National University of Science and Technology

Faculty of Industrial Technology

Department of Chemical Engineering

MASS TRANSFER PROCESSES TCE 2203

Handout one

 Introduction to the course

 Gas Absorption
Introduction to Mass Transfer Processes 1B

What is this course about?

Mass Transfer Operations deal with “unit operations” involving “mass transfer” (a
microscopic process in a macroscopic scale). Within the context of this course, mass
transfer is defined as the transportation of one (or more) components from one phase to
another.

Motivation: in many industrial processes we use mass transfer to achieve separation

(enrichment or removal) of a substance from a mixture. Emphasis is placed on separation
processes that involve equilibrium between the phases. Unit operations are concerned with
the analysis and design of equipment or processes. Mass transfer operations are concerned
with the analysis and design of equipment (single unit) and processes used in equilibrium-
staged separations. Mass transfer operations are largely the responsibility of chemical
engineers. Chemical plants usually have from 50 to 90% of their capital invested in
separation equipment. There is virtually no industrial process that does not involve
purification of raw materials or final separation of products. The goal of a separation
process is to purify solutions. To do this we must cause differential transport of species or
conversion of species so that the purer mixtures can be collected. Most separation
processes involve differential transport.

Historical Examples:

 Gas cleaning
 Extraction of perfume from flowers
 Evaporation of seawater to get salt
 Distillation of liquors
 Purification of drugs
 Refining of crude oil
 Purification of organics

There are many reasons for wanting pure substances. Some of these reasons include:

 Need for pure material in engineering application (semiconductors)

 Need for pure material in chemicals production (reactors)
 Preparation of raw materials into their components
 Need to remove toxins or inactive components from solution (drugs)
 Need for ultrapure samples for testing
 Need to purify water for drinking use

Summarised as

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 1 of 43

  Enrichment
 Concentration
 Purification
 Refining
 Isolation

The fundamentals that we will apply to study separations in this course involve:

1. Materials and energy balances: conservation of energy and matter

2. Thermodynamics: phase equilibrium and solution thermodynamics
3. Transport phenomena
4. Chemical reaction kinetics: rate of conversion of one species to another

For the most part our analysis of various mass transfer processes, we will focus on using
phase equilibrium and materials and energy balances.

Mass transfer processes can be run in various modes of operation:

 Batchwise: no flows
 Continuous: continuous flows in and out of separators
 Semicontinuous: pauses in flows.

A substantial number of the unit operations of chemical engineering are concerned with
the problem of changing the compositions of solutions and mixtures through methods not
necessarily involving chemical reactions. Usually these operations are directed toward
separating a substance into its components parts. For mixtures ,such separations may be
entirely mechanical, e.g., the filtration of a solid from a suspension in a liquid, the
classification of a solid into fractions of different particle size by screening, or the
separation of particles of a ground solid according to their density. On the other hand, if the
operations involve changes in composition of solutions, they are known as the mass
transfer operations and it is these which concern us here.

The importance of these operations is profound. There is scarcely any chemical process
which does not require preliminary purification of raw materials or final separation of
products from by-products, and for these the mass transfer operations are used. One can
perhaps most readily develop an immediate appreciation of the part these separation play
in a processing plant by the large number of towers which bristle from a modern
petroleum refinery, in each of which a mass-transfer operation takes place. Frequently the
major part of the cost of a process is that for the separation. These separations or
purification cost depend directly upon the ratio of final to initial concentration of the
separated substances, and if the ratio is large, the product costs are large. Thus, sulfuric
acid is a relatively low-priced product in part because sulfur is found naturally in a

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 2 of 43

relatively pure state, whereas uranium is expensive because of the low concentration in
which it is found in nature. The mass transfer operations are characterized by transfer of a
substance through another on a molecular scale. The mass transfer is a result of
concentration gradient.

In this course, we will look at:

 Gas absorption and stripping

 Liquid-liquid extraction
 Leaching
 Drying
 Humidification and dehumidification
 Cooling towers

Reference Texts

 Mass Transfer Operations by Robert E. Treybal

 Separation Process Principles by J. D. Seader and H. Henley
 Principles and modern applications of mass transfer operations by Jaime Benitez
 Coulson and Richardson’s Chemical Engineering Volume 2
 Chemical Engineer’s Handbook by Perry and Chilton
 Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering by W. L. McCabe, J. C. Smith and P. Harriot

Course work will contribute 25% to the final mark and is made up of 2 unannounced
Assignments and 3 announced tests.

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 3 of 43

CHAPTER ONE
GAS ABSORPTION/DESORPTION
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
 Explain the differences between absorption, and stripping.
 Explain why absorbers are best operated at high pressure and low temperature,
whereas strippers are best operated at low pressure and high temperature.
 Describe and discuss the different types of gas absorption equipment.
 Compare three different types of trays used in gas absorption.
 Explain the difference between random and structured packings and cite examples
of each.
 Derive the operating-line equation used in graphical methods, starting with a
component material balance.
 Calculate the minimum solvent flow rate to achieve a specified key-component
recovery.
 Determine graphically, by stepping off stages, or algebraically the required number
of equilibrium stages in a countercurrent cascade to achieve a specified component
recovery, given a solvent flow rate greater than the minimum value.
 Define overall stage efficiency and explain why efficiencies are low for absorbers
and moderate for strippers.
 Explain two mechanisms by which a trayed column can flood.
 Enumerate the contributions to pressure drop in a trayed column.
 For a packed column, define the height equivalent to a theoretical (equilibrium)
stage or plate (HETP or HETS), and explain how it and the number of equilibrium
stages differ from height of a transfer unit, HTU, and number of transfer units, NTU.
 Calculate the HOG and NOG for a countercurrent cascade to achieve a specified
component recovery, given a solvent flow rate greater.
 Explain the differences between loading point and flooding point in a packed
column.
 Estimate packed height, packed-column diameter, and pressure drop across the
packing.

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 4 of 43

1.0 INTRODUCTION
When you drive by a chemical plant at night, the most impressive part is the lights; they
outline every piece of equipment. When you look more closely, you can often see three
types of silhouettes. The tallest are the thin distillation columns, which are described in the
next chapter. The next tallest are the fat gas absorption columns, which are the subject of
this chapter. Ironically, the shortest silhouettes are the chemical reactors, charged with
reagents to make the desired products.

This relative size has a moral: while the chemical plant would not exist without the
chemical reactors, the biggest expense - the biggest equipment - will often be in the
separation equipment. The analysis and the design of these operations is central to the
entire chemical industry.

I have found that distillation is better understood than gas absorption. I believe that this is
because everyone knows that distillation is how you concentrate ethanol from water:
Distillation is how you turn wine into brandy. In contrast, few know what gas absorption is
for. What specific gases are absorbed anyway? What liquids absorb the gases? What
happens to the lìquids afterwards? I find this ignorance ironic because of increased
environmental concerns. Gas absorption is the chief method for controlling industrial air
pollution, yet many with environmental interests remain ignorant of its nature.

Gas absorption is an operation in which a gas mixture is contacted with a liquid for the
purpose of preferentially dissolving one or more components of the gas and to provide a
solution of them in the liquid. For example the gas from by-product coke ovens is washed
with water to remove ammonia and again with an oil to remove benzene and toluene
vapors. Objectionable hydrogen sulphide is removed from such a gas or from naturally
occurring hydrocarbon gases by washing with various alkaline solutions in which it is
absorbed. Valuable solvent vapors carried by a gas stream can be recovered for reuse by
washing the gas with an appropriate solvent. Such operations require transfer of mass
from the gas stream to the liquid. When mass transfer occurs in the opposite direction, i.e.
from the liquid to the gas, the operation is called desorption or stripping. For example the
benzene and toluene in absorption oils are removed by contacting the liquid solution with
steam, whereupon the vapors enter the gas stream and are carried away and the
absorption oil can be used again.

Since the principles of both absorption and stripping are basically the same, we can study
both operations at the same time.

Absorption is a process that refers to the transfer of a gaseous pollutant from a gas phase to
a liquid phase. More specifically, in air pollution control, absorption involves the removal of
objectionable gaseous pollutants from a process stream by dissolving them in a liquid. The
Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 5 of 43
absorption process can be categorized as physical or chemical. Physical absorption occurs
when the absorbed compound dissolves in the liquid; chemical absorption occurs when
the absorbed compound and the liquid (or a reagent in the liquid) react. Liquids commonly
used as solvents include water, mineral oils, nonvolatile hydrocarbon oils, and aqueous
solutions.

When water and hydrocarbon oils are used as absorbents, no significant chemical reactions
occur between the absorbent and the solute, and the process is commonly referred to as
physical absorption. When aqueous NaOH is used as the absorbent for an acid gas,
absorption is accompanied by a rapid and irreversible reaction in the liquid. This is
chemical absorption or reactive absorption. More complex examples are processes for
absorbing CO2 and H2S with aqueous solutions of monoethanolamine (MEA) and
diethanolamine (DEA), where there is a more desirable, reversible chemical reaction in the
liquid. Chemical reactions can increase the rate of absorption and solvent absorption
capacity and convert a hazardous chemical to an inert compound.

Terminology
Some common terms used when discussing the absorption process follow:

Absorbent - the liquid, usually water, into which the pollutant is absorbed.

Solute, or absorbate - the gaseous pollutant being absorbed, such as SO2, H2S, etc.

Carrier gas - the inert portion of the gas stream, usually air, from which the pollutant is
being removed.

Interface - the area where the gas phase and the absorbent contact each other.

Solubility - the capability of a particular gas to be dissolved in a given liquid.

Absorption is a mass-transfer operation. In absorption, mass transfer of the gaseous

pollutant into the liquid occurs as a result of a concentration difference (of the pollutant)
between the liquid and gas phases. Absorption continues as long as a concentration
difference exists where the gaseous pollutant and liquid are not in equilibrium with each
other. The concentration difference depends on the solubility of the gaseous pollutant in
the liquid.

Absorbers remove gaseous pollutants by dissolving them into a liquid called the absorbent.
In designing absorbers, optimum absorption efficiency can be achieved by doing the
following:

i. Providing a large interfacial contact area

ii. Providing for good mixing between the gas and liquid phases
Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 6 of 43
 iii. Allowing sufficient residence, or contact, time between the phases
iv. Choosing a liquid in which the gaseous pollutant is very soluble

1.1 SOLUBILITY

Solubility is a very important factor affecting the amount of a pollutant, or solute that can
be absorbed. Solubility is a function of both the temperature and, to a lesser extent, the
pressure of the system. As temperature increases, the amount of gas that can be absorbed
by a liquid decreases. From the ideal gas law: as temperature increases, the volume of a gas
also increases; therefore, at the higher temperatures, less gas is absorbed due its larger
volume. Pressure affects the solubility of a gas in the opposite manner. By increasing the
pressure of a system, the amount of gas absorbed generally increases. The solubility of a
specific gas in a given liquid is defined at a designated temperature and pressure. Table 1.1
presents data on the solubility of SO2 gas in water at 101 kPa, or 1 atm, and various
temperatures. In determining solubility data, the partial pressure (in mm Hg) is measured
with the concentration (in grams of solute per 100 grams of liquid) of the solute in the
liquid. The data in Table 11-1 were taken from The International Critical Tables, a good
source of information concerning gas-liquid systems.

Table 1.1 Partial pressure of SO2 in aqueous solution, mmHg

Grams of SO2 100C 200C 300C 400C 500C 600C 700C

Per 100g H2O

0.0 - - - -60 - - -
0.5 21 29 42 120 83 111 144
1.0 42 59 85 181 164 217 281
1.5 64 90 129 245 247 328 426
2.0 86 123 176 311 333 444 581
2.5 108 157 224 378 421 562 739
3.0 130 191 273 447 511 682 897
3.5 153 227 324 518 603 804 -
4.0 176 264 376 588 698 - -
4.5 199 300 428 588 793 - -
5.0 223 338 482 661 - - -

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 7 of 43

Solubility data are obtained at equilibrium conditions. This involves putting measured
amounts of a gas and a liquid into a closed vessel and allowing it to sit for a period of time.
Eventually, the amount of gas absorbed into the liquid will equal the amount coming out of
the solution. At this point, there is no net transfer of mass to either phase, and the
concentration of the gas in both the gaseous and liquid phases remains constant. The
gas/liquid system is at equilibrium.

Equilibrium conditions are important in operating an absorption tower. If equilibrium

were to be reached in the actual operation of an absorption tower, the collection efficiency
would fall to zero at that point since no net mass transfer could occur. The equilibrium
concentration, therefore, limits the amount of solute that can be removed by absorption.
The most common method of analyzing solubility data is to use an equilibrium diagram. An
equilibrium diagram is a plot of the mole fraction of solute in the liquid phase, denoted as
x, versus the mole fraction of solute in the gas phase, denoted as y. Equilibrium lines for the
SO2 and water system given in Table 1.1 are plotted in Figure 1.1. Figure 1.1 also illustrates
the temperature dependence of the absorption process. At a constant mole fraction of
solute in the gas (y), the mole fraction of SO2 that can be absorbed in the liquid (x) increases
as the temperature decreases.

Fig 1.1 Equilibrium lines for the SO2 air-water system

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 8 of 43

The rate at which a solute moves at any point in direction depends on the concentration
gradient at that point and in that direction. The rate will be most conveniently described in
terms of a molar flux, mol/(time)(area).

1.2 The two-film theory

The most useful concept of the process of absorption is given by the two-film theory.
According to this theory, material is transferred in the bulk of the phases by convection
currents, and concentration differences are regarded as negligible except in the vicinity of
the interface between the phases. On either side of this interface it is supposed that the
currents die out and that there exists a thin film of fluid through which the transfer is
effected solely by molecular diffusion. This film will be slightly thicker than the laminar
sub-layer, because it offers a resistance equivalent to that of the whole boundary layer.
According to Fick’s law the rate of transfer by diffusion is proportional to the concentration
gradient and to the area of interface over which the diffusion is occurring. Fick’s law is
limited to cases where the concentration of the absorbed component is low.

Fig 1.2 Concentration profile for absorbed component

At high concentrations, bulk flow occurs and the mass transfer rate, which is increased, is
governed by Stefan’s law. Under these circumstances, the concentration gradient is no
longer constant throughout the film and the lines AB and DE are curved. The direction of
transfer of material across the interface is not dependent solely on the concentration
difference, but also on the equilibrium relationship. Thus, for a mixture of ammonia or
Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 9 of 43
hydrogen chloride and air which is in equilibrium with an aqueous solution, the
concentration in the water is many times greater than that in the air. There is, therefore, a
very large concentration gradient across the interface, although this is not the controlling
factor in the mass transfer, as it is generally assumed that there is no resistance at the
interface itself, where equilibrium conditions will exist. The controlling factor will be the
rate of diffusion through the two films where all the resistance is considered to lie. The
change in concentration of a component through the gas and liquid phases is illustrated in
Fig 1.2. PAG represents the partial pressure in the bulk of the gas phase and PAi the partial
pressure at the interface. CAL is the concentration in the bulk of the liquid phase and CAi the
concentration at the interface. Thus, according to this theory, the concentrations at the
interface are in equilibrium, and the resistance to transfer is centred in the thin films on
either side.

Diffusion through a stagnant gas

The process of absorption may be regarded as the diffusion of a soluble gas A into a liquid.
The molecules of A have to diffuse through a stagnant gas film and then through a stagnant
liquid film before entering the main bulk of liquid. The absorption of a gas consisting of a
soluble component A and an insoluble component B is a problem of mass transfer through
a stationary gas to which Stefan’s law applies:

CT dC A
N A   DV ………………………………………………………………………………………………………..1
'

CB dz

where NA’ is the overall rate of mass transfer (moles/unit area and unit time),

DV is the gas-phase diffusivity,

z is distance in the direction of mass transfer, and

CA, CB, and CT are the molar concentrations of A, B, and total gas, respectively.

Integrating over the whole thickness zG of the film, and representing concentrations at each
side of the interface by suffixes 1 and 2:

CT CB1
N A  DV ……………………………………………………………………….……………………………….2
'
ln
zG C B 2

Since CT = P/RT, where R is the gas constant, T the absolute temperature, and P the total
pressure. For an ideal gas, then:

DV P PB1
NA  …………………………………………………………………………..…………………………….3
'
ln
zG RT PB2

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 10 of 43

Writing PBm as the log mean of the partial pressures PB1 and PB2, then:

PB2  PB1
PBm  …………………………………………………………………………………………………………..4
 PB2 
ln 
 PB1 

DV P PB2  PB1
And N A  ……………………………………………………………………………………………..5
'

z G RT PBm

DV P PA1  PA2
Or N A  ……………………………………………………………………………………………….6
'

z G RT PBm

Hence the rate of absorption of A per unit time per unit area is given by:

PB2  PB1
N A'  k G' ……………………………………………………………………………………………………...…..7
PBm

or:

 
N A'  kG PA1  PA2 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………8

where:

DV DV P
k G'  and k G'  ……………………………………………………………...………………………9
z G RT z G RTPBm

In the great majority of industrial processes the film thickness is not known, so that the
rate equation of immediate use is equation 8 using kG. kG is known as the gas-film transfer
coefficient for absorption and is a direct measure of the rate of absorption per unit area of
interface with a driving force of unit partial pressure difference.

Diffusion in the liquid phase

The rate of diffusion in liquids is much slower than in gases, and mixtures of liquids may
take a long time to reach equilibrium unless agitated. This is partly due to the much closer
spacing of the molecules, as a result of which the molecular attractions are more important.
Whilst there is at present no theoretical basis for the rate of diffusion in liquids comparable
with the kinetic theory for gases, the basic equation is taken as similar to that for gases, or
for dilute concentrations:

dC A
N A   DL ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….10
'

dz

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 11 of 43

On integration:

 C A  C A2 
N A  DL  1  ……………………………………………………………………………………………………11
'

 zL 

where: CA,CB are the molar concentrations of A and B,

zL is the thickness of liquid film through which diffusion occurs, and DL is the diffusivity in
the liquid phase.

Since the film thickness is rarely known, equation 11 is usually rewritten as:

 
N A'  k L C A1  C A2 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………12

which is similar to equation 8 for gases.

In equation 12 kL is the liquid-film transfer coefficient, which is usually expressed in

kmol/sm2(kmol/m3) = m/s. For dilute concentrations:

DL
kL 
zL

Rate of absorption

In a steady-state process of absorption, the rate of transfer of material through the gas film
will be the same as that through the liquid film, and the general equation for mass transfer
of a component A may be written as:

   
N A'  kG PAG  PAI  k L C Ai  C AL …………………………………………………………………………….13

where PAG is the partial pressure in the bulk of the gas, CAL is the concentration in the bulk
of the liquid, and PAi and CAi are the values of concentration at the interface where
equilibrium conditions are assumed to exist. Therefore:

k G C Ai  C AL
 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………...14
k L PAG  PAI

These conditions may be illustrated graphically as in Fig 3, where FBA is the equilibrium
curve for the soluble component A.

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 12 of 43

Fig 1.3: Driving forces in the gas and liquid phases

Point D (CAL, PAG) represents conditions in the bulk of the gas and liquid.

PAG is the partial pressure of A in the main bulk of the gas stream, and

CAL is the average concentration of A in the main bulk of the liquid stream.

Point A (CAe, PAG) represents a concentration of CAe in the liquid in equilibrium with PAG in
the gas.

Point B (CAi, PAi) represents the concentration of CAi in the liquid in equilibrium with PAi in
the gas, and gives conditions at the interface.

Point F (CAL, PAe) represents a partial pressure PAe in the gas phase in equilibrium with CAL
in the liquid.

Then, the driving force causing transfer in the gas phase is:

(PAG − PAi ) ≡ DE and the driving force causing transfer in the liquid phase is:

(CAi − CAL) ≡ BE

Then:

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 13 of 43

 PAG  PAi kL

C Ai  C AL kG

and the concentrations at the interface (point B) are found by drawing a line through D of
slope −kL/kG to cut the equilibrium curve in B.

Overall coefficients

In order to obtain a direct measurement of the values of kL and kG the measurement of the
concentration at the interface would be necessary. These values can only be obtained in
very special circumstances, and it has been found of considerable value to use two overall
coefficients KG and KL defined by:

   
N A'  K G PAG  PAe  K L C Ae  C AL ………………………………………………………………………….15

KG and KL are known as the overall gas and liquid phase coefficients, respectively.

Relation between film and overall coefficients

The rate of transfer of A may now be written as:

       
N A'  kG PAG  PAI  k L C Ai  C AL  K G PAG  PAe  K L C Ae  C AL ……………………….……16

From the previous discussion:

1 1  PAG  PAi 


kG k L  C Ai  C AL 


Thus:

1 1 1  PAG  PAi  PAi  PAe 

 
 
K G kG k L  C Ai  C AL  PA  PA 
 G i 

…………………………………………………………………………17
1  PAi  PAe 
  
kG  CA  CA 
 i L 

 PAi  PAe 
  is the average slope of the equilibrium curve and, when the solution obeys
 CA CA 
 i L 

Henry’s law,

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 14 of 43

 dPA  PAi  PAe 
 ……………………………………………………………………………………………….18
H 
dC A  C Ai  C AL 


Therefore:

1 1 H
  …………………………………..………………………………………………………………………..19
K G kG k L

Similarly:

1 1 1
  …………………………………………………………………………………………………………..20
K L k L Hk G

and:

1 H
 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..21
KG KL

Rates of absorption in terms of mole fractions

  
The mass transfer equations can be written as: N A'  kG'' y A  y Ai  KG y A  y Ae 
   
and: N A'  k L'' x Ai  x A  K L x Ae  x A where xA, yA are the mole fractions of the soluble
component A in the liquid and gas phases, respectively.

k G'' , k L'' , K G'' and K L'' are transfer coefficients defined in terms of mole. If m is the slope of

the equilibrium curve [approximately (yAi − yAe)/(xAi − xA)], it can then be shown that:

1 1 m
''
 ''  '' ……………………………………………………………………………………….………………….22
KG kG kL

1.3 Choice of solvent for Absorption

If the principal purpose of the absorption operation is to produce a specific solution as in
the manufacture of hydrochloric acid, for example, the solvent is specified by the nature of
the product. If the principal purpose is to remove some constituent from the gas, some
choice is frequently possible. Water is of course the cheapest and most plentiful solvent,
but the following properties are important considerations:-

Gas solubility

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 15 of 43

The gas solubility should be high, thus increasing the rate of absorption and decreasing the
quantity of solvent required. Generally solvents of a chemical nature similar to that of the
solute to be absorbed will provide good solubility. The hydrocarbon oils and not water are
used to remove benzene from coke-oven gas. For cases where the solutions formed are
ideal, the solubility of the gas is the same in terms of mole fractions for all solvents. But it is
greater in terms of weight fractions for solvents of low molecular weight. A chemical
reaction of solvent with the solute will frequently result in very high gas solubility but if the
solvent id to be recovered for reuse, the reaction must be reversible. For example,
hydrogen sulfide can be removed from gas mixtures using ethanolamine solutions since the
sulfide is readily absorbed at low temperatures and easily stripped at high temperatures.
Caustic soda absorbs hydrogen sulfide excellently but will not release it in a stripping
operation.

Volatility
The solvent should have a low vapor pressure since the gas leaving an absorption
operation is ordinarily saturated with solvent and much may therefore be lost. If necessary,
a second less volatile liquid can be used t o recover the evaporated portion of the first. This
is sometimes done, for example, in the case of hydrocarbon absorbers, where a relatively
volatile solvent oil is used in the principal portion of the absorber because of the superior
solubility characteristics and the volatilized solvent is recovered from the gas by a
nonvolatile oil. Similarly, hydrogen sulfide can be absorbed by a water solution of sodium
phenolate but the desulfurised gas is further washed with water to recover the evaporated
phenol.

Corrosiveness
The materials of construction required for the equipment should not be unusual or
expensive.

Cost
The solvent should be inexpensive, so that losses are not costly, and should be readily
available.

Viscosity
Low viscosity is preferred for reasons of rapid absorption rates, improved flooding
characteristics in absorption towers, low pressure drops on pumping and god heat transfer
characteristics.

Miscellaneous
The solvent if possible should be non toxic, nonflammable, and chemically stable and
should have a low freezing point.
Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 16 of 43
1.4 Equipment

The purpose of the equipment used for gas absorption/stripping is to provide intimate
contact of the two fluids in order to permit interphase diffusion of the constituents. The
rate of mass transfer is directly dependent upon the interfacial surface exposed between
the phases, and the nature and degree of dispersion of one fluid in the other are therefore
of prime importance.

Methods for designing and analyzing absorption, stripping, and distillation depend on the
type of equipment used for contacting vapor and liquid phases. When multiple stages are
required, phase contacting is most commonly carried out in cylindrical, vertical columns
containing trays or packing. Gas and liquid can be conveniently contacted with gas
dispersed as bubbles in agitated vessels whenever multistage countercurrent effects are
not required. This is particularly the case when a chemical reaction between the dissolved
gas and a constituent of the liquid is required. The carbonation of lime slurry, the
hydrogenation of vegetable oils, the aeration of fermentation broths, as in the production of
penicillin are examples.

Absorption and stripping are conducted in sieve tray towers, plate/stage columns (towers),
packed columns, spray towers, bubble columns, mechanically agitated vessels, and
centrifugal contactors. In general, operating pressure should be high and temperature low
for an absorber, to minimize stage requirements and/or absorbent flow rate to lower the
equipment volume required to accommodate the gas flow. The reverse is true for stripping.
However, the operating pressure should not be too high and the operating temperature
should not be too low as to condense the feed gas.

Packed Columns

A packed column, shown in Fig 1.4, is a vessel containing one or more sections of packing
over whose surface the liquid flows downward as a film or as droplets between packing
elements. Vapor flows upward through the wetted packing, contacting the liquid. The
packed sections are contained between a gas-injection support plate, which holds the
packing, and an upper hold-down plate, which prevents packing movement. A liquid
distributor, placed above the hold-down plate, ensures uniform distribution of liquid over
the crosssectional area of the column as it enters the packed section.

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 17 of 43

Fig 1.4: Packed column

Many types of packing are in use ranging from simple to complex geometric shapes.
Packing are made of Ceramics, Metals, Plastics, Fibers and Glass and vary in size from 6 to
75 mm. As packing size increases, mass-transfer efficiency and pressure drop decrease.
Therefore, an optimal packing size exists. However, to minimize liquid channeling, nominal
packing size should be less than one-eighth of the column diameter. A ‘‘fourth generation’’
of random packings, feature an open, undulating geometry that promotes uniform wetting
with recurrent turbulence promotion. The result is low pressure drop and a mass-transfer
efficiency that does not decrease with increasing column diameter and permits a larger
depth of packing before a liquid redistributor is necessary. Metal packings are usually
preferred because of their superior strength and good wettability, but their costs are high.
Ceramic packings, which have superior wettability but inferior strength, are used in
corrosive environments at elevated temperatures. Plastic packings, usually of
polypropylene, are inexpensive and have sufficient strength, but may have poor wettability
at low liquid rates

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 18 of 43

Packings are generally divided into three classes: Random or dumped are discrete pieces
of packing, of a specific geometric shape, that are “dumped” or randomly packed into the
column shell.

Fig 1.5: Typical materials used in random packing

Structured or systematically arranged packings are crimped layers of corrugated sheets

(usually) or wire mesh. Sections of these packings are stacked in the column. These come
with different-size openings between adjacent layers and are stacked in the column.
Although they are considerably more expensive per unit volume than random packings,
structured packings exhibit less pressure drop per theoretical stage and have higher
efficiency and capacity.

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 19 of 43

Fig 1.6: Typical materials used in structured packing

Grids. These are also systematically arranged packings, but instead of wire mesh or
corrugated sheets, these use an open-lattice structure. Random and structured packings
are common in commercial practiceBoth random and structured packings had been used.

Structured packings are considerably more expensive per unit volume than random
packings. They come with different sizes and are neatly stacked in the column. Structure

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 20 of 43

packings usually offer less pressure drop and have higher efficiency and capacity than
random packings.

Spray Column

The gas flows upward continuously through an open chamber in which scrubbing liquid
droplets falls from spray nozzles through the gas. The gas pressure drop is small, but
separation is not as good as the bubble column. This column is widely used for its
simplicity, low pressure drop, and resistance to scale deposition and plugging.

Fig 1.7: Spray column

Sparged Vessels (Bubble Columns)

The bubble column for absorption consists of a vertical vessel partially filled with liquid
into which vapor is bubbled. Vapor pressure drop is high because of the high head of liquid
absorbent, and only one or two theoretical stages can be achieved. This device has a low
vapor throughput and is impractical unless the solute has low solubility in the liquid
and/or a slow chemical reaction that requires a long residence time. A sparger is a device
for introducing a stream of gas in the form of small bubbles into a liquid. If the vessel

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 21 of 43

diameter is small, the sparger, located at the bottom of the vessel, may simply be an open
tube through which the gas issues into the liquid. For vessels of diameters greater than
0.3m, it is better to use several orifices for introducing the gas to ensure better gas
distribution. Porous plates made of ceramics, plastics or sintered metals are also used, but
their fine pores are more readily plugged with solids which may be present in the gas or
liquid.

The gas is forced under pressure through perforated pipes submerged in the scrubbing
liquid. As such the gas phase is dispersed and the liquid phase is continuous. As the bubbles
rise through the liquid, absorption of the gas occurs. This type of device suffers from the
high pressure drop due to the liquid hydrostatic head. The purpose of the sparging may be
contacting the sparged gas with the liquid. On the other hand, it may be simply a device for
agitation.

Tray towers

In the gas absorption operation, a vertical tower containing a number of trays is often used
to contact the hot gas with cooling liquid. The trays provide the intimate contact between
the gas and the liquid where the interphase energy and mass transfer take place. The liquid
enters the tower at the top and flows downward by gravity. On the way, it flows across
each tray and through a down comer to the tray below. The gas enters the tower near the
bottom and is directed upwards through the openings of one sort or another in the tray. It
bubbles through the liquid to form froth (an intimate contacting zone), separates from the
liquid, and moves onto the next tray above. Overall, this is a multiple-staged counter

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 22 of 43

current contact of gas and liquid, although it is a cross-flow contact of the two on each tray.

Fig 1.8: An example of a tray

When the openings are holes, any of the five two-phase-flow regimes analyzed by Lockett
may occur. The most common and favored regime is the froth regime, in which the liquid
phase is continuous and the gas passes through in the form of jets or a series of bubbles.

The spray regime, in which the gas phase is continuous, occurs for low weir heights (low
liquid depths) at high gas rates. For low gas rates, the bubble regime can occur, in which
the liquid is fairly quiescent and bubbles rise in swarms. At high liquid rates, small gas
bubbles may be undesirably emulsified. If bubble coalescence is hindered, an undesirable
foam forms. Ideally, the liquid carries no vapor bubbles (occlusion) to the tray below, the
vapor carries no liquid droplets (entrainment) to the tray above, and there is no weeping of
liquid through the holes in the tray. With good contacting, equilibrium between the exiting
vapor and liquid phases is approached on each tray, unless the liquid is very viscous.

1.5 Selection of Equipment

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 23 of 43

Trays and random packings have been extensively used for gas absorption; structured
packings are less common. Compared to trays, random packings have the advantages of
availability in low-cost, corrosion-resistant materials (such as plastics and ceramics), low
pressure drop (which can be an advantage when the tower is in the suction of a fan or
compressor), easy and economic adaptability to small-diameter (less than 0.6m) columns,
and excellent handling of foams. Trays are much better for handling solids and fouling
applications, offer greater residence time for slow absorption reactions, can better handle
high L/G ratios and intermediate cooling, give better liquid turndown, and are more robust
and less prone to reliability issues such as those resulting from poor distribution.

1.6 General design considerations

Absorber and stripper design or analysis requires consideration of the following factors:

1. Entering gas (liquid) flow rate, composition, T, and P

2. Desired degree of recovery of one or more solutes

3. Choice of absorbent (stripping agent)

4. Operating P and T, and allowable gas pressure drop

5. Minimum absorbent (stripping agent) flow rate and actual absorbent (stripping agent)
flow rate

6. Heat effects and need for cooling (heating)

7. Number of equilibrium stages and stage efficiency

8. Type of absorber (stripper) equipment (trays or packing)

9. Need for redistributors if packing is used

10. Height of absorber (stripper)

11. Diameter of absorber (stripper)

Absorber operating pressure should be high and temperature low to minimize stage
requirements and/or absorbent flow rate and to lower the equipment volume required to
accommodate the gas flow. Unfortunately, both compression and refrigeration of a gas are
expensive. Therefore, most absorbers are operated at feed-gas pressure, which may be
greater than ambient pressure, and at ambient temperature, which can be achieved by
cooling the feed gas and absorbent with cooling water, unless one or both streams already
exist at a subambient temperature. Operating pressure should be low and temperature
high for a stripper to minimize stage requirements and stripping agent flow rate. However,

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 24 of 43

because maintenance of a vacuum is expensive, and steam jet exhausts are polluting,
strippers are commonly operated at a pressure just above ambient. A high temperature can
be used, but it should not be so high as to cause vaporization or undesirable chemical
reactions. The possibility of phase changes occurring can be checked by bubble-point and
dew-point calculations. For given feed-gas (liquid) flow rate, extent of solute absorption
(stripping), operating P and T, and absorbent (stripping agent) composition, a minimum
absorbent (stripping agent) flow rate exists that corresponds to an infinite number of
countercurrent equilibrium contacts between the gas and liquid phases. In every design
problem, a trade-off exists between the number of equilibrium stages and the absorbent
(stripping agent) flow rate, a rate that must be greater than the minimum. Graphical and
analytical methods for computing the minimum flow rate and this trade-off are developed
in the following sections for mixtures that are dilute in solute(s).

1.6 Column Diameter and Pressure Drop

In determining the column diameter, we need to know what is the limiting (maximum) gas
velocity that can be used. This is because the higher the gas velocity, the greater the
resistance that will be encountered by the down-flowing liquid and the higher the pressure
drop across the packings. Too high a gas velocity will lead to a condition known as flooding
whereby the liquid fills the entire column and the operation becomes difficult to carry out.
High pressure will crush and damage the packings in the column.

Flooding determines the minimum possible diameter of the absorber column, and the usual
design is for 60 to 80 percent of the flooding velocity. In near-atmospheric applications,
pressure drop usually needs to be minimized to reduce the cost of energy for compression
of the feed gas. For systems having a significant tendency to foam, the maximum allowable
velocity will be lower than the estimated flooding velocity.

We will begin our analysis by examining the relationship between the gas pressure drop
and gas velocity.

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 25 of 43

1.7 The phase equilibria involved.

When the liquid phase can be considered ideal, we can compute the equilibrium partial
pressure of a gas from the solution without resorting to experimental determination. There
are four significant characteristics of ideal liquid solutions.

1. The average intermolecular forces of attraction and repulsion in the solution are
unchanged on mixing the solutions.
2. The volume of the solution varies linearly with composition.
3. There is neither absorption nor evolution of heat in mixing the solutions.
4. The total vapour pressure of the solution varies linearly with the composition, in
mole fraction.

When the gas mixture in equilibrium with an ideal solution also follows the ideal gas law,
the partial pressure of the solute gas equals the product of its vapour pressure at the same
temperature and its mole fraction in the solution. This is Raoult’s law:
*
p  px ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...23

Non ideal liquids

For liquid solutions which are not ideal. Eqaution 1 will give highly incorrect results. The
equation for non-ideal liquids is
*
p
y 
*
 mx ……………………………………………………………………….………………………………….…24
pt

This is Henry’s law and m is called the Henry’s constant.

1.8 DESIGN OF GAS ABSORPTION SYSTEMS

General Design Procedure

The design engineer usually is required to determine

(1) The best solvent;

(2) The best gas velocity through the absorber, or, equivalently, the vessel diameter;
(3) The height of the vessel and its internal members, which is the height and type of
packing or the number of contacting trays;
(4) The optimum solvent circulation rate through the absorber and stripper;

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 26 of 43

(5) Temperatures of streams entering and leaving the absorber and stripper, and the
quantity of heat to be removed to account for the heat of solution and other thermal effects;
(6) pressures at which the absorber and stripper will operate; and
(7) Mechanical design of the absorber and stripper vessels (predominantly columns or
towers), including flow distributors and packing supports. This section covers these
aspects.

Items 3, 4, and 5 may be subject to economic considerations and therefore are left to the
designer. Recovery of the solvent, occasionally by chemical means but more often by
distillation, is almost always required and is considered an integral part of the absorption
system process design. A more complete solvent-stripping operation normally will result in
a less costly absorber because of a lower concentration of residual solute in the
regenerated (lean) solvent, but this may increase the overall cost of the entire absorption
system. The design calculations presented in this section are relatively simple and usually
can be done by using a calculator or spreadsheet. In many cases, the calculations are
explained through design diagrams. It is recognized that most engineers today will perform
rigorous, detailed calculations using process simulators. The design procedures presented
in this section are intended to be complementary to the rigorous computerized calculations
by presenting approximate estimates and insight into the essential elements of absorption
and stripping operations.

1.8.1 Selection of Solvent and Nature of Solvents

As discussed before, when a choice is possible, preference is given to solvents with high
solubilities for the target solute and high selectivity for the target solute over the other
species in the gas mixture. A high solubility reduces the amount of liquid to be circulated.
The solvent should have the advantages of low volatility, low cost, low corrosive
tendencies, high stability, low viscosity, low tendency to foam, and low flammability. Since
the exit gas normally leaves saturated with solvent, solvent loss can be costly and can cause
environmental problems. The choice of the solvent is a key part of the process economic
analysis and compliance with environmental regulations. Typically, a solvent that is
chemically similar to the target solute or that reacts with it will provide high solubility.
Water is often used for polar and acidic solutes (e.g., HCl), oils for light hydrocarbons, and
special chemical solvents for acid gases such as CO2, SO2, and H2S. Solvents are classified as
physical and chemical. A chemical solvent forms complexes or chemical compounds with
the solute, while physical solvents have only weaker interactions with the solute.

1.8.2 Selection of Solubility Data

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 27 of 43

Solubility values are necessary for design because they determine the liquid rate necessary
for complete or economic solute recovery. Equilibrium data generally will be found in one
of three forms:

(1) solubility data expressed either as weight or mole percent or as Henry’s law
coefficients;
(2) pure-component vapor pressures; or
(3) equilibrium distribution coefficients (K values).

To define completely the solubility of gas in a liquid, it is generally necessary to state the
temperature, equilibrium partial pressure of the solute gas in the gas phase, and the
concentration of the solute gas in the liquid phase. Strictly speaking, the total pressure of
the system should also be identified. For many physical systems, the equilibrium
relationship between solute partial pressure and liquid-phase concentration is given by
Henry’s law discussed before. In general, Henry’s law is a reasonable approximation for
physical solvents. If Henry’s law holds, the solubility is defined by knowing (or estimating)
the value of the constant m.

Pure-component vapor pressure can be used for predicting solubilities for systems in
which Raoult’s law is valid. Extreme care should be exercised when using pure-component
vapor pressures to predict gas absorption behavior. Both vapor-phase and liquid-phase
nonidealities can cause significant deviations from Raoult’s law, and this is often the reason
particular solvents are used, i.e., because they have special affinity for particular solutes.
Whenever data are available for a given system under similar conditions of temperature,
pressure, and composition, equilibrium distribution coefficients (K = y/x) provide a
much more reliable tool for predicting vapor-liquid distributions.

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 28 of 43

1.8.3 Calculation of Liquid-to-Gas Ratio
The minimum possible liquid rate is readily calculated from the composition of the
entering gas and the solubility of the solute in the exit liquor, with equilibrium being
assumed. The actual liquid-to-gas ratio (solvent circulation rate) normally will be greater
than the minimum by as much as 25 to 100 percent, and the estimated factor may be
arrived at by economic considerations as well as judgment and experience.

Fig 1.10: Flow quantities for an absorber

Fig 1.10 shows a countercurrent absorption tower. For the countercurrent-flow, trayed
tower for absorption (or stripping), stages are numbered from bottom (where the
absorbent enters) to top for the absorber; and from top (where the stripping agent enters)
to bottom for the stripper. Phase equilibrium is assumed between the vapor and liquid
leaving each tray. The gas stream at any point in the tower consists of G total moles/(area
of tower cross section)(time), made up of the diffusing solute A of mole fraction, y, partial
pressure p, or mole ratio Y, and nondiffusing, essentially insoluble gas Gs mol/(area)(time).

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 29 of 43

The relationship between these is
y p
Y   …………………………………………………………………………………………………..25
1 y pt  p

Gs  G 1  y  
G
1  Y ……………………………………………..…………………………………………………..26
Similarly, the liquid stream consists of L total mol/(area)(time), containing x mole fraction
soluble gas, or X mole ratio, and essentially nonvolatile solvent Ls mol/(area)(time).
x
X  ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….27
1 x
Ls  L1  x  
L
1  X ……………………………………………………………………………………………….28
Since the solvent gas and solvent liquid are esentially unchanged in quantity as they pass
through the tower, it is convenient to express the material balance in terms of these. A
solute balance about the lower part of the tower is

Gs Y1  Y   Ls  X1  X  ……………………………………………………………………………………………..29
This is the equation of a straight-line (operating line) on X, Y coordinates, of slope Ls/Gs,
which passes through (X1, Y1). Substitution of X2 and Y2 for X and Y shows that the line will
pass through (X2, Y2) as shown on Fig 1.11.

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 30 of 43

Fig 1.11 Operating lines for an absorber and a stripper
The equilibrium solubility data for the solute gas in the liquid can also be plotted in terms
of these concentrations on the same diagram as shown. Each point on this curve represents
the gas concentration in equilibrium with the corresponding liquid at its local
concentration and temperature. For an absorber, the operating line always lies above the
equilibrium-solubility curve, while for a stripper, the line is always below. The operating
line is straight only when plotted in terms of the mole ratio, in terms of mole fractions or
partial pressures, the line is curved and the equation of the line is

 y y   p   x x 
Gs  1    Gd    Ls  1 
  ……………………………………………………..30
 
 1  y1 1  y   pt  p   1  x1 1  x 

Minimum Absorbent Flow Rate

Operating lines for four absorbent flow rates are shown in Figure 1.12, where each line
passes through the terminal point (X2, Y2).
The problem presented to the designer of a gas absorption system usually specifies the
following quantities:
(1) gas flow rate;

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 31 of 43

(2) gas composition of the component or components to be absorbed;
(3) operating pressure and allowable pressure drop across the absorber;
(4) minimum recovery of one or more of the solutes; and, possibly,
(5) the solvent to be employed.

Fig 1.12 Minimum absorbent rate

The quantities G or Gs, Y1 and Y2 as well as X2 are ordinarily fixed by process requirements,
but the quantity of liquid to be used is subject to choice. Referring to fig .12, the operating
line must pass through the point (X2, Y2) and must end at the ordinate Y1. If such a quantity
of liquid is used to give the operating line DE, the exit liquid will have a composition X1. If
less liquid is used, the exit liquid concentration will clearly be greater as at point F, but
since the driving forces for diffusion are less, the absorption is more difficult. The time of
contact between gas and liquid must then be greater, and the absorber must be
correspondingly taller. The minimum liquid which can be used corresponds to the
operating line DM, which has greatest slope for any line touching the equilibrium curve and
is a tangent to the curve at P. At P the diffusional driving force is zero, the required time of
contact for the concentration change desired is infinite and the tower required is infinitely
tall. This represents the limiting liquid-gas ratio.

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 32 of 43

When the equilibrium curve is concave upwards as in Fig 1.12 b, the minimum liquid-gas
ratio corresponds to an exit liquid concentration in equilibrium with the entering gas.
These principles also apply to strippers where an operating line which anywhere touches
the equilibrium curve represents a maximum ratio of liquid to gas and a maximum exit gas
concentration.

1.8.4 Number of theoretical stages

Trayed towers bring about stepwise contact of the liquid and gas and are therefore
contercurrent multistage cascades. On each tray of a sieve-tray tower, the gas and liquid
are brought into intimate contact and the separated. The tray thus constitutes a theoretical
or ideal stage where the average composition of all the gas leaving the tray is in equilibrium
with the average composition of all the liquid leaving the tray.

The number of ideal stages required to bring about a given change in composition of the
liquid for strippers can then be determined graphically in the manner shown in Fig 1.13.
Since the stages are ideal any two streams leaving one ideal stage are in equilibrium such
that X1 is equilibrium with Y1. Line PQ is the operating line for stage 1, MN for stage 2 etc
and the coordinate (X1, Y1) lie on the equilibrium curve. Line ST is the operating line for the
entire cascade and points such as B, C, etc represent compositions of two streams passing
each other between stages. We can therefore determine the number of stages by
constructing the stair like construction TQBNC….S. I f anywhere, the equilibrium curve and
the operating line should touch, the stages become pinched and an infinite number of
stages is required to bring about the desired composition change. For absorbers, the entire
construction is above the equilibrium curve.

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 33 of 43

Fig 1.13: Graphical determination of the number of stages

This is illustrated for an absorber in Fig 1.14 where the gas and liquid compositions
corresponding to each stage are marked on the diagram. Ideal stage 1 for example brings
about a change in liquid composition from X0 to X1 and of gas composition from Y2 to Y1.
The step marked 1 on the operating diagram represents this stage. The nearer the
operating line to the equilibrium curve, the more the number of steps required and should
these two curves touch at any point corresponding to the minimum liquid-gas ratio, the
number of steps will be infinite.

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 34 of 43

Fig 1.14: Determination of theoretical stages for an absorber

1.8.5 Dilute gas mixtures

Where both operating line and equilibrium curve can be considered to be straight, the
number of equilibrium stages can be determined without using the graphical method.

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 35 of 43

1.8.6 Continuous contact equipment
Countercurrent packed and spray towers operate in a different manner from plate towers
in that the fluids are in contact continuously in their path through the tower, rather than
intermittently. Packed columns are continuous, differential-contacting devices that do not
have physically distinguishable, discrete stages. Thus, in a packed tower, the liquid and gas
compositions change continuously with height of packing. Every point on an operating line
therefore presents conditions found somewhere in the tower. Thus, packed columns are
better analyzed by mass-transfer models than by equilibrium-stage concepts.

Figure 1.15 illustrates the conditions that occur during the steady operation of a
countercurrent gas–liquid absorption tower. It is convenient to express the concentration
of the streams in terms of moles of solute gas per mole of inert gas in the gas phase and as
moles of solute gas per mole of solute free liquid in the liquid phase. The actual area of
interface between the two phases is not known, and the term a is introduced as the
interfacial area per unit volume of the column.

Fig 1.15: Countercurrent packed column

The general equation for mass transfer can be written as:

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 36 of 43

N A AdZa  kG aPAG  PAi AdZ  k L aC Ai  C AL AdZ …………………………………………………….…31

where:
NA = kmol of solute absorbed per unit time and unit interfacial area,
a = surface area of interface per unit volume of column,
A = cross-sectional area of column, and
Z = height of packed section.

The interfacial area for transfer

adV  aAdZ …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….32

1.8.6.1 Height of column based on conditions in the gas phase

If Gs = moles of inert gas/(unit time) (unit cross-section of tower),

Ls = moles of solute-free liquor/(unit time) (unit cross-section of tower),
Y = moles of solute gas A/mole of inert gas B in gas phase, and
X = moles of solute A/mole of inert solvent in liquid phase.

and at any plane at which the molar ratios of the diffusing material in the gas and liquid
phases are Y and X, then over a small height dZ, the moles of gas leaving the gas phase will
equal the moles taken up by the liquid.

Thus: AGS dY  ALs dX ………………………………………………………………………………………………….33

But: Gs AdY  N AadV  kG aPAi  PAG AdZ ……………………………………………………………………34

It may be noted that, in a gas absorption process, gas and liquid concentrations will
decrease in the upwards direction and both dX and dY will be negative.

Since
Y
PAG  P ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………35
1 Y

 Y Y 
Gs dY  kG aP i  dZ ……………………………………………………………………………………..36
 1  Yi 1  Y 

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 37 of 43

  Y  Yi 
 kG aP dZ ………………………………………………………………………………………….37
 1  Yi 1  Y  

Hence the height of column Z required to achieve a change in Y from Y1 at the bottom to Y2
at the top of the column is given by:

Gs 2 1  Y 1  Yi 
Y
Z
0
dZ  Z 
kG aP Y1 Yi  Y
dY …………………………………………………………………………….38

Which for dilute mixtures can be written as:

Gs Y2 dY
kG aP Y1 Yi  Y
Z ……………………………………………………………………………………………………39

In this analysis it has been assumed that kG is a constant throughout the column, and
provided the concentration changes are not too large this will be reasonably true.

1.8.6.2 Height of column based on conditions in the gas phase

A similar analysis may be done in terms of the liquid film:

Ls AdX  kL aCAi  CAL AdZ ……………………………………………..…………………………………………40

where the concentrations C are in terms of moles of solute per unit volume of liquor. If
CT = (moles of solute + solvent) (volume of liquid), then:
CA moles of solute
 X
CT  C A moles of solvent

X
whence C A  CT ……………………………………………………………………………………………..41
1 A

The transfer equation may now be written as

 X Xi 
Ls dX  kL aCT   dZ ……………………………………………………………………………….42
 1  X 1  X i 

 X  Xi 
 kL aCT  dZ ……………………………………………………………………………………..43
 1  X 1  X 
i 

Thus:

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 38 of 43

 Z Ls
X2
1  X 1  X i  dX ……………………………………………………………………….44
0
dZ  Z 
k L aCT 
X1 X  XI
Which for dilute mixtures can be written as:
Ls X2 dX
Z 
k L aCT X 1 X  X i
………………………………………………………………………………………………45

Where CT and kL have been taken as constants throughout the column.

1.8.6.3 Height of column based on overall transfer coefficients

If the driving force based on the gas concentration is written as (Y − Ye) and the overall gas
transfer coefficient as KG, then the height of the tower for dilute concentrations becomes:

Gs Y2 dY
KG aP Y1 Ye  Y
Z  …………………………………………………………………………………..……………….46

or in terms of the liquor concentration as:

Ls X2 dX
Z 
K L aCT 1 X  X e
X
………………………………………………………..……………………………………….47

Equations for dilute concentrations

As the mole fraction is approximately equal to the molar ratio at dilute concentrations then
considering the gas film:

Gs Y2 dY Gs y 2 dy

K G aP Y1 Ye  Y K G aP y1 ye  y
Z  …………………………………….…………………………………..48

And considering the liquid film:

Ls X2 dX Ls x2 dx
Z 
K L aCT 
X1 X  Xe

K L aCT 
x1 x  xe
……………………………………………………………….49

1.8.6.4 The operating line and graphical integration for the height of a column
Taking a material balance on the solute from the bottom of the column to any plane where
the mole ratios are Y and X gives for unit area of cross-section:

Gs Y1  Y   Ls  X1  X  …………………………………………………………………………………………….50

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 39 of 43

Y1  Y 
LS
 X1  X  ……………………………………………………………………………………………….51
GS
This is the equation of a straight line of slope Lm/Gm, which passes through the point (X1,
Y1). It may be seen by making a material balance over the whole column that the same line
passes through the point (X2, Y2). This line, known as the operating line, represents the
conditions at any point in the column.

Fig 1.16: Driving force in gas and liquid controlled film

Figure 1.16 illustrates typical conditions for the case of moist air and sulphuric acid or
caustic soda solution, where the main resistance lies in the gas phase. The equilibrium
curve is represented by the line FR, and the operating line is given by AB, A corresponding
to the concentrations at the bottom of the column and B to those at the top of the column. D
represents the condition of the bulk of the liquid and gas at any point in the column, and
has coordinates X and Y. Then, if the gas film is controlling the process, Yi equals Ye, and is
given by a point F on the equilibrium curve, with coordinates X and Yi. The driving force
causing transfer is then given by the distance DF. It is therefore possible to evaluate the
expression:

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 40 of 43

 dY

Y2

Yi  Y
Y1

by selecting values of Y , reading off from the Figure the corresponding values of Yi, and
thus calculating 1/(Yi − Y). It may be noted that, for gas absorption, Y > Yi and Yi – Y and dY
in the integral are both negative.

If the liquid film controls the process, Xi equals Xe and the driving force Xi − X is given in
Figure 1.16 by the line DR. The evaluation of the integral:

dX
X2
X1 X  X
i

may be effected in the same way as for the gas film.

Special case when equilibrium curve is a straight line

If over the range of concentrations considered the equilibrium curve is a straight line, it is
permissible to use a mean value of the driving force over the column. For dilute
concentrations, over a small height dZ of column, the absorption is given by:

N A AadZ  Gs Ady  KG aAP ye  y dZ …………………………………………………………………………52

If ye  mx  c …………………………………………………………………………………………………………...53

Then ye 2  mx2  c

And ye1  mx1  c

Such that
ye1  ye 2
m  ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..54
x1  x2
Further, taking a material balance over the lower portion of the columns gives:

Ls x1  x   Gs  y1  y 

And x  x1 
Gs
 y1  y  ……………………………………………………………………………………………..55
Ls

From equation 52:

y2
Z kG aP dy
0 Gs
dZ  y e  y
y1
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..56

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 41 of 43

 y2
dy
=  mx  G
y1 1 S LS  y  y1  c  y

1 mx1  c  y1
= ln
1 mGS LS  y2  mx1  GS LS  y2  y1  c

1 ye1  y1
= ln
y  y x x
1 e 2 e1 . 1 2 ye1  ye 2   ye1  ye1 x1  x2 y1  y2 
x2  x1 y1  y2  x x y  y 
 1 2 1 2 

y1  y2  y  ye 1
= ln
 y  ye 1   y  ye 2  y  ye 2

y1  y2
=
 y  ye lm
Where (y-ye)lm is the logarithmic mean value of y - ye.

Substituting into equation 56

KG aP y y
Z  1 2 …………………………………………………………………………………………………….57
GS  y  ye lm

1.8.6.5 The transfer unit

The group ∫(dy/ye − y), has been defined by Chilton and Colburn as the number of overall
gas transfer units NOG. The application of this group to the countercurrent conditions in the
absorption tower is now considered. Over a small height dZ, the partial pressure of the
diffusing component A will change by an amount dPAG. Then the moles of A transferred are
given by:

(change in mole fraction) × (total moles of gas)

Therefore, for dilute concentrations:

 dPAG
KG aPAG  PAe dZ  GS ……………………………………………………………………………………….58
P

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 42 of 43

Thus
PAG 1 dPAG Z KG aP
PAG 2 PAe  PAG
 
0 GS
dZ ……………………………………………………………………………………….59

Or in terms of mole fractions:

y2 dy Z K aP K aP
N OG     G dZ  G Z ………………………………………………………………..60
y1 y  y 0 GS GS
e

The number of overall gas transfer units NOG is an integrated value of the change in
composition per unit driving force, and therefore represents the difficulty of the separation.
In many cases in gas absorption, (y − ye) is very small at the top of the column, and
consequently 1/(y − ye) is very much greater at the top than at the bottom of the column.
Height of column Z
NOG   ………………………………………………………………………..61
Height of transfer unit H OG
GS
The height of the overall gas transfer unit is then H OG  ……………………………………62
K G aP
If the driving force is taken over the gas-film only, the height of a gas-film transfer unit
GS
HG 
kG aP
Similarly for the liquid film, the height of the overall liquid-phase transfer unit HOL is given
by:
LS
H OL  …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….63
K L aCT

And the height of the liquid-film transfer unit is given by:

LS
HL 
k L aCT

Where CT is the mean molar density of the liquid.

Mass Transfer Processes 1B Page 43 of 43