtering. The circuit would look like Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3 Filtering and Protection Circuit Found in Many Inverters

A very common problem that occurs in inverters is that the coil of the relay, CR, burns out. Shortly
afterward, the resistor, R, releases some smoke and quits working. Now the inverter simply stops. No
further damage to the inverter occurs. However, there might be some process damage, especially if the
Inverter is running an important motor. The DC voltage across the diode bridge will be there, but the DC
voltage across the capacitor will not be there. Use a voltmeter to test for this voltage. In emergencies, when
the right parts are not available, a contactor and an approximately properly sized resistor can be mounted in
or near the inverter and connected to the right terminals. This will get the inverter up and running again.

3.1.3 The Filter Capacitor

The purpose of the filter capacitor is to make the DC bus voltage more nearly a non varying DC voltage. It
acts like a shock absorber, taking the variations or ripple out of the waveform shown in Figure 2.11. Without
the filter capacitor, the ripple would be about 100 volts on a 480 VAC system. High voltage on the
waveform would be 480 times the square root of 2 or 678 volts (most times it is approximated to 680 volts).
The low voltage on the waveform would be 0.866 times the high voltage, or 587 volts. To get the 0.866
multiplier, look at the waveforms in Figure 2.11 and see that each half wave bump in the waveform is 60
degrees wide. One half of 60 degrees is 30 degrees, and so the bumps are 30 degrees on each side of the
maximum voltage. This makes the angle from the zero crossing to the peak 60 degrees. The sine of 60
degrees is 0.866, which is the multiplier that was used. This gives 91 volts of ripple. Good filtering would
bring that down to less than 10 volts of ripple. A nice DC voltage at this point in the circuit makes it
possible for the output circuit to generate a better output voltage. This capacitor is also the part that holds the
charge when the inverter is turned off.

Copyright © Robert J. Scoff 18

 3.1.4 The Three Phase Full Wave IGBT Output Circuit

This is the part of the inverter that actually makes the three phase output. Up to now all that we talked about
was a square wave output from the inverter. At one time that is what actually happened. State of the art
inverters use a technology called Pulse Width Modulation. This technology is able to be applied because
the IGBT transistors have the right characteristics to make it work. These include fairly fast switching
speeds (able to run at 20,000 Hertz), high current handling capability, and high voltage ratings. Let’s take a
look at a PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) signal to get an idea of what it is and how it can generate an
approximate sine wave of current to feed the motor being controlled. Figure 3.4 is a picture of a typical
single phase PWM signal.

Figure 3.4 Typical Single Phase PWM Signal

The red markers are there only to indicate the center of each pulse. This shows that the frequency of the
pulses doesn’t change. The width, however, does. Since the average value of a waveform is the area under
the waveform divided by the time of the waveform, we can see that the average value of the PWM signal
shown above is smaller at the ends and higher in the middle. By proper choosing of the width of the pulses,
a sine wave can be approximated. Notice that the pulse is there, even though its width can be very small, and
may even approach zero width. If the above PWM signal is a sine wave it only gives the positive half of the
sine wave. The signal in Figure 3.4 can be generated by turning transistors 1 and 4 off and on at the right
times. To get the negative half of the waveform, it is only necessary to turn transistors 2 and 3 off and on at
the right times. Note that when transistors 1 and 4 are generating the positive half of the waveform,
transistors 2 and 3 are off. And when transistors 2 and 3 are generating the pulses of the negative half of the
waveform, transistors 1 and 4 are off.

Figure 3.5 Sine Wave Approximation to a PWM Signal

Figure 3.5 shows a sine wave approximation to a single phase PWM signal. The PWM carrier frequency
(the base frequency of the waveform) would be much higher in practice than the example shown in Figures
3.4 and 3.5. Typical inverters use carrier frequencies of 2000 Hertz to 16000 Hertz. At the standard
minimum frequency of 2000 Hertz PWM carrier frequency, a full sine wave at 60 cycles would consist of
about 33 variable width pulses, or 16 & ½ variable width pulses per half wave.

Copyright © Robert J. Scoff 19

Some real advantages to using PWM as the voltage being fed to a motor include the following:
• 1. When the IGBT transistors are off they dissipate little power because the current through them is
close to zero. Remember P = E * I.
• 2. When the IGBT transistors are on they dissipate little power because the voltage drop across them
is close to zero. Remember P = E * I.
• 3. The approximate sine wave of voltage gives an approximation of a sine wave of current to the
motor, and current is what gives the motor torque.
• 4. The induction motor is designed to run with a sine wave of current.
• 5. It is easy to change the frequency of the PWM signal to enable the AC induction motor to run at a
variable RPM (revolutions per minute).
• 6. At low RPM, it is necessary to lower the voltage to the motor. PWM enables this to be possible
by making the pluses narrower. This has the effect of making the average voltage less.
• 7. As the frequency of the PWM signal increases, the motor voltage can be increased at the same
time. This is called volts per hertz control.

Up to now we have concentrated on single phase power output. The pulse width modulation idea can be
extended to include the six transistors of a three phase full wave IGBT bridge circuit. The on and off times
of the six transistors is determined by a computer algorithm. But the same principles apply. We just need to
work with the transistors 4 at a time to generate a three phase voltage which will run the three phase motor.
Because of the fact that the three phases of the three phase voltage waveform occur simultaneously (refer to
Figure 2.9), a single phase of the PWM output looks a little strange. The voltage and current waveforms
shown in Figure 3.6 were copied from the public domain on the internet. I have personally measured that
waveform on an operating inverter, and it really does look like that. The line to neutral voltage is shown
instead of the line to line voltage because a three phase induction motor is usually wound as a Wye
configuration.

Figure 3.6 Pulse Width Modulated Waveform of a Single Phase Line to

Neutral Voltage and the Line Current for a Wye Connected Load

3.1.5 The Internal Power Supply of an Inverter

There are two parts of the inverter that we haven’t mentioned yet. The first is a power supply to run the
electronics that are necessary to control the output stage. This power supply is usually a special circuit called
a DC to DC converter. It uses the DC bus voltage (680 VDC in a 480 VAC unit) to run an oscillator
connected to a transformer. The oscillator runs at a relatively high frequency, 10,000 Hertz or higher. The
high frequency allows the transformer to be smaller. The secondary of the transformer is a low voltage,

Copyright © Robert J. Scoff 20

which is rectified and filtered and regulated to run the microprocessor and other electronics that are needed
to control the inverter. A block diagram of this circuit is shown in Figure 3.7.

When these power supplies fail, and they sometimes do, the usual symptom is that the screen that many
inverters have does not light up. And the inverter doesn’t work at all. At one time it was possible to repair
these power supplies. But, with smaller and smaller components in the newer inverters, it’s usually easier to
just replace the device or the power supply module if there is one.
Rectifier,
Filter,
Oscillator Regulator
+24 VDC
+12 VDC
680 VDC -12 VDC
+5 VDC
0 or netural
Transformer
Figure 3.7 Block Diagram of the Typical Power Supply for Many Inverters.

3.1.6 The Control Circuit

The last part of the inverter is the control circuit that generates the pulses that turn the IGBT transistors off
and on. We are now going to tackle that.

The control circuit has inputs and outputs. The inputs include start and stop pushbuttons, a reversing switch,
a way to set the speed, and some way to program the device. The outputs include the signals to the six
transistors and signal lights and a display. Let’s look at some of these, one at a time.

3.1.7 Inputs and Outputs

A. Start
This is usually a pushbutton or selector switch. It sends a signal to the inverter control
board (a small special purpose micro processor) to generate the pulses to make a PWM
voltage to drive a motor. Push buttons and selector switches are sometimes called digital
inputs. They can be external or part of the keyboard on the VFD.
B. Stop
This is like the start pushbutton or it can be part of the selector switch. It is a digital input
whose function is to get the inverter to slow down and stop.
C. Reverse
This can be a push button or selector switch whose function is to cause a motor to reverse
direction. This is done entirely with the electronics of the Inverter. We haven’t explained
phase sequence. But if we look at Figure 2.9, we can see that the phase sequence is Red,
Blue, Black. Think of when the voltage goes through zero in the positive direction. If the
three leads of a three phase induction motor are connected to the red, blue, black voltage
terminals, the motor would run in a certain direction. If we interchanged any two of the three
leads on the motor, it would run in the opposite direction. With an inverter, we don’t have to
move wires around. It is only necessary to use the program of the Inverter to generate the
opposite phase sequence. The reverse push button causes the inverter to slow down, stop,

Copyright © Robert J. Scoff 21

 and then start moving in the opposite direction. Think of it as going from red, blue, black
sequence to red, black, blue sequence.

D. Speed Potentiometer
The speed input is an analog input. That means it is a continuously variable voltage or
current. The potentiometer is a resistor with a variable tap. That means that it can be used as
a voltage divider to give a variable signal to the Inverter to tell it how fast or slow to go.
Figure 3.5 shows a typical speed control input.
+10
VDC

0-10
R
VDC

Figure 3.8 Potentiometer Used for Speed Control

E. Run, Stop, Fault, and Directional Lights

Many inverters have lights to indicate operational conditions. These are usually stopped,
running, reverse and fault.
F. Tachometer Input
Most inverters have an input for an external tachometer. The function of the tachometer is
to give a signal to the drive telling it how fast the motor is going. Then the Inverter generates
an output signal to make the motor go whatever speed the potentiometer is set for.
G. Programming Keypad
There are many special functions that can be programmed on almost every inverter made
today. These include, but are not limited to acceleration and de-acceleration time, current
limit, speed limit, carrier frequency setting, fly-catching, and many others. The only way
to understand them is to work with a specific Inverter and follow the instruction manual for
your specific inverter.

3.1.8 The Micro-Processor

The microprocessor or control board of an inverter is a small special purpose computer. It has input signals
coming from the various input devices, and output signals going to the 6 IGBT transistors and the keyboard
and lights. The outputs are relatively easy to control. However, the 6 IGBT transistors each have to be
controlled in such a fashion to generate 3 sine waves of voltage that are 120 degrees out of phase with each
other. Something to notice is that there are always some transistors that are a part of two circuits at the same
time. If the timing isn’t perfect, a short circuit could result in the 6 transistor circuit.

3.1.9 What VFD’s Look Like on the Outside

Now that we’ve looked what goes on inside of a VFD, let’s look at what it takes to connect one and make it
operate. Figure 3.6 shows a block diagram of a typical variable frequency drive connected to a motor with
tachometer feedback. The tachometer feedback is not necessary for many applications. Also, the tachometer
Copyright © Robert J. Scoff 22
can be either a DC tachometer or an encoder. An encoder gives a variable frequency square wave to tell how
fast the motor is moving, instead of a variable DC voltage. For precision speed control, an encoder is better.
The digital inputs are the start stop circuit and a reverse switch. The speed control input is connected to a
potentiometer. The display can be programmed to show several different operating conditions. These
include output frequency, output voltage, output current, DC bus voltage, and several others including fault
conditions. Start
Stop

.. .. 3 Phase Power
to Motor
3 Phase
+10 Input
VDC Power VFD
Rev
Controller

Speed
Run Stop Rev Fault Motor T
Pot
Tachometer Feedback
Display Signal

Figure 3.9 Block Diagram of a Typical Variable Frequency Drive System

3.1.10 Some Other Considerations

One of the things that can happen to an induction motor when it is operating is that the load can attempt to
push the motor (this is sometimes called an overhauling load). In this case the motor starts operating like
a generator. Before VFD’s this was not a big problem. The motor just acted like a generator, and put
energy back into the incoming AC line. If the line was soft (poor voltage regulation), the voltage tended to
rise, and could, in fact, cause other electronic equipment to shut down. If the line had good voltage
regulation, it just absorbed the extra energy, and things kept running as before. With VFD’s an entirely new
problem occurs. When the load becomes overhauling, the inverter will absorb the extra energy that the
motor, now acting like a generator, puts out. A problem occurs because the DC bus voltage will rise.
That’s where the extra energy goes. If you look at the block diagram, there’s really no place else for it to go.
Figure 3.10 shows the solution developed for this problem.

Figure 3.10 Circuit Showing Addition of Regen Resistor to

Absorb Energy from Overhauling load

Copyright © Robert J. Scoff 23

Now when the load overhauls the motor and makes it act like a generator, the voltage on the DC bus rises,
but a voltage detector reads this voltage and turns the transistor, G, on enough to take the energy out of the
DC bus and pull the DC bus voltage down. Notice that the transistor, G, is shown as a Bi Polar Transistor.
IGBT’s may also be used here. What is needed is a linear device that can be neither fully off nor fully on.
Of course, when the motor is not overhauling, the transistor, G, is fully off, because we do not want to
take energy from the DC bus when it is not necessary. In practice, the drive is programmed to not allow the
DC bus voltage to go above 720 VDC for a 480 VAC input voltage.

Another problem that occurs with AC drives that did not occur before AC drives were used is catching a
running load. An old across the line starter would just turn on and force the motor to do its bidding. This
wasn’t always good for the system, but it usually worked. Figure 3.10 can be used again to illustrate fly
catching. What we have to do is pretend that the motor is being kept running by an overhauling load, but the
inverter is turned off. If we turn the inverter on at that time, there could be a large difference in the
frequency that the drive is putting out (remember that the inverter starts at a low frequency) and the
frequency that the motor, acting like a generator is putting out. This causes an over current or over bus
voltage trip. The solution is to detect the frequency that the overhauling motor is running at, and make the
control start at that frequency. This is called fly catching. This is sometimes useful in starting pumps that
are started under a head pressure.

Sometimes it is desirable to change the carrier frequency of the PWM signal. Most inverters allow this to
be done. The reason for changing the PWM frequency is that a system resonance might occur. Also, the
motor might be making a louder than normal noise. These problems are sometimes alleviated by changing
the carrier frequency. The usual frequency range is 2000 to 16000 Hertz.

4. Conclusion

This course is intended to give a general idea of how AC Variable Speed Controllers work. Having an
understanding of what they really do will be a great help in applying them to whatever process that you, as
engineers, have presented to you. Now that you understand how they work, you will find applications for
them that the manufacturers have not thought of yet. Good luck and have fun with them.

Robert J. Scoff, PE

Copyright © Robert J. Scoff 24