07/11/2019 Liberal feminism - Wikipedia

Liberal feminism
Liberal feminism is an individualistic form of feminist theory, which focuses on women's ability to maintain their
equality through their own actions and choices. Liberal feminists argue that society holds the false belief that women are,
by nature, less intellectually and physically capable than men; thus it tends to discriminate against women in the academy,
the forum, and the marketplace. Liberal feminists believe that "female subordination is rooted in a set of customary and
legal constraints that blocks women's entrance to and success in the so-called public world". They strive for sexual equality
via political and legal reform.[1]

Liberal feminism is contrasted with radical feminism.[2][3][4][5]

Contents
Philosophy
History
Writers
Popular liberal feminists
Organizations
The National Organization for Women
The National Women's Political Caucus
The Women's Equity Action League
Other organizations
Legislation
The Equal Rights Amendment
The Constitutional Equity Amendment
Equity feminism
Critiques
References

Philosophy
Liberal feminism does not have a clearly defined set of philosophies, which makes their beliefs abstract. They value
individualistic approaches to justice and societal structures instead of blaming inequalities on patriarchal gender
relations.[6] As Susan Wendell states, "liberal feminism's clearest political commitments, including equality of
opportunity, are important to women's liberation and not necessarily incompatible with the goals of socialist and radical
feminism."[6]

The basis of liberalism gave liberal feminism a familiar enough platform that it came the closest out of other waves to
convincing the general public and the government that their feminist philosophies "could and should be incorporated into
existing law."[7] As Ryan Musgrave states, "Liberal feminists argued for women's rightful inclusion in the liberal category
of the autonomous individual as the basic social unit, and that women likewise be accorded the individual rights
connected to the category."[7]

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Bell Hooks' main criticism of the philosophies of liberal feminism is that they focus too much on equality with men in their
own class.[8] She mentions that the "cultural basis of group oppression" is the biggest challenge, in that liberal feminists
tend to ignore it.[8]

History
The goal for liberal feminists in the late 1800s and early 1900s was to gain women's suffrage under the idea that they
would then gain individual liberty. They were concerned with gaining freedom through equality, putting an end to men's
cruelty to women, and gaining the freedom to opportunities to become full persons.[9] They believed that no government
or custom should prohibit the exercise of personal freedom. Early liberal feminists had to counter the assumption that
only white men deserved to be full citizens. Feminists such as Mary Wollstonecraft, Judith Sargent Murray, and Frances
Wright advocated for women's full political inclusion.[9] In 1920, after nearly 50 years of intense activism, women were
finally granted the right to vote and the right to hold public office in the United States.

Liberal feminism was quiet for four decades after winning the vote. In the 1960s during the civil rights movement, liberal
feminists drew parallels between systemic race discrimination and sex discrimination.[1] Groups such as the National
Organization for Women, the National Women's Political Caucus, and the Women's Equity Action League were all created
at that time to further women's rights. In the U.S., these groups have worked for the ratification of the Equal Rights
Amendment or "Constitutional Equity Amendment", in the hopes it will ensure that men and women are treated as equals
under the democratic laws that also influence important spheres of women's lives, including reproduction, work and equal
pay issues. Other issues important to liberal feminists include but are not limited to reproductive rights and abortion
access, sexual harassment, voting, education, fair compensation for work, affordable childcare, affordable health care, and
bringing to light the frequency of sexual and domestic violence against women.[10]

Writers
Popular feminist writers associated with this theory are Mary Wollstonecraft, John Stuart Mill, Helen Taylor; Second
Wave feminists Betty Friedan,Gloria Steinem, Simone de Beauvoir; and Third Wave feminist Rebecca Walker.

Mary Wollstonecraft

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–1797) has been very influential in her writings as A

Vindication of the Rights of Woman commented on society's view of the woman and
encouraged women to use their voices in making decisions separate from decisions
previously made for them. Wollstonecraft "denied that women are, by nature, more
pleasure seeking and pleasure giving than men. She reasoned that if they were confined
to the same cages that trap women, men would develop the same flawed characters.
What Wollstonecraft most wanted for women was personhood."[1] She argued that
patriarchal oppression is a form of slavery that could no longer be ignored.
Wollstonecraft argued that the inequality between men and women existed due to the
disparity between their educations. Along with Judith Sargent Murray and Frances Mary Wollstonecraft
Wright, Wollstonecraft was one of the first major advocates for women's full inclusion
in politics.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton

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Elizabeth Cady Stanton (November 12, 1815 – October 26, 1902) was one of the most
influential women in first wave feminism. An American social activist, she was
instrumental in orchestrating the Seneca Falls Convention, the first women's rights
convention, which was held in Seneca Falls, New York. Not only was the suffragist
movement important to Stanton, she also was involved in women's parental and
custody rights, divorce laws, birth control, employment and income rights, among
others.[11] Her partner in this movement was the equally influential Susan B. Anthony.
Together, they fought for a linguistic shift in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments
to include "female".[12] Additionally, in 1890 she founded the National American
Woman Suffrage Association and resided as president until 1892.[12] Despite never
authoring a feminist text, she produced many speeches, resolutions, letters, calls, and
petitions that fed the first wave and kept the spirit alive.[13] Furthermore, by gathering
a large number of signatures, she aided the passage of the Married Women's Property
Elizabeth Cady Stanton
Act of 1848 which considered women legally independent of their husbands and
granted them property of their own. Together these women formed what was known as
the NWSA (National Women Suffrage Association), which focused on working the courts to gain suffrage.

John Stuart Mill

John Stuart Mill (May 20, 1806 – May 8, 1873) believed that both sexes should have
equal rights under the law and that "until conditions of equality exist, no one can
possibly assess the natural differences between women and men, distorted as they have
been. What is natural to the two sexes can only be found out by allowing both to
develop and use their faculties freely."[14] Mill frequently spoke of this imbalance and
wondered if women were able to feel the same "genuine unselfishness" that men did in
providing for their families. This unselfishness Mill advocated is the one "that
motivates people to take into account the good of society as well as the good of the
individual person or small family unit.[1] Similar to Mary Wollstonecraft, Mill
compared sexual inequality to slavery, arguing that their husbands are often just as
abusive as masters, and that a human being controls nearly every aspect of life for
another human being. In his book The Subjection of Women, Mill argues that three John Stuart Mill
major parts of women's lives are hindering them: society and gender construction,
education, and marriage.[15] He also argues that sex inequality is greatly inhibiting the
progress of humanity.

Popular liberal feminists

18th century 19th century 20th century
Mary Wollstonecraft John Stuart Mill Betty Friedan
Judith Sargent Murray Harriet Taylor Rebecca Walker
Frances Wright Harriet Tubman Naomi Wolf
Susan B. Anthony Martha Nussbaum
Elizabeth Cady Stanton

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Organizations

The National Organization for Women

The National Organization for Women (NOW) is the largest Liberal Feminist organization in the United States. Though
their primary focus and issue currently is the Constitutional Equality Amendment, they also deal with reproductive issues
and abortion access as well as ending violence against women, combating racism, economic justice and Lesbian, Gay,
Bisexual, and Transgender rights (LGBT).

Various other issues the National Organization for Women also deals with are:

Affirmative action Media activism

Disability rights Mothers' economic Rights
EcoFeminism Working for peace; opposition to conflicts such
Family as the Iraq War
Opposing right-wing causes contrary to NOW's Social Security
interests Supreme Court
Global feminism Title IX/Education
Women's health Welfare
Immigration Workplace discrimination
Promotion of nominating judges with feminist Women in the Military
viewpoints Young feminist programs
Legislation
Legal recognition of same-sex marriages

The National Women's Political Caucus

The National Women's Political Caucus (NWPC) was founded in 1971, this organization is the only national organization
dedicated exclusively to increasing women's participation in all areas of political and public life as elected and appointed
officials, as delegates to national party conventions, as judges in the state and federal courts, and as lobbyists, voters and
campaign organizers.[16]

Founders of NWPC include such prominent women as Gloria Steinem, author, lecturer and founding editor of Ms.
Magazine; former Congresswoman Shirley Chisholm; former Congresswoman and current president of Women USA Bella
Abzug; Dorothy Height, president of the National Council of Negro Women; Jill Ruckelshaus, U.S. Civil Rights
Commissioner; Ann Lewis, Political Director of the Democratic National Committee; Elly Peterson, former vice-chair of
the Republican National Committee; LaDonna Harris, Indian rights leader; Liz Carpenter, author, lecturer and former
press secretary to Lady Bird Johnson; and Eleanor Holmes Norton, former chair of the Equal Employment Opportunity
Commission.

These women were spurred by Congress' failure to pass the Equal Rights Amendment in 1970. They believed legal,
economic and social equity would come about only when women were equally represented among the nation's political
decision-makers. Their faith that women's interests would best be served by women lawmakers has been confirmed time
and time again, as women in Congress, state legislatures and city halls across the country have introduced, fought for and
won legislation to eliminate sex discrimination and meet women's changing needs.[16]

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The Women's Equity Action League

The Women's Equity Action League (WEAL) was a national membership organization, with state chapters and divisions,
founded in 1968 and dedicated to improving the status and lives of all women primarily through education, litigation, and
legislation. Its sister organization, the Women's Equity Action League Fund, was incorporated in 1972 "to help secure legal
rights for women and to carry on educational and research projects on sex discrimination". The two organizations merged
in 1981 following changes in the tax code.[17]

The stated purposes of WEAL were:

to promote greater economic progress on the part of American women;

to press for full enforcement of existing anti-discriminatory laws on behalf of women;
to seek correction of de facto discrimination against women;
to gather and disseminate information and educational material;
to investigate instances of, and seek solutions to, economic, educational, tax, and employment problems affecting
women;
to urge that girls be prepared to enter more advanced career fields;
to seek reappraisal of federal, state and local laws and practices limiting women's employment opportunities;
to combat by all lawful means, job discrimination against women in the pay, promotional or advancement policies of
governmental or private employers;
to seek the cooperation and coordination of all American women, individually or as organizations *to attain these
objectives, whether through legislation, litigation, or other means, and by doing any and all things necessary or
incident thereto.

Other organizations
Feminist Majority Foundation
Ms. Magazine

Legislation
A fair number of American liberal feminists believe that equality in pay, job opportunities, political structure, social
security and education for women especially needs to be guaranteed by the U.S. Constitution.

The Equal Rights Amendment

Three years after women won the right to vote, the Equal Right Amendment (ERA) was introduced in Congress by Senator
Curtis and Representative Anthony, both Republicans. This amendment stated that civil rights cannot be denied on the
basis of one's sex. It was authored by Alice Paul, head of the National Women's Party, who led the suffrage campaign.
Through the efforts of Alice Paul, the Amendment was introduced into each session of the United States Congress. But it
was buried in committee in both Houses of Congress. In 1946, it was narrowly defeated by the full Senate, 38–35. In
February 1970 twenty NOW leaders disrupted the hearings of the U.S. Senate Subcommittee on Constitutional
Amendments, demanding the ERA be heard by the full Congress. In May of that year, the Senate Subcommittee began
hearings on the ERA under Senator Birch Bayh. In June, the ERA finally left the House Judiciary Committee due to a
discharge petition filed by Representative Martha Griffiths. In March 1972, the ERA was approved by the full Senate
without changes, 84–8. Senator Sam Ervin and Representative Emanuel Celler succeeded in setting an arbitrary time limit
of seven years for ratification. The ERA went to individual states to be ratified by the state legislatures. The ERA first
attempted to be passed after the passing of the nineteenth amendment in 1920 by the feminists in the National Woman's
Party, but it got little attention at the time.

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In 2008, the ERA was stopped three states short of ratification. The state legislatures that were most hostile to the ERA
were Utah, Florida, Illinois, North Carolina and Oklahoma. The NOW believes that the single most obvious problem in
passing the ERA was the gender and racial imbalance in the legislatures. More than 2/3 of the women and all of the
African Americans in state legislatures voted for the ERA, but less than 50% of the white men in the targeted legislatures
cast pro-ERA votes in 1982.[18]

The Constitutional Equity Amendment

The Constitutional Equity Amendment (CEA) was rolled out in 1995 by American women's organizations. The CEA
incorporated all of the concerns that have arisen out of a two-year study by NOW and other groups of the ERA which
reviewed the history of the amendment from 1923 until the present. The items that were included in the CEA which were
missing in the ERA include:

States that women and men shall have equal rights throughout the United States and every place and entity subject
to its jurisdiction;
It guarantees rights without discrimination on account of sex, race, sexual orientation, marital status, ethnicity,
national origin, color or indigence;
It prohibits pregnancy discrimination and guarantees the absolute right of a woman to make her own reproductive
decisions including the termination of pregnancy;

Equity feminism
Equity feminism is a form of liberal feminism discussed since the 1980s,[19][20] specifically a kind of classically liberal or
libertarian feminism.[21]

The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy refers to Wendy McElroy, Joan Kennedy Taylor, Cathy Young, Rita Simon,
Katie Roiphe, Diana Furchtgott-Roth, Christine Stolba, and Christina Hoff Sommers as equity feminists.[21] Steven Pinker,
an evolutionary psychologist, identifies himself as an equity feminist, which he defines as "a moral doctrine about equal
treatment that makes no commitments regarding open empirical issues in psychology or biology".[22] Barry Kuhle asserts
that equity feminism is compatible with evolutionary psychology, in contrast to gender feminism.[23]

Critiques
Critics of liberal feminism argue that its individualist assumptions make it difficult to see the ways in which underlying
social structures and values disadvantage women. They argue that even if women are not dependent upon individual men,
they are still dependent upon a patriarchal state. These critics believe that institutional changes like the introduction of
women's suffrage are insufficient to emancipate women.[24]

One of the more prevalent critiques of liberal feminism is that it, as a study, allows too much of its focus to fall on a
"metamorphosis" of women into men, and in doing so, disregards the significance of the traditional role of women.[1] One
of the leading scholars who have critiqued liberal feminism is radical feminist Catherine A. MacKinnon, an American
lawyer, writer and social activist. Specializing in issues regarding sex equality, she has been intimately involved in the case
regarding the definition of sexual harassment and sex discrimination.[4] She, among other radical feminist scholars, view
liberalism and feminism as incompatible because liberalism offers women a, "piece of the pie as currently and poisonously
baked".[25]

Other critics such as black feminists and postcolonial feminists assert that mainstream liberal feminism reflects only the
values of middle-class, heterosexual, white women and has largely ignored women of different races, cultures or
classes.[26]

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References
1. Tong, Rosemarie (1992). "Liberal feminism" (https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cv5EAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT17).
Feminist thought: a comprehensive introduction. London: Routledge. ISBN 9780415078740.
2. Murphy, Meghan (April 11, 2014). "The divide isn't between 'sex negative' and 'sex positive' feminists — it's between
liberal and radical feminism" (http://www.feministcurrent.com/2014/04/11/the-divide-isnt-between-sex-negative-and-se
x-positive-feminists-its-between-liberals-and-radicals/). Feminist Current. Retrieved December 24, 2017.
3. Appignanesi, Richard; Garratt, Ghris (1995). Postmodernism for beginners (https://archive.org/details/postmodernismf
or0000appi). Trumpington: Icon. pp. 100–101 (https://archive.org/details/postmodernismfor0000appi/page/100).
ISBN 9781874166214.
4. MacKinnon, Catharine A. (2013). "Sexuality". In Kolmar, Wendy K.; Barkowski, Frances (eds.). Feminist theory: a
reader (4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. ISBN 9780073512358.
5. Gail Dines (29 June 2011). Gail Dines on radical feminism (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B9LVVxvuomU&t=0m2
0s) (Video). Wheeler Centre, Sydney Writers' Festival, Melbourne via YouTube. Retrieved 24 December 2017.
6. Wendell, Susan (June 1987). "A (Qualified) Defense of Liberal Feminism". Hypatia. 2 (2): 65–93. doi:10.1111/j.1527-
2001.1987.tb01066.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1527-2001.1987.tb01066.x). ISSN 0887-5367 (https://www.worldca
t.org/issn/0887-5367).
7. Musgrave, L. Ryan (2003-11-01). "Liberal Feminism, from Law to Art: The Impact of Feminist Jurisprudence on
Feminist Aesthetics". Hypatia. 18 (4): 214–235. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.582.4459 (https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/sum
mary?doi=10.1.1.582.4459). doi:10.1111/j.1527-2001.2003.tb01419.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1527-2001.2003.tb
01419.x). ISSN 1527-2001 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1527-2001).
8. "bell hooks' "Feminist Theory: From Margin To Center": Chapter 2" (https://zaknafein81.wordpress.com/2012/06/18/be
ll-hooks-feminist-theory-from-margin-to-center-chapter-2/). Loftier Musings. 2012-06-18. Retrieved 2018-12-04.
9. Marilley, Suzanne M. (1996). "The feminism of equal rights" (https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=SQ7PP7qSkRsC&
pg=PA16). Woman suffrage and the origins of liberal feminism in the United States, 1820-1920. Cambridge,
Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 1–10. ISBN 9780674954656.
10. hooks, bell. "Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center" Cambridge, MA: South End Press 1984
11. Baker, Jean H. (2005). Sisters: the lives of America's suffragists. New York: Hill and Wang. ISBN 9780809095285.
12. Evans, Sara M. (1997). Born for liberty: a history of women in America (https://archive.org/details/bornforliberty00sar
a). New York, New York: Free Press Paperbacks. ISBN 9780684834986.
13. Stanton, Elizabeth Cady (1994). "Address to the New York State Legislature, 1854" (https://books.google.co.uk/book
s?id=2V6YAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA143). In Schneir, Miriam (ed.). Feminism: the essential historical writings. New York:
Vintage Books. p. 110. ISBN 9780679753810.
14. Mill, John Stuart (2013) [1869]. The Subjection of Women (A Feminist Literature Classic). Cork: e-artnow Editions.
ISBN 9788074843150.
15. Brink, David (9 October 2007). "Mill's Moral and Political Philosophy" (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mill-moral-polit
ical/). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University.
16. "Archived copy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20131029053715/http://www.nwpc.org/history). Archived from the
original (http://www.nwpc.org/history) on 2013-10-29. Retrieved 2014-12-14.
17. "Women's Equity Action League. Records of the Women's Equity Action League, 1966-1979: A Finding Aid" (http://oa
sis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~sch00323). oasis.lib.harvard.edu.
18. "Archived copy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070807035643/http://www.now.org/issues/economic/cea/history.html).
Archived from the original (http://www.now.org/issues/economic/cea/history.html) on 2007-08-07. Retrieved
2007-07-31.
19. Black, Naomi (1989). Social feminism (https://books.google.ca/books?id=kDYqAAAAYAAJ). Ithaca: Cornell University
Press. ISBN 9780801422614.

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20. Halfmann, Jost (1989). "Social change and political mobilization in West Germany" (https://books.google.ca/books?id
=Q83kxhOsgxYC&pg=PA79). In Katzenstein, Peter (ed.). Industry and politics in West Germany: toward the Third
Republic. Ithaca, N.Y: Cornell University Press. p. 79. ISBN 9780801495953. "Quote: Equity-feminism differs from
equality-feminism in the depth and scope of its strategic goals. A feminist revolution would pursue three goals,
according to Herrad Schenk:"

Citing:

Schenk, Herrad (1980). Die feministische Herausforderung: 150 Jahre Frauenbewegung in Deutschland (ht
tps://books.google.co.uk/books?id=wb62AAAAIAAJ). München: Beck. ISBN 9783406060137. "English
translation: ...the abolition of the gender-specific division of work in the family, the dissolution of the psychic
foundations of different gender roles, and the feminization of the societal system of norms and values."

21. "Liberal Feminism" (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminism-liberal/#EquFem). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

18 October 2007. Retrieved 24 February 2016. (Revised 30 September 2013.)
22. Pinker, Steven (2002). "Gender" (https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=G3_UAeo8Dh0C&pg=PA510). The blank slate:
the modern denial of human nature. New York: Viking. p. 341. ISBN 9780142003343.
23. Kuhle, Barry X. (January 2012). "Evolutionary psychology is compatible with equity feminism, but not with gender
feminism: A reply to Eagly and Wood" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120116120314/http://www.epjournal.net/article
s/evolutionary-psychology-is-compatible-with-equity-feminism-but-not-with-gender-feminism-a-reply-to-eagly-and-woo
d-2011/). Evolutionary Psychology. 10 (1): 39–43. doi:10.1177/147470491201000104 (https://doi.org/10.1177%2F147
470491201000104). PMID 22833845 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22833845).

See also:

Eagly, Alice H.; Wood, Wendy (May 2011). "Feminism and the evolution of sex differences and similarities".
Sex Roles. 64 (9–10): 758–767. doi:10.1007/s11199-011-9949-9 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11199-011-9
949-9).

24. Bryson, Valerie (1999). Feminist debates: issues of theory and political practice. New York: New York University
Press. pp. 14–15. ISBN 9780814713488.
25. Morgan, Robin (1996). "Light bulbs, radishes and the politics of the 21st century" (https://books.google.co.uk/books?i
d=K22CrjaKYsYC&pg=PA5). In Bell, Diane; Klein, Renate (eds.). Radically speaking: feminism reclaimed. Chicago:
Spinifex Press. pp. 5–8. ISBN 9781742193649.
26. Mills, Sara (1998). "Postcolonial feminist theory" (https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=mg4CnbiN_rMC). In Jackson,
Stevi; Jones, Jackie (eds.). Contemporary feminist theories. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 98–112.
ISBN 9780748606894.

[1]

Johnson, Pauline. "Normative tensions of Contemporary Feminism" [2]Thesis Eleven JournalMay, 2010.

Kensinger, Loretta. "In Quest of Liberal Feminism" [3] Hypatia 1997.

McCloskey, Deirdre. "Free-Market Feminism 101" [4] Eastern Economic Journal2000.

Code, Lorraine. "Encyclopedia Of Feminist Theories" Taylor and Francis Group2014.

Dundes, Lauren. "Concerned, Meet Terrified: Intersectional Feminism and the Women's March" Women's Studies
International Forum July 2018.

1. Whittier, Nancy (2016). "Carceral and Intersectional Feminism in Congress". Gender & Society. 30 (5): 791–818.
doi:10.1177/0891243216653381 (https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0891243216653381).

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2. https://files.zotero.net/16332415126/Johnson%20-%202010%20-
%20Normative%20Tensions%20of%20Contemporary%20Feminism.pdf
3. Kensinger, Loretta (1997). "(In)Quest of Liberal Feminism". Hypatia. 12 (4): 178–197. doi:10.1111/j.1527-
2001.1997.tb00303.x (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1527-2001.1997.tb00303.x). JSTOR 3810738 (https://www.jstor.or
g/stable/3810738).
4. McCloskey, Deirdre N. (2000). "Free-Market Feminism 101". Eastern Economic Journal. 26 (3): 363–365.
JSTOR 40326003 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/40326003).

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