Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person

Philosophy: Doing Philosophy and Methods of Philosophizing

The Process of Doing Philosophy

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 differentiate the meaning of philosophy as a body of knowledge and as an intellectual

activity,
 distinguish a holistic perspective from a partial point of view,
 recognize human activities that emanated from deliberate reflection,
 apply a philosophical reflection on a concrete situation from a holistic perspective, and
 realize the value of philosophy in obtaining a broad perspective in life.
In a few years, you will gain new experiences in life that you may have never dreamed of. Such
experiences may excite or challenge you, while some can make you rethink your life and
decisions.

At your age, you may have already asked yourself important questions about your life that cannot
be directly answered through research or education, such as “What do I want?” or “What will make
me happy?”

If you have already asked yourself those big questions, then you have already engaged in
philosophy.

 What is Philosophy?
 Is it a way of life? Why or why not?
 How do you apply it in everyday life?

Find out the answers in this lesson!

Learn about it!

Doing philosophy helps you think many things, including those that leave you confused or without
an acceptable answer. You can do philosophy by yourself, with a partner, or with a group.

The Meaning of Philosophy and Philosophy of the Human Person

Philosophy, meaning "love of wisdom," is a science where reason and logic are used to
understand reality and answer questions of knowledge, morality, and human nature. It can be
described as either a body of knowledge or an intellectual activity.

Philosophy as a body of knowledge provides methodologies and insights on how societal

questions, such as moral dilemmas of euthanasia or same-sex marriage, can be answered.

On the other hand, philosophy as an intellectual activity is an analytic procedure of addressing

individual thought processes such as resolving conflict and confusion, testing positions, and
analyzing beliefs. In all instances, doing philosophy is prescribed by logic, reason, and ethics
leading to wisdom.

Philosophy applied to human experience or everyday life denotes the use of philosophy as an
intellectual activity. Also known as philosophy in life, this concept is important because it serves
as the guiding principle on how one ought to live life.
Learn about it!

Importance of Philosophical Reflection

Philosophical reflection is the process by which a person undergoes a reflective state or
evaluates his or her experiences first before making any related action. The use of philosophical
reflection is important as it enables thought to be looked into using a deeper, holistic perspective.
In effect, actions are directed towards greater sources of wisdom and truth.

Human Activities Emanated from Deliberate Reflection

In the process, one can learn more about himself or herself, including personal beliefs, ideals, or
values. Previous experiences may be seen as important aspects of making reflections because
they facilitate deeper thinking and understanding of the self. Aside from knowing the self, many
other activities also emanate from reflection.

Examples:

 learning from your previous mistakes and not repeating them again
 evaluating and knowing the best choice from a set of options
 gaining a holistic point of view first before making any conclusion

Learn about it!

Meaning and Process of Doing Philosophy

Doing philosophy means engaging oneself in “matters of utility” and methodologies to eliminate
any practical problem or abstract idea.

In the process of doing philosophy, it is critical to have a holistic point of view—the perception of
looking at all aspects of a situation first before making a conclusion. Some other skills involved in
doing philosophy are critical, logical, and analytical thinking, observation, and communicative
skills.

Holistic and Partial Points of View

Before engaging in philosophical inquiry, one must be able to distinguish between a holistic and
partial point of view. This is critical for anyone doing philosophy because it sets a limit in coming
up with conclusions about a given situation.

It is important to remember the following:

Looking at the characteristics of holistic and partial points of view, it can be concluded that using a
holistic perspective is more desirable in doing philosophy than using a partial perspective. Partial
points of view only promote limited knowledge on the situation. This leads to wrong conclusions.

Learning philosophy requires learning to look into all available perspectives and work on their
relationship to come up with sound, logical, and valid conclusions. In the process, doing
philosophy helps one to develop the skill of broadly looking at the situation first before concluding
anything.

Learn about it!

Importance of Doing Philosophy

Doing philosophy can be applied in day-to-day activities and life perspectives. Because it involves
an evaluative process, doing philosophy allows a person to make better decisions and act
accordingly to situations with the help of various philosophical skills.

Furthermore, on life perspectives, philosophy enables reflective thinking which greatly influences a
person’s view of life, challenges, and relationships. Doing philosophy directs how a person will
perceive these factors in life and how they will be faced.

In any setting, wisdom is always gained when philosophy is applied to formulate a conclusion
about a certain concern.

Explore!

Philosophy has opened doors for debates over many concerns such as the purpose of life, the
existence of good and evil, and the way to the truth. Even as a young student, you have already
been introduced to philosophy as a discipline. As you proceed to higher levels of your study, you
will encounter more philosophical issues that are more advanced and complicated to resolve. In
your perspective, what other issues may be dealt with using philosophy?
Try it!

You may already know that philosophy as a discipline has been present in society for centuries.
Different perspectives on various issues rose and were given defense by various philosophers. As
a student, think of a relevant issue faced by society nowadays. Look for at least two philosophical
theories that can explain your chosen topic. After reading on these views, make your decision on
which theory to side with based on the philosophical concepts you have learned from your
readings.

What do you think?

Is doing philosophy possible without engaging in philosophical reflection?

Tips

 In doing philosophy, a holistic perspective on the subject is always required. Failure to do

so or only using a partial point of view may lead to illogical or incorrect conclusions.
 In the process of doing philosophy, it is critical to have a holistic perspective—the
perception of looking at all aspects of a situation first before making a conclusion. This point
of view is different from holistic thinking which is a mental activity of recognizing the
interconnectedness of systems and procedures to form a general picture of an issue.
 The process of doing philosophy should not be mistaken for the Filipino activity
of pamimilosopo or pedantry where a person displays useless knowledge or minute
observances of small details.

Keypoints

 Philosophy, meaning "love of wisdom," is a science where reason and logic are used to
understand reality and answer questions of knowledge, morality, and human nature.
 Philosophy may be a body of knowledge or an intellectual activity.
 A holistic point of view looks at all aspects of the given problem or situation. Meanwhile,
a partial point of view looks at only a limited number of aspects of the given problem or
situation.
 Philosophical reflection allows a person to look back on previous experiences and
evaluate the meaning or significance of his or her life.

Topic: Methods of Philosophizing: Socratic

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 define and explain the Socratic method of philosophizing,

 analyze expressions and statements that show the differences of opinion, fact, and truth,
and
 justify the validity of the statement “The Socratic method of philosophizing leads to wisdom
and truth.”
Your teacher asked you to give a concrete definition of love. You confidently answered the
question: “Love is kind. Love is patient.”
However, instead of accepting your answer, she responded to you with another question: “Yes,
but what do you mean by kindness and patience?”

Surprised, you answered her question again, this time giving some examples to raise your point.
Your teacher continued to ask you further questions as responses to your statements.

 Why did your teacher do that?

 What was she doing?
 What did she want to get from you in doing so?

Find out the answer in this lesson!

Learn about it!

In the given scenario, the teacher kept on asking about your responses to the questions. What she
did is called Socratic questioning−−a type of interrogative statement that clarifies points through
understanding the deeper meaning of a claim.

Methods of Philosophizing
A method of philosophizing is a process of determining the truth or drawing a conclusion from a
statement using various philosophical methods, such as:

 Socratic,
 dialectic,
 scientific, and
 historical.

Learn about it!

Socratic Method of Philosophizing

The Socratic method, also known by the Greek term elenchus that means "to inquire or to cross-
examine", is an exchange of ideas using Socratic questioning.

 It was developed by Socrates, a Greek philosopher and teacher, who laid the groundwork
for Western systems of philosophy and logic.
 In this process, statements are deconstructed or questioned to come up with the actual
truth that is believed to rest on the roots of the argument.
 Conflicting ideas are seen as invalid sources of the truth, and probing questions are
immediately derived from the given statements.
 In a classroom setting, this method is used not to intimidate students, but to produce a
deeper understanding of thoughts and ideas through further questioning statements or
claims.
 There is no particular end goal aside from reaching an absolute truth from probing
statements and, in the process, eliminating ideas that are questionable or contradicting.
Examples:

 A psychologist is trying to dig deeper into the story of his patient who only mentions vague
and general ideas.
 A lawyer is asking further questions about the suspect’s whereabouts during the crime
because she is not entirely convinced by his alibi.
 A mother is questioning her son’s real reason for his excessive absences from school.
Learn about it!

Opinion, Fact, and Truth

In using the Socratic method, it is important to analyze expressions and statements that show the
differences of opinion, fact, and truth.

Opinion
An opinion is an expression of one’s feelings based on facts, emotions, beliefs, or views. It is not
based on evidence.

Examples:

 Filipinos are the most resilient and hospitable people in the world.
 Manny Pacquiao is the best Filipino boxer.
Fact
A fact is a statement that can be checked and backed up with evidence. It is often used in
conjunction with research and study.

Examples:

 Based on the Miss World Organization records, Megan Young was the first Filipina to be
crowned as Miss World. She won the title in 2013 in Bali, Indonesia.
 According to the Philippine Statistics Authority, the country's total population is 92,337,852.
It is based on the recent May 2010 census.
Truth
A truth is something that has actual and proven existence scientifically and spiritually regardless
of one’s opinion and beliefs. It is undisputed, objective, universal, constant, exact, and factual.

Examples:

 All things that can be seen are temporal. (undisputed)

 Two plus two equals four (2 + 2 = 4). (exact)
 The Philippines, as proven in geographical and anthropological properties, is a country in
Southeast Asia. (factual)
Opinion is what someone believes or thinks. A fact is firmly planted in the material world, while
truth extends to the spiritual realm.
Learn about it!

Socratic Method Leads to Wisdom and Truth

The Socratic method has been emphasized to use statement deconstructions and creative
questioning to delve deeper into an issue. It is a systematic process whereby random and
ambiguous ideas are eliminated to reach a sound conclusion. Reaching an endpoint, therefore,
would only mean that truth has been realized, and new knowledge has been acquired.

Explore!

Some students dread it when teachers involve the class in the discussion by asking them to
explain a certain topic or concept. Usually, students do not immediately answer in fear that they
might be called upon to explain their thoughts further—an activity they do not like or are not
prepared to do. Still, teachers continue to do this method despite the minimal responses they get
from their students. Before this lesson, have you ever wondered why your teachers do that
technique? Do you now understand their goals in doing so?

Try it!

During a class discussion, try to engage in a Socratic questioning exercise with your teacher. You
may be the one to initiate the process by asking your teacher any relevant topic about the
discussion. From there, you may further ask questions related to your teacher's responses.
Continue to clarify your the responses until you have fully grasped the idea presented. This activity
may also be done alternatively, with the teacher probing you for your answers.

Tip

Regardless of how deep the probing process has been, the primary area of focus during the
Socratic method would be the first statement. All succeeding statements are brought about to
support or refute the claim of the initial argument.

Keypoints

 A method of philosophizing is a process of determining a truth or conclusion from a

statement through the use of various philosophical methods such as Socratic, dialectic,
historical, and scientific.
 Socrates was a Greek philosopher and teacher who laid the groundwork for Western
systems of philosophy and logic.
 Socratic questioning is a type of interrogative process that clarifies points through
understanding the deeper meaning of a claim.
 The process of deconstructing or questioning statements to come up with the actual truth is
called the Socratic Method.
 Opinion is what someone believes or thinks. A fact is firmly planted in the material world,
while truth extends to the spiritual realm.
 The Socratic method of philosophizing leads to wisdom and truth.

Methods of Philosophizing: Dialectic

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 define and explain the dialectic method of philosophizing,

 compare the dialectic and Socratic methods of philosophizing;
 distinguish an opinion from truth by analyzing the given situations, and
 justify the validity of the statement "The dialectic method leads to wisdom and truth.”
While waiting for your teacher, you overhear your two classmates debating on which part of the
day is better for studying for an exam. One of them said that she prefers to study at night because
it is quiet, while the other stated that he likes to study in the morning because it is when he feels
most active. After an exchange of factual knowledge about their study habits, your classmates
both agreed that studying during the morning is better than studying at night.

 How did your two classmates come up with that conclusion?

 What do you call the process that led them to do so?

Find out the answers in this lesson!

Review!

Methods of Philosophizing
A method of philosophizing is a process of determining the truth or drawing conclusions from a
statement using various philosophical methods, such as:

 Socratic,
 dialectic,
 scientific, and
 historical.

Learn about it!

Dialectic Method
In the previous example, your two classmates were able to conclude that it is better to study in the
morning after having analyzed the facts that they presented to each other. To come up with that,
they used a process called dialectics or the dialectic method.

 The term 'dialectic' comes from the Greek word dialektike which means 'the art of
conversation.'
 It is the act of talking back and forth, disagreeing with one another, and arguing about
contentious issues.
 In philosophy, it is a method of coming up with a conclusion from an exchange of
contradicting logical arguments.
 The aim of dialectics, as a process of the dialogue, is the clarification of controversial
notions and arguments with other people. In this process, personal and shared conceptions
should be considered and corrected.
 Many philosophers, such as Hegel, Aristotle, and Socrates, had their own beliefs and
explanations about this approach; however, the basic concept remains to be the same.
Examples:

 discussing the pros and cons of a variety of human resource strategies as forms of
managing employees in the workplace, then choosing the best option
 evaluating two physical activities regarding their ability to increase work performance

Learn about it!

Dialectic or Socratic
Both the Socratic method and the dialectic method are based on a dialogue between two or more
people who may hold differing views but wish to pursue the truth by seeking agreement with one
another. To avoid confusions between the two methods, study the chart of comparison below.
Now, how do you compare and contrast the dialectic method and Socratic method as methods of
philosophizing?

Learn about it!

Opinion and Truth

The dialectic method may involve both opinions and facts as long as they are logical and lead to
the truth. It is therefore important to distinguish opinion from truth.

 An opinion is a personal view formed about a particular matter, such as your perception of
using e-books rather than actual books.
 Truth is something that has real and proven existence regardless of one’s opinion, such as
the fact that the heart is a muscle.
Read the statements below, then distinguish the opinion from the truth.

Statement A is an opinion since there is no proof or evidence that the president is indeed the most
intelligent person in the country.

Statement B is a truth because the president is the head of the state and the chief officer of the
country. Thus, he is the most powerful leader of the country.

Learn about it!

The Dialectic Method Leads to Wisdom and Truth
The dialectic method can easily be seen in the day-to-day interactions of people. It is much like a
debate that poses two clashing but valid arguments to determine an endpoint that is correct and
true. In this sense, the truth of both arguments is always expected to rise from each conversation.

Explore!

In recent years, technology has played a significant role in education. Electronic resources such
as e-books have begun to replace actual books as primary learning resources. Some
academicians are arguing against the reliability of this tool as an appropriate medium of
instruction, while some are promoting it for practicality issues. Both sides have valid points, but if
you were to observe your fellow students, what type of resources would they prefer? What other
points did you realize that made you choose that decision?

Try it!

Engage your friend in a non-aggressive discussion about any topic that you disagree on. Before
the start of your conversation, explain to your friend the activity’s purpose and premises. Make
sure that throughout the discussion, both of you share logical points about your chosen topic. As
you go through the discussion, you may try to categorize all your statements as opinion or truth. In
coming up with your conclusion, see to it that all points are taken into consideration. You may do
this activity for some time with different people.

What do you think?

Can the dialectic method be used to arrive at a conclusion for three or more conflicting points?
Why? Why not?

Tips

 The dialectic method deals largely with logical ideas. Opinionated points are allowed as
long as they are logical and they help in coming up with the truth; however, the endpoint
should always be the truth.
 Dialectics, as a philosophical method, should not be mistaken for dialectical materialism.
Although both concepts fall under philosophy, dialectical materialism is a Marxian topic that
caters to a more liberal readership.

Keypoints

 Dialectics is a method of coming up with a true conclusion based on contradicting logical

ideas.
 The dialectic method may involve both opinions and facts as long as they are logical and
lead to the truth.
 An opinion is an expression of a person’s feelings based on facts, emotions, and beliefs,
while the truth is something that has actual and proven existence scientifically and
historically regardless of one’s opinion and beliefs.
 Hegel, Aristotle, and Socrates were so convinced in the validity of the dialectic method
that they postulated their own versions and explanations of the whole process.
  The dialectic method of philosophizing leads to wisdom and truth.

Methods of Philosophizing: Scientific

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 define and discuss the scientific method of philosophizing,

 compare the Socratic method, dialectic method, and scientific method as methods of
philosophizing,
 distinguish opinions from truths by analyzing given situations, and
 justify the validity of the statement “The scientific method leads to wisdom and truth.”
In your science class, you already know that when salt and sugar are dissolved in water, they form
a homogeneous solution. On the other hand, sand combined with water forms a heterogeneous
mixture.

What process led you to know that?

Find out the answer in this lesson!

Review!

Methods of Philosophizing
A method of philosophizing is a process of determining the truth or drawing conclusions from a
statement using various philosophical methods, such as:

 Socratic,
 dialectic,
 scientific, and
 historical.

Learn about it!

Doing experiments are standard in science classes. In the previous example, knowing whether a
mixture is heterogeneous or homogeneous can easily be done just by performing a simple test.
This lesson involves the process of experimentation and observation referred to as the scientific
method of philosophizing.

The Scientific Method

 The term "science" is derived from the Latin word scientia that means “to produce
knowledge.”
 The scientific method, also called empirical method, is a process of determining truth or
knowledge through experimentation, inductive and deductive reasoning, and hypothesis or
theory testing.
 The scientific method could trace its history from the Classical period with Aristotle giving
the earliest structured theory on the scientific approach.
 The process begins with an idea about any given topic. Hypothesis testing is done to prove
the validity of this idea.
 In a philosophical view, the means of hypothesis testing and its results are considered the
most important feature of the method.
  The scientific method also values observation as an important aspect because it contributes
to further understanding the results of the hypothesis testing.
Examples:

 exposing one plant to sunlight while limiting the exposure of another is done to test which
setting promotes better plant growth
 testing and quantifying morality, love, mercy, justice, or compassion which are all realities
that do not dwell in the realm of materialism

Learn about it!

The Scientific, Dialectic, and Socratic Methods

Both the Socratic and dialectic method are based on a discussion between two or more people
who may carry differing views but wish to pursue the truth by seeking an agreement with one
another. Meanwhile, the scientific method is a process of determining truth or knowledge through
experimentation, inductive and deductive reasoning, and hypothesis or theory testing.

Study the chart below.

Learn about it!

Opinion and Truth

It is important to remember that the scientific method involves only the truth. However,
differentiating between the two is still important.

 An opinion is a personal view formed about a particular matter. An example of this would
be your take on who among your science teachers is the best.
 Truth is something that has actual and proven existence regardless of one’s opinion. For
example, raspberry plants that receive the most water grow the biggest.
Try to analyze the given situations. Distinguish the opinion from the truth.
Situation A reveals the truth because it is proven scientifically.

Situation B expresses an opinion because it is a personal view about the topic.

Learn about it!

The Scientific Method Leads to Wisdom and Truth

The scientific method leads to wisdom and truth because it uses an evidence-based approach to
come up with its conclusion. In this method, all truths are supported by facts that can easily be
tested or proven again through experiments, logical reasoning, or observation. The knowledge and
truth gained from the scientific method are assured to come directly from valid conclusions.

Explore!

Throughout the years, the scientific method has been used by professionals and amateurs alike to
come up with conclusions about their topics of interest. Many studies have been done to facilitate
a scientific method in exploring a certain phenomenon. One such notable experiment is Louis
Pasteur’s, whose discovery of the process of pasteurization greatly boosted the food and health
industry. As a student, how can you apply the scientific method to answer your questions?
Try it!

Observe the environment around you. Do you have any question about how things work? Do you
have your hypothesis about it? Try to devise your own experiment to generate an answer to your
question. You may also use your observational skills to further define the problem at hand. If you
are unable to devise your own experiment, you can visit some websites that can show you videos
or lessons about your topic of interest. Remember to observe the process presented to you.

What do you think?

Why is the scientific method more recognized in the discipline of science than in philosophy? What
is the difference between the scientific method in philosophy and in the physical sciences?

Tips

 The scientific method should always be concluded with supporting evidence. However,
ideas to be tested may or may not be derived from existing facts.
 The use of observation in the scientific method is a critical aspect of supporting empirical
conclusions. Be sure that all your senses are actively engaged to observe during
experimentation.

Keypoints

 A method of philosophizing is a process of determining the truth or a conclusion of a

statement through the use of various philosophical methods such as Socratic, dialectic,
historical, and scientific.
 The scientific method or empirical method is a process of determining truth or
knowledge through experimentation, inductive and deductive reasoning, and hypothesis or
theory testing.
 An opinion is a personal view formed about a particular matter, while the truth is
something that has actual and proven existence regardless of one’s opinion.
 The scientific method of philosophizing leads to wisdom and truth.

Methods of Philosophizing: Historical

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 define and explain the historical method of philosophizing,

 compare the Socratic method, dialectic method, scientific method, and historical method as
methods of philosophizing,
 distinguish an opinion from truth by analyzing the given situations, and
 justify the validity of the statement “The historical method leads to wisdom and truth.”
You already know that the Philippines has a rich culture that was molded by colonial influences in
the past.

 If you want to further know how that happened, what type of book should you read?
 How do you know that what was recorded in our history books really happened?
Find out the answers in this lesson!

Review!

Methods of Philosophizing
A method of philosophizing is a process of determining the truth or drawing conclusions from a
statement using various philosophical methods, such as:

 Socratic,
 dialectic,
 scientific, and
 historical.

Learn about it!

If you answered “history book” in the previous question, you are correct. Now, if you were to read
that particular history book to know how the Philippines ended up with such a unique culture, then
you just applied the historical approach in your activity. Historical evidences are derived from
records of the past.

The Historical Method

 The term "history" is from the Greek word iotopia which means “to investigate" or "to find
out.”
 The historical method is the process of gathering evidences, examining them, and
formulating ideas about the past to come up with present truths.
 In this approach, it is believed that history has a “divine order” or a large “cyclical or
progressive” pattern that enables events to repeat themselves and record information
through historical accounts or archaeological findings.
 The process of learning the truth is simply through looking at past records to validate the
present hypothesis.
 If viewed in a more general perspective, the historical approach would include only a
historical account to differentiate truth from opinion.
 History is seen as more important than logic and a more valid source of the truth.
 Using the historical approach is much like researching for an answer to a particular
question. Reviewing what has been done in the past is the primary method of looking at a
solution for a problem at present.
Examples:

 You are going to Baguio for the first time with your family. You have the option to use one of
two routes. You look for reviews published in the internet to determine which of the two
routes is better.
 An entrepreneur wants to open a café in a middle class residential area in the city. Before
buying the property, she looked first at previous business ventures that were established
within the area to determine the feasibility of her plan.

Learn about it!

Historical, Scientific, Dialectic, or Socratic Method

Both the Socratic method and the dialectic method are based on a discussion between two or
more people who have differing views, but wish to pursue the truth by seeking agreement with one
another. The scientific method is a process of determining truth or knowledge through
experimentation, inductive and deductive reasoning, and hypothesis or theory testing. Meanwhile,
the historical method deals with examining the past to come up with present facts or truths.

Study the table bel ow.

Learn about it!

Opinion and Truth

It is important to distinguish opinion from truth when using the historical method.

Remember:

 An opinion is a personal view formed about a particular matter, such as your preference for
Japanese cuisine.
 Truth, on the other hand, is something that has actual and proven existence regardless of
one’s opinion, such as the fact that the Philippines is made up of more than 7,100 islands.
Try to analyze the given situations. Distinguish the opinion from the truth.

Situation A reveals the truth because this account is derived from historical evidence.

Situation B expresses an opinion because it is a personal view.

Learn about it!

The Historical Method Leads to Wisdom and Truth

Because history is repetitive, it is believed that the things that are occurring at present already
happened in the past. Following this logic, the historical method serves the purpose of digging into
historical data and analyzing together the findings to come up with a conclusion. The use of the
method, therefore, leads to knowledge that is true and evidence-based.

History is repetitive. Only technology and political systems change. Everything revolves around
war for conquest, whatever the specific reasons. Greed is the brace no matter what the system
may be.
Explore!

As a student, you are exposed to doing assignments on almost every subject you are taking. In
some classes, English for example, your primary project would be a position paper on the literary
work you have been asked to read. In putting content into your project, how do you go about
writing it? Do you review other sources first before proceeding to write your final position?

Try it!

Choose a random object in your house. On a piece of paper, write a hypothesis of where you think
that object originated from. You may also include your ideas on how you think that object was
used in the past. After listing your thoughts, find some relevant information on the internet that
may tell you more about your chosen object. You may also search for answers at the library if you
want. Once you find valid information, compare your work to the real origins of the object to see
how you fared.

What do you think?

Can the use of the historical approach predict the future? Why? Why not?

Tips

 The historical method does not accept logic as the primary source of the truth. Instead, it
relies on factual information or evidence-based conclusions to confirm a present idea as the
truth.
 The historical method, as a method of philosophizing, should not be mistaken for historical
materialism. Although both concepts fall under philosophy, historical materialism is a
Marxian topic that caters to a more liberal readership.
  History, as a discipline, should be considered a separate topic from the historical method.
While both concepts focus on past events as significant, the latter only uses history to
produce its main goal which is the truth.

Keypoints

 A method of philosophizing is a process of determining truths or conclusions from a

statement through the use of various philosophical methods such as Socratic, dialectics,
historical, and scientific.
 The historical method deals with examining the past to come up with present truths.
 An opinion is a personal view formed about a particular matter, while the truth is
something that has actual and proven existence regardless of one’s opinion.
 The historical method of philosophizing leads to wisdom and truth.

PHILOSOPHY OF THE HUMAN PERSON

One’s Limitations and Possibilities for Transcendence

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 explain the human person as an embodied spirit,

 recognize one's limitations and possibilities,
 distinguish limitations and possibilities from transcendence,
 realize how the human body imposes limits and possibilities, and
 evaluate own limitations and possibilities for transcendence.
Many people admire Jason for being the youngest director of the biggest conglomerate in the
Philippines. He is also one of the richest bachelors under 30 years old. Little do people know that
he was once a poor boy who dreamed big and worked hard to attain his current status. When
asked about his successes, Jason said that he considers seeing his family happy, imparting his
knowledge to others, and being able to serve others as the successes he is most proud of.

 Like Jason, all people have lifelong goals that they want to fulfill. If you were finally able to
meet your life goal, how would you feel?
 Do you think your perspective in life will change?

Find out the answers in this lesson!

Learn about it!

The previous example talks about transcendence or a state of "existence above and beyond the
limits of material experience." Transcendence originated from the words trans, meaning "go
beyond," and scandare, meaning "climb."

In the example, fulfilling a goal entails transcendence because it opens a state of thinking and
feeling that there is something more in life than just physical and material things. Much like
Abraham Maslow's self-actualization concept, transcendence is a state of being intrinsically
satisfied with life regardless of physical and tangible factors.

The Human Person as an Embodied Spirit

In totality, a man is a physical body, a living soul (the inner self; mortal), and a spirit (the life-force;
immortal).
The spirit takes form through the mortal, physical body to represent its qualities in the conscious,
physical world. Each body part has its worldly function that is communicated in an expressive and
understandable form.

For Aristotle, a human person is a personal being that possesses its intellectual nature in a
natural unity with a material body. This unity is called: "man as a rational animal."

For St. Thomas, the total vision of man would be the "embodied spirit."

Learn about it!

Limitations and Possibilities for Transcendence

Here are some limitations and possibilities for transcendence:

Limitations of Transcendence
 may not occur to everyone
 does not come at a specified period
 varies across all people
 may coincide with physical limitations of the body
Possibilities for Transcendence
 developing a positive outlook in life
 working towards reaching a goal
 learning from experience
It is also important to know that transcendence may be applied to present worries by living in the
present. This means that life is lived from moment to moment in a carefree and exuberant manner
where concerns for stress are reserved for the future, and regrets or guilt feelings are kept in the
past.

Learn about it!

The Human Body in Imposing Limits and Possibilities

From a biological and physical standpoint, it can be recognized that the human body, although it
can perform many functions, also has limitations. Limits in the environment, demographics, and
society may also hinder a person from reaching transcendence.

Here are some examples:

Bodily Limitations
 mental and emotional disorders (e.g. anxiety, intellectual disability)
 disabilities (e.g. amputated leg, deafness)
 diseases and illnesses (e.g. hypertension, cough)
 failures and experiences (e.g. failing a subject)
Social and Environmental Limitations
 socioeconomic status
 location of neighborhood (e.g. armed, disorganized, or violent neighborhood)
 abusive relationships (e.g. emotional abuse)
 negative influences (e.g. drug use)
Overcoming Limitations
Bodily limits can be tested by trying on new experiences and working on challenges with
increasing levels of difficulty. The human body, if given enough exposure to any situation, can
attain a goal with efficiency.
Social and environmental limitations are more difficult to overcome than bodily limitations because
they involve the influence of other people and the external world. However, with a proper mindset,
clearly defined goals, and motivation to rise above challenges, one may successfully overcome his
or her limitations.

Learn about it!

Recognize and Evaluate Own Limitations and Possibilities for Transcendence

Even though you are still young, you are not prevented from further understanding yourself.
Transcendence is even more possible when you begin to understand that you can go beyond your
limitations if you set your mind on your goals.

Some points to remember when going beyond your limits are:

 You are connected to the external or eternal world.

 Challenges are learning opportunities.
 Your goal is more important than your fears.
 Think outside the box.
 Recognize that everyone has fears.

Explore!

The world continues to change rapidly. Nowadays, the generation gap can easily be seen in
everyday life because of new technological advances being introduced at a fast pace.

In your personal experience, does technological advancement limit or improve the possibility for
transcendence? Why? Why not?

Try it!

Look around you. Observe the environment and identify possible factors that may limit
transcendence. You may also put yourself in the position of those who experience such limitations.
Identify ways on how you may overcome those challenges.

What do you think?

Is reaching transcendence always a good thing? Why? Why not?

Tips

 The terms "transcendent" and "transcendental" should not be used interchangeably.

According to Immanuel Kant, "transcendent" is a term used to refer to God, while
"transcendental" refers to all other matter.
 While transcendence may not occur for everyone, all people have the capacity to
experience it regardless of any sociodemographic, biological, or personal factors.

Keypoints

 Transcendence is a state of being or existence that is above and beyond physical needs
and realities.
  From a biological and physical standpoint, it can be recognized that the human body,
although it can perform many functions, also has limitations and possibilities.
 In aiming for transcendence, it is important to consider the feasibility of your goals, the
work you would need to put in it, the challenges you will face, and other factors that may
come in play.

Prudence and Frugality Towards One’s Environment

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 identify disorder in the environment and suggest solutions to the problem,

 prove that care for the environment contributes to health, well-being, and sustainable
development, and
 demonstrate the virtues of prudence and frugality towards the environment.
A self-supporting college student works part-time as a service crew to be able to fund his
education. He earns PhP 2,000.00 more than what he needs to pay for monthly expenses. With
this extra money, he could have bought the expensive watch he always wanted. Thinking
practically, he decided to save his money in the bank instead.

 How will you describe this college student?

 What qualities does he possess regarding handling his money?
 How can you relate his behavior to current environmental trends?

Find out the answers in this lesson!

Learn about it!

Prudence and Frugality

In the previous example, the college student was shown to have direction and control over what
he needs versus what he wants by being prudent and frugal with his money.

Prudence is defined as the ability to have good judgment that allows avoidance of dangers and
risks. Meanwhile, frugality is the act of using money or other resources wisely and practically.

These virtues or values should not just be applied in a personal setting. The environment is also in
critical need of these so that it can function efficiently and productively. People have the
responsibility to exercise prudence and frugality not just within themselves, but also in taking care
of the environment.
Learn about it!

Disorders in the Environment and Aesthetic Organization

Noticing disorder in the environment is relatively straightforward. People are required to employ
observation to determine whether an environment is organized or not.

However, there may be signs that may easily point to environmental disorganization, such as:

 Lack of resources: The environment is both a producer and consumer for all species. The
unavailability of a particular local byproduct may imply excessive disturbance that is not at
par with its reproduction.
 Things are not in place: The environment exhibits a sense of chaos or confusion. It does
not create a place of comfort and warmth.
In times of disorganization, it is essential to fix aesthetics to make the environment more
conducive. Such ways include re-potting and rearranging plants or using a variety of flowers. By
the end of the day, it is important to remember that there is no specific way of improving the
environment aesthetically, and that it will all come down to your perception of what is aesthetically
acceptable.

Learn about it!

The Importance of Caring for the Environment

The environment contributes to health and well-being.

 Some plants have medicinal properties that may aid in the removal of pathogens in the
body.
 Fruits and vegetables are good sources of numerous vitamins and minerals.
 The aesthetic properties of the environment make an excellent venue for various exercises
and activities.
The environment contributes to sustainable development.

 The environment is the primary source of raw resources used to make all types of food and
materials.
 With appropriate techniques, the environment can reproduce and regenerate resources that
have been harvested or lost.
 The environment produces oxygen and carbon dioxide which are necessary factors in the
continuation of life systems.

Learn about it!

Demonstrating Prudence and Frugality Towards the Environment

With new forms of technological advances that make life easier, the seemingly simple task of
demonstrating prudence and frugality towards the environment becomes a challenge. One must
realize that the processes involved in the environment are not occurring as fast as modern
technologies do. Looking deeper, exercising prudence and frugality towards the environment is
both a personal and collective responsibility.

Below are some examples:

 cooking and consuming food with little to no leftovers

 planting trees in replacement of cut-down ones
 employing waste segregation strategies in the community and recycling reusable materials
Explore!

It is no surprise to know that the environment is nearing destruction because of human acts that
are not sustainable. As evidenced by climate change and natural disasters, the environment is in
great need of reconstruction and rehabilitation. As such, many environmental groups were formed
to channel the values of prudence and frugality in their platforms. Even simple acts such as the
“no plastic policy” is implemented across many areas to help reduce wastes and chemicals that
may harm the environment.

In your perspective, what other ways may be done to exercise prudence and frugality towards the
environment?

Try it!

Observe prudence and frugality in the environment by using your community as an example. Go
around your area and look for activities, posters, or laws that promote prudence and frugality. You
may also consult with your local government unit regarding any government-organized program
that addresses your concern. Additionally, you may take online tests that can determine your
carbon footprint or your attitude towards positive environmental change.

What do you think?

Is the value of prudence different from frugality? What makes them different? What makes them
the same?

Tips

 The values of prudence and frugality can be used in any setting or situation. It is not limited
to environmental causes.
 It is important to note that an environment may be any external setting that people live in.
An environment is not limited to plants and animals, and may be found in a rural or urban
setting.

Keypoints

 Prudence is the ability to have good judgment that allows avoidance of dangers and risks.
 Frugality is the act of using money or other resources wisely and practically.
 Disorder in the environment may be evidenced by lack of resources or displacement of
things.
 It is important to care for the environment because it promotes health, well-being,
and sustainable development.
 An environment may be any external setting that people live in.

Freedom of Choice and its Consequences

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 define freedom and explain the freedom of the human person,

 prove that all actions and choices have consequences,
 evaluate and exercise prudence in choice,
  realize that some things are given up while others are obtained in making choices, and
 show situations that demonstrate freedom of choice and the consequences of their choices.
Imagine you won a big contest, and you were asked to choose just one of the following prizes:

A. a luxury car with a non-transferable contract

B. a 4-year college educational scholarship at any school in the Philippines
C. a 1-month all-expense paid trip to three European countries
 Which prize will you choose?
 What factors made you come up with that decision?
Find out the answers in this lesson!

Learn about it!

In the previous example, you were asked to choose just one prize. Seemingly, all of them are
great prizes. However, if you will weigh the pros and cons of each, you will easily realize that one
may be better than the other. For example, if you choose the luxury car, the high cost of
maintenance fees and gasoline may burden you. The European trip would also be fun, but seems
too impractical. A 4-year scholarship would have been the best choice because it is long-term and
useful.

In choosing which prize to get, you have already exercised your freedom to make decisions.
However, it is important to realize that, as shown in the example, the choices you make have
corresponding consequences.

The power or right to act, speak, or think as you want without hindrance or restraint is
called freedom.

Learn about it!

Defining Freedom of Choice and its Limits

The ability to exercise one's freedom in any manner is called freedom of choice. By law, all
human beings are entitled to make decisions for themselves in whatever way they choose to.

 The only exception to this rule is when an absolute choice harms or delimits the self and
others.
 It can be compared to a cause and effect relationship where a decision concludes with a
corresponding effect on the person or the environment.
 Freedom of choice also includes the way one acts towards another. All forms of action,
therefore, are brought about by a person's decision to accomplish them.
 All decisions, big or small, have corresponding consequences which may be good or bad.

Learn about it!

Demonstrating Prudence in All Choices

Prudence is an act of making good judgment that allows a person to avoid risks. It is important to
be prudent at all times to prevent any harm that a decision may cause.

In making a decision, it is critical to determine the adverse effects beforehand to avoid greater
risks. Exercising prudence in choice implies that one has already criticized all available options,
and a well-thought-of choice has been made.

How will you demonstrate prudence in the following scenarios?

  You do not have many friends in school, but one fraternity—known for their hazardous
activities—is recruiting you to be part of their brotherhood.
 A trusted colleague is inviting you to invest in her restaurant business.

Learn about it!

The Consequences of Making Choices

Because making choices involves various options, it should be realized from the beginning that
some things will eventually be given up in exchange for another. Before coming up with a final
decision, it is important to first weigh the contributions and consequences that may arise upon
choosing a certain option. Nevertheless, all choices result in a particular effect that you, as a
decision maker, should be ready to face.

What consequences may arise from the following scenarios?

 deciding not to attend the institutional orientation at the start of the school year
 playing online games instead of studying for a difficult exam
 making fun of your classmate and being caught by the teacher
While exercising the freedom to choose is attainable by all people, it should always be realized
that decision-making is a linear and complex task that requires accountability and commitment.

Explore!

As evidenced by social media, people’s actions are more reflected in public nowadays. Every time
you log-in to your account, it will not be a surprise to see posts about the wrongdoings of people in
various environments.

You may have seen videos of students bullying a classmate, adults being unprofessionally mean
to their workmates, or parents abusing their children. In these situations, the people doing
unacceptable acts were judged and criticized by netizens. Some have even become so popular
that they cannot go out in public because they can easily be recognized and mobbed. It is clear
that people experiencing these situations have not made the right choices regarding their actions.

In your perspective, how could have these people handled the situations better?

Try it!

Create a list of opportunities that you currently have. Make an organized table that will allow you to
plot your options and weigh each one’s pros and cons in your life. Using your learnings in this
lesson, critically analyze each opportunity you may have, and then decide which choice is best for
you. Make sure to exercise prudence in making your decision.

What do you think?

Can your freedom of choice, at some point or instance in your life, be legally removed from you?
Why? Why not?

Tips

 Apart from the freedom to choose, it is also relevant to know that freedom does not stop at
making a choice. There are also several areas where freedom may be exercised (e.g. free
speech or freedom of information).
  Religious and cultural practices may limit one's freedom of choice. Even though a person is
given the right by the state to choose for himself, he may not be able to do so because of
the religion or culture that he belongs to (e.g. arranged marriage).

Keypoints

 Freedom is the power or right to act, speak, or think as one wants without hindrance or
restraint.
 The ability to exercise one’s freedom in any manner is called freedom of choice.
 The freedom to choose stops when there is risk or harm that may be inflicted on the self or
other people.
 Prudence is an act of making a good judgment that allows a person to avoid risks.
 All forms of action are brought about by a person’s decision to accomplish them.
 Religious and cultural practices may limit one’s freedom of choice.

Intersubjectivity

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 define and explain the meaning and the process of intersubjectivity,

 discuss the application and importance of intersubjectivity to society,
 prove that authentic dialogue means accepting others even if they are different from you,
and
 demonstrate an appreciation for the talents of persons with disabilities and those from the
underprivileged sectors of society.
Whenever an unfortunate event occurs, you feel sad or anxious, but how do you assure yourself
that those feelings are real?

Find out the answer in this lesson!

Learn about it!

In looking at the example, it is easy to say that interacting with others can confirm the validity of
emotions a person may have towards the environment. In this interaction, intersubjectivity takes
place.

The Meaning and Process of Intersubjectivity

Each person has a subjective experience of the world. However, because of this subjective
experience, one cannot know which events occur in reality or which are products of self-
perception.

Social interactions among individuals through comparison, agreement, and confirmation of each
others' perceptions make it easier to determine real events occurring in society. This concept is
called intersubjectivity−−the shared perception of reality between or among two or more
individuals.

A main principle of intersubjectivity is communarization, a social process wherein the community

of other people are seen as embedded within the self. This process initially occurs with the idea
that other individuals are extensions of the self and serve as the “alter-ego” of a person’s being.
The self and others are therefore seen as a pair that shares each other’s lived experiences. This is
much like the concept of empathy or “being in the shoes” of others.
Learn about it!

The Application of Intersubjectivity to Society

Because intersubjectivity looks at others as embedded within the self, it is safe to say that this
concept also promotes a view that all people are equal. This would imply that people from other
sectors of society, such as those who have physical disabilities or socioeconomic challenges, are
seen as individuals with the same potential and talents as anybody else.

Because intersubjectivity is unbiased, everyone has the power to understand relationships and
interactions occurring within society with little regard to social or physical deficiencies. In effect,
people who are marginalized may still be seen as significant contributors to society through their
talents, skills, and capabilities.

Below are some authentic examples of disadvantaged individuals who have significantly
contributed to society:

 Stephen Hawking is a physicist and cosmologist who, despite his rare medical condition
called amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), made significant contributions to contemporary
studies of relativity and quantum physics.
 As a child, Oprah Winfrey experienced living in a poor household and was sexually abused.
Despite this, she motivated herself to succeed and did so by being one of the richest
women alive today.

Learn about it!

The Use of Authentic Dialogue

Authentic dialogue is a form of interpersonal communication wherein individuals acknowledge
that they are part of a greater whole and that they resonate with others within the whole. This
occurs when individuals learn to set aside their personal biases and begin seeing themselves in
others through communarization. In this sense, other people, including the marginalized sector,
are seen as functional parts of a whole. No biases or preferences are exemplified during the
dialogue because an individual has learned to perceive and communicate with others with a sense
of community and oneness.

Examples:

 accepting your classmates’ opinion on government services because his experience with
transacting with government employees is different from yours
 overlooking the fact that your boss yelled at you since you understand that he only did so
out of concern over an urgent matter

Learn about it!

The Importance of Intersubjectivity

Intersubjectivity has significant contributions to society and relationships, including the following:

 It validates real and authentic subjective experiences.

 It facilitates interaction among individuals.
 It enables individuals to look at others equally, regardless of any physical or socio-
demographic factor.
  It promotes a sense of community and unity among individuals.
 It emphasizes that anyone can contribute to society.

Explore!

Many people all over the world have attested to the idea that spiritual entities, such as the ghost of
a departed loved one, are just lurking the earth with living human beings. Some people, however,
are hesitant to believe this phenomenon because there is still not enough proof that the
supernatural exists.

In your perception, can the concept of intersubjectivity be used to confirm the validity of this
phenomenon?

Try it!

Look around you and list down your observations. Have a friend do the same thing on the same
environment. Compare your observations once both of you are finished. Identify common
observations you had and discuss any dissimilar remarks you have each made.

What do you think?

Are intersubjective concepts always considered real occurrences? Why? Why not?

Tips

 Intersubjectivity is not a process, but rather a concept. The process incorporated within the
concept is communarization.
 Authentic dialogue is a technique that requires, at least, two people in a conversation with
each other. This is a variety of a simple dialogue.

Keypoints

 Intersubjectivity is a concept where social interactions among individuals through

comparison, agreement, and confirmation of each other's perceptions make it easier to
determine real events occurring in society.
 Communarization is a social process wherein the community of other people are seen as
embedded within the self.
 An authentic dialogue is a form of interpersonal communication wherein individuals
acknowledge that they are part of a greater whole and that they resonate with others within
the whole.
 Intersubjectivity is important because it validates authentic subjective experiences,
facilitates interactions, and promotes a sense of unity and community among individuals.

Human Relationships and Their Social Context

Learn about it!

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 recognize how individuals form societies and how societies transform individuals,
  explain how social systems transform human relations, and
 evaluate how social systems change human relationships and how societies process
individual people.
You have spent your whole life living in the Philippines. However, your parents told you that you
will be migrating to the United Kingdom next year and that you will be staying there for good.

 Do you think that you will change as a person once you live somewhere else?
 What can influence you to change your beliefs and attitudes?

Find out the answers in this lesson!

Learn about it!

People and society have a reciprocal and complementary relationship. People’s personalities and
culture depend upon the processes and events occurring in society. Similarly, society takes its
changes from how people act, perceive, and shape it.

Living in another community, as shown by the previous example, constitutes an entirely different
social environment that may be different from one's beliefs and culture. Immersing oneself in a
new society, therefore, exhibits a change in both the community and the person.

Social Influence and Transformation

Individuals are the building blocks of society. They take on various social roles to ensure the
smooth flow of social processes that regularly occur within the community. However, it is the
collective action of individuals that mainly influence how society is formed and structured.

Example:

If many people of one community perceive catcalling as offensive and derogatory, then society will
have an unwritten norm that such an act is unacceptable. With the repetition of this process, a
community can form and develop its culture and character.

Learn about it!

Social Influence and Transformation

Reciprocally, society also transforms individuals into social and cultural beings. As a part of
society, individuals experience enculturation or the process by which people acquire the
knowledge, skills, attitudes, and culture embedded in society. These social and cultural qualities
vary across cultures since they are also created and influenced by human action. As such, you
may notice that different communities have unique cultures, traditions, and norms.

Examples:

 The openness of Thai people to gender differences has made their country diverse in terms
of social partnerships and preferences.
 In the Philippines, making slurping sounds while eating noodles is a sign of disrespect.
However, in Japan, doing the same act is a positive way of expressing satisfaction with the
food.
Learn about it!

Social Systems and Their Influence on Human Relations

A social system is the structure of society consisting of individuals who interact and relate in a
shared cultural and symbolic environment. As such, individuals serve as the backbone of the
larger social system and are moderated and formed by social institutions such as the family,
education, religion, economy, and government.

In this sense, each person belonging to a society plays a social role that is at par with social norms
and institutions. An individual's role may encompass any single organization at once that he is
altogether a student, son, layperson, and playmate. It is with these roles that appropriate human
behavior and relationships are defined and acted out in society. The social system, therefore,
dictates through norms and institutions how an individual can relate and interact with others.

In your perspective, how would the following events influence human relations?

 The mode of governance shifted from democracy to dictatorship.

 Only a single religion was legally allowed to be practiced in the country.

Learn about it!

The Importance of Human Relations in Society

Human relations make up patterned interactive relationships which are the most powerful unit of
the social system. Participation in these interactions establishes an individual's social role and
status in forming the collective, intricate characteristics of society. Without human relations,
institutions and the system itself would cease to exist.

Explore!

The Philippines takes its unique social characteristics from three colonial influences that vastly
shaped local society and culture. Even until today, evidences of Spanish, American, and Japanese
colonialism flourish in every day Filipino living. For instance, many Filipino surnames were derived
from Spanish origins. Filipinos are also relatively good English speakers in comparison with other
Southeast Asian nationalities. What other influences have our past left us? How do these forces
shape our culture and society?

Try it!

With a friend, write down characteristics that make each of you a social and human person. You
may include your perceived roles in society as well as the social institutions you belong to. From
these, identify your contributions to society and how society affects you. Compare your results and
try to come up with a common pattern or theme with what both of you shared. In this way, you will
further understand how an individual influences society and vice versa through social interactions.

What do you think?

What will happen to society when its social structure becomes damaged or faulty? What
circumstances may cause this event to occur?
Tips

 It is important to understand that the process of enculturation is different

from acculturation. While the first deals with acquiring one's culture, beliefs, and norms,
the latter focuses on obtaining the same constructs from another society.
 Social constructs, belief systems, interactions, culture, and structure vary across countries.
This is the reason why countries are different from each other despite some similar cultural
traditions and beliefs.

Keypoints

 Individuals are the building blocks of society. They take on various social roles to ensure
the smooth flow of social processes that regularly occur within the community.
 Enculturation is the process by which people acquire the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and
culture embedded in their society.
 A social system is the structure of society consisting of individuals who interact and relate
in a shared cultural and symbolic environment.
 Social institutions include religion, education, government, economy, and family.
 Human relations make up patterned interactive relationships which are the most important
unit of the social system.

Different Forms of Societies and Individuals

Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 compare different types or forms of societies and individuals, and

 discuss the interaction between individuals and societies in the social system.
In the Philippines, life in the province is certainly different from life in the city. While structures,
technology, and transportation continue to boom in the cities, provinces remain to be less
industrialized, but rich in local produce and resources. As such, individuals who grew up in cities
develop as persons differently from those born in the provinces.

How do these differing societies influence individuals?

Find out the answer in this lesson!

Learn about it!

Socioeconomic, technological, and environmental differences in societies may dictate cultural

differences among individuals. Because different types of societies exist, it is also expected that
there are various societal differences among individuals as well.

Individuals and Societal Transformations

Individuals are social animals who need society for food, protection, education, and other forms
of support. Meanwhile, a society is a collection of individuals shaped by social relations and
interactions. As such, individuals and society need each other to function properly. They have a
complementary relationship that is improved and influenced by culture and social institutions. In
effect, societies and individuals all around the world develop varying cultures and practices.
Examples:

 Many Filipino children still live with their parents even during adulthood.
 Paris is known as the center of fashion due to numerous designers that focused their works
in the city.

Learn about it!

Types of Societies and Individuals

In learning about types of societies, it is important to know that classifications were made by
socioeconomic conditions and availability of resources. Nevertheless, these classifications
describe all currently existing models of societies.

Types of Societies
Agrarian (Agricultural)

 It focuses on the production of crops and raising of farm animals.

 Women share the same type and mode of labor.
 It utilizes technological advances to cultivate crops.

Industrial (Modern Industrial)

 It introduced fuel-driven machinery in goods production.

 Factories are seen as the center of work.
 Transportation is more developed and advanced than agricultural societies.

Virtual (Post-Industrial)

 Professional services are offered in exchange for money.

 Technology is used in every aspect of life and work
 It focuses on the production and selling of information.
Apart from these, some more types of societies include pastoral, hunting and gathering, and
feudal. However, these models no longer exist at present.

Learn about it!

Types of Individuals in Society

The types of individuals in a society are dictated by socioeconomic conditions and capability. Each
individual belongs to a certain social class or group of people with similar levels of wealth and
status.

Lower Class

 experiences poverty, homelessness, and unemployment

 relatively higher in number in developing countries
Working Class

 constitutes blue-collared workers (e.g. waiter, driver, salesperson)

 experiences low career opportunities and minimal wage
Middle Class

 consists of white-collared workers (e.g. doctor, lawyer, engineer)

 able to survive life with relatively minimal material difficulties
 typically provides professional services as sources of income
Upper Class

 consists of individuals born into aristocratic families

 usually involves families with large businesses and ventures

Learn about it!

Different Individuals and Societies in the Social System

The social system denotes the whole society that is comprised of individuals and institutions
interacting within the same structure. Despite differences in classifications, all types of individuals
and social models co-exist and interact within the social system. Different combinations between
individuals and societal models may occur within the system. As such, culture is developed
through simultaneous societal interactions.

Examples:

 Individuals from the upper class may primarily live in agricultural settings due to the nature
of their family business (e.g. haciendero).
 Provinces near the Metro have an industrialized society and is primarily composed of
middle class workers.

Explore!

As society continuously rebuilt itself, vast changes occurred within the last 10 years. The
Philippines used to be an industrialized society, but with the sudden availability of resources and
opportunities, it was able to shift to a post-industrial social model. Alongside this, many middle
class workers emerged since new professional positions were developed. Looking at these
advancements, what societal changes do you think will occur within the next ten years?

Try it!

Assess yourself and your society. In a sheet of paper, list down the socioeconomic characteristics
of your family, including the work of your parents, siblings, or extended family members who live
with you. Next, briefly list down the characteristics of your current environment and living
conditions. Using your learning from this lesson, try to determine which social class you and your
family belong to, as well as the type of society you live in.

What do you think?

Is it possible for a nation not to have all types of societies and individuals within the social system?
Why? Why not?

Tips

 Individuals from different social classes may interact with one another; however, interaction
does not change a person’s social class. An individual’s social group changes only when
his socioeconomic capabilities change.
 All individuals may fall under only one social class at any single point in time. Meanwhile,
people may encounter and live in different types of societies at the same time (e.g. having
two houses in different parts of the country).
  All types of societies and individuals fall under a social system. It is important to remember
that a social system goes beyond the individual and society. It also includes culture,
institutions, and the interaction among these factors.

Keypoints

 Individuals are social animals who need society for food, protection, education, and other
forms of support.
 Society is a collection of individuals shaped by social relations and interactions.
 The types of societies evident at present are agrarian, industrial, and virtual. Meanwhile,
societies such as pastoral, hunting and gathering, and feudal are not existing anymore.
 Individuals fall under any one of the four social classes,
namely: lower, working, middle, and upper.

The Meaning of Life

Objectives

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

 explain the origin, meaning, and purpose of life,

 enumerate the goals a person wants to achieve,
 define the projects an individual intends to do in life, and
 reflect on the meaning and purpose of his or her life.
 How would you feel when a person close to you suddenly passed away?
 What would you think about your own mortality during that time?
Find out the answers in this lesson!

Learn about it!

Life is short and unpredictable. For many people, there is a purpose in living, and gradually going
through life allows one discover his real purpose. Still, many people are unable to understand their
lives and to make meaning out of it.

The Origin of Life

Evolutionists believe that everything in the cosmos, including life, can be explained by the
interaction of matter. They initially believed in spontaneous generation−−that living things can
arise from non-living materials; for example, worms, flies, or even mice could develop from grain,
meat, or other materials. At present, scientists were already able to develop more complex, valid,
and organized theories on the origin of life.

Creationists, on the other hand, believe that life came from a supreme being or a god. They use
scriptures, rather than scientific evidences, as proof of their belief. An example of this would be the
story of creation in the Bible.
Learn about it!

The Significance and Meaning of Life

Some people nowadays often believe that life has no meaning or significance because it is either
(1) brought about by a god, or (2) developed by modern science. In both scenarios, life would be
certainly meaningless if the person does not believe in a god or modern science.

However, many theorists go against this belief by saying that life has meaning. Based on the
theoretical concept of meaning, theorists and philosophers specified that life must be embedded in
communication, understanding, and service. As such, the meaning of life becomes centralized in
doing acts of integration, selflessness, and love.

The meaning of life is incredibly significant because it is believed to balance the good-evil
relationship within the self. It is established as a collective defense against psychological problems
like aggression and divisiveness. People who have found meaning in their lives therefore seem
happier, more approachable, and more understanding than those who have not.

Learn about it!

The Accomplishment of Personal Goals

Discovering the meaning of life constitutes people to live life to the fullest. As such, they engage in
various activities as much as possible, and they immerse themselves with what life has to offer.
Research reveals that one out of five people are convinced that they are living their lives to the
fullest and that majority of all individuals who want to live life to its fullest are longing for
excitement. These activities may be reflected in a bucket list, a list of all goals, dreams, and
achievements that one wants to attain before death.

Below are some examples of adventurous ideas that may be found in a bucket list:

 Travel all around the world.

 Build a charitable institution.
 Strengthen spiritual life.
 Obtain an undergraduate diploma.

Learn about it!

The Endpoint of Life

Physical life is given an origin, meaning, and purpose because it has an end. Physical death is a
state that all humans will encounter at the end. Many people are afraid of dying because it is the
final, irreversible state of reality that leads to another path or journey. Since people desire
consciousness, memory, personhood, and love to be experienced consciously, the unconscious
state of death becomes a fearful fate.

What concerns people more about life is that death may come unexpectedly. Some people die
young. Because of this, people tend to choose to achieve their goals as soon as possible to
ensure that they do not miss out on life before death.

Do you know the meaning and purpose of your life?

Explore!

The quality of life may play a significant role in the life experiences of people. It is said that those
who have poorer quality of lives may be expected to die relatively younger than those who can live
life satisfactorily. Despite differences in the condition of life, all people are capable of creating
goals for their lives. In your perspective, how are individuals with poorer quality of lives able to
transcend their condition and reach their career goals?

Try it!

Make a bucket list of all the goals and dreams you want to attain for your whole life. You may want
to divide your goals in terms of years before you achieve them (e.g. "These are my goals for the
next five years"). Upon making them, try to fulfill as much as you can throughout your life. Be sure
to make goals that are reachable and safe for you.

What do you think?

Is the concept of “cheating death” possible? How?

Tips

 Although many people desire for adventure in living life, bucket lists may involve any activity
that may not necessarily invoke adventure.
 The ability to find meaning in life is not limited to people who have a high quality of life. All
persons, regardless of sociodemographic and personal factors, are capable of discovering
the meaning of life on their own.

Keypoints

 Evolutionists believe that everything in the cosmos, including life, can be explained in
terms of the interaction of matter.
 Creationists believe that life was brought about by a supreme being or a god.
 The meaning of life is incredibly significant because it is believed to balance the good-evil
relationship within the self. It is established as a collective defense against psychological
problems like aggression and divisiveness.
 Theorists and philosophers specified that life must be embedded
in communication, understanding, and service.
 Research shows that one out of five people are convinced that they are living their lives to
the fullest and that majority of all people who want to live life to its fullest are longing for
excitement.
 A bucket list is a list of all goals, dreams, and achievements one intends to attain before
death.
 Physical death is a state that all humans will encounter at the end of conscious life. Many
people are afraid of dying because it is the final, irreversible state of reality that leads to
another path or journey.