MME-2104 (Material Science and Metallurgy) Chp-6 (Ferrous & Nonferrous Metals)

Ferrous & Nonferrous Metals

CHAPTER-6
Ferrous-alloys: Composition, properties and applications of alloy steels (plain
carbon steels, stainless steels, free machining steels, HSS and maraging
steels, cast irons-grey, white and malleable cast irons.
Non-ferrous alloys: Types and explanation of brasses, bronzes and Al-Cu [04]
(4)alloys.

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Chapter 6: Ferrous & Nonferrous Metals

Ferrous Metals:
Introduction
Generally, plain carbon steels are the steels containing less than 1.65 per cent manganese,
0.60 per cent copper and 0.60 per cent silicon and without addition of any specified
elements. These steels are widely employed for general engineering applications and their
production amount to about 90 per cent of total steel production. However, plain carbon
steels find restricted applications for specific purposes. When the alloying elements are
added intentionally to alter the property of plain carbon steels are known as alloy steels.
The properties of alloy steels depend on both carbon and alloying elements.
Nature and amount(s) of alloying element(s) dictate the engineering behaviour of alloy
steels. Alloying elements not only minimize/eliminate the limitations of plain carbon steels
but also impart/improve specific characteristics such as resistance against corrosion and
oxidation, and magnetic and electrical properties.
Aluminium, boron, chromium, cobalt, copper, lead, manganese, molybdenum, nickel,
silicon, titanium, tungsten and vanadium are some of the common alloying elements added
to steels.
3.2 ALLOYING ELEMENTS IN STEELS
Alloying elements are usually present either in one or more of the micro-constituents
of the alloy steel or in the elemental from. For example, alloying element(s) may be present
in ferrite, austenite, and carbide phase and/or in interstitial compounds. Alloying elements
having no solid solubility with iron are present in elemental form ,i.e. in free form. The
elements positioned to the right of iron in the Periodic Table form solid solutions with iron.
These elements cannot form carbides. However, elements occupying positions to the left of
iron in the Periodic Table are able to partition (distribute ) themselves between solid
solution and cementite.
Since most of the alloying elements have good solid solubility in iron, the allotropic
transformation temperature ( A3 and A4 ) get altered. Some elements have the properties of
lowering A3 temperature and raising A4 temperature. Contrary to the behaviour of elements
described above, there exists elements which lower the A4 temperature and raise A3
temperature. The effect of alloying elements present in alloy steel is, in general , not a
simple sum of their individual effect on ferritic and austenitic regions.
Table 3.2 Effects of Alloying Elements in Steels
Alloying element General Effects Special Steels
Aluminium Strong deoxidizer, soluble in ferrite, 1. Nitralloy steel.
forms nitrides, refines grain size.

Boron Enhances hardenability remarkably 1. Steels with high

hardenability.

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Chromium Stabilizes ferrite, forms hard and 1. General purpose

stable carbide, raises tensile strength, structural steels.
fatigue strength, hardness, wear 2. Ball bearing steels
resistance and hardenability; makes 3. Spring Steels.
steel stainless when exceeds 12% in 4. Hard magnetic steels.
solution. 5. Stainless Steels.

Cobalt Checks grain growth, retains hardness 1. Hot work steels.

and strength at elevated 2. High speed steels.
temperatures, raises remanence, 3. High temperature steels.
coercive force and thermal 4. Permanent magnet
conductivity. steels.

Copper Raises yield point and yield strength 1. In many steels with
to tensile strength ratio, causes improved resistance
precipitation hardening when exceeds against atmospheric
0.30%. corrosion.
Manganese Stabilizes carbides, increases strength, 1. Up to 2% in many alloy
hardness and hardenability; acts as steels.
mild deoxidizer, eliminates evil effect 2. Modified austenitic
of sulphur, stabilizes sustenite when stainless steels.
present in large amount. 3. Hadfield steels

Molybdenum Strong carbide former, imparts high An important allying

temperature strength, enhances element in
resistance to creep, minimizes temper 1. Case hardening steels.
brittleness, increases resistance to 2. Hot work steels.
corrosion of high chromium steels and 3. High speed steels.
austenitic stainless steels. 4. Creep resistant steels.
5. Stainless steels.

NIckel Stabilizes austenite, acts as 1. Case hardening steels.

graphitizer, raises hardenability, 2. Low temperature steels.
impact strength at normal and low 3. Stainless steels.
temperatures, and high temperature 4. Nonmagnetic steels.
strength; improves resistance to
fatigue and corrosion, capable of
generating desired matrix by varying
its amount.

Niobium Forms stable carbide, enhances high 1. Creep resistant steels.

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temperature strength and creep 2. Stainless steels.

resistance, stabilizes stainless steels.

Silicon Stabilizes and hardens ferrite, 1. Spring steels.

promotes graphitization, potent 2. Transformer steels.
deoxidizer, enhances resistance to 3. Scale resistant steels.
scaling and corrosion.
Titanium Forms hard and stable carbide, 1. Creep resistant steels.
stabilizes ferrite, refines grains, raises 2. Stainless steels.
creep strength stabilizes stainless 3. Permanent magnet
steels. steels.

Tungsten Forms carbides, raises strength and 1. Wear resistant steels.

hardness, decreases toughness, 2. Hot work steels.
prevents grain growth, resists 3. High speed steels.
softening during tempering, increases 4. Hard magnetic steels.
hot strength and wear resistance at 5. High temperature steels.
high temperatures, enhances cutting
power of tool.

Vanadium Forms carbides and nitrides, refines 1. Wear resistant steels.

grains, stabilizes ferrite, increases 2. Hot work steels.
hardness, strength and cutting power 3. High speed steels.
at elevated temperatures. 4. High temperature steels.

CLASSIFICATION OF ALLOY STEELS

Alloy steels can be classified into various classes depending on various parameters.
Some popular bases for alloy steels classification are:
a) Amount of alloying element(s)
b) Principal alloying element (s)
c) Application of steels.
d) Microstructure of steels.
Based on amount of alloying element(s) present in steel, alloy steel is referred to as
low alloy steel, medium alloy steel or high alloy steel . In general, a low alloy steel contains
up to 5 per cent . For a medium alloy steel, total alloy content of a high alloy steel exceeds
10 per cent .For a medium alloy steel, total alloy content varies from 5to 10 per cent.
Alloy steels, depending on the principal alloying element(s) can be grouped as nickel
steels, chromium steels, chromium-nickel steels, nickel- chromium –molybdenum steels, and
nickel-chromium –vanadium steels.

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According to the applications, alloy steels can be grouped into many classes such as
spring steels, bearing steels . corrosion resistant steels, creep resistant steels, oxidation
resistant steels, die steels , cryogenic steels etc.
Steels can be grouped as pearlitic steels, ferritic steels, martensitic steels, bainitic
steels, austenitic steels or ferrito-pearlitic steels on the basis of microstructure of steels.
TYPES of plain carbon steels:
Dead Steel: C% upto 0.025. Not very important as usage is concerned. Used as wires or
ropes. Hardened only by cold working and are not subjected to heat treatment.
Low carbon steel: C% traces to 0.25. Accounts 90% of total plain carbon steel output. Good
formability and excellent weldability. Used as structural, cold heading, free cutting, case
hardening steel and soft magnetic material. Poor response to heat treatment. Contains upto
70% proeutectoid ferrite phase at room temp. Annealing and normalising treatments may
be given but no much alteration in mechanical properties.
Medium carbon steel: C% from 0.25 to 0.65. Good response to heat treatment. Used as
railway couplings, flanges, hand tools, sockets, levers etc.
High carbon steel: C% from 0.65 to 1.5. High strength and hardness. Poor formability,
machinability and weldability. Spheroidising improves machinability. C% from 0.65 to 1.0
used as spring steels. Fabricating method is hot rolling and cold drawing. Used as saws,
cutting tools, chisels, piston rings etc.
3.5.21 Stainless Steels
Stainless steel is a generic tem denoting a large number of chromium and chromium-
nickel steels. A simple stainless steel contains 11 per cent chromium whereas a complex
stainless steel may contain up to 30 per cent chromium and up to 20 per cent nickel with
sufficient amounts of other alloying elements such a niobium, molybdenum, titanium,
copper, tungsten, selenium, aluminium and tantalum. These steels have very good resistance
to corrosion and many other useful properties. Chromium is responsible for excellent
corrosion resistance exhibited by stainless steels. These steels have been discussed in depth
somewhere else in this chapter. Compositions of some commonly used stainless steels are
given in Table 3.19 while the compositions of stainless steels, being manufactured and
actively used, are given in an Appendix.
A group of ferrous alloys that contain at least 11% Cr with or without Ni., providing
extraordinary corrosion resistance. Corrosion resistance is due to the formation of thin,
stable chromium oxide or Nickel oxide film.
Types:
Martensitic Stainless Steels: Straight Cr steels with 11.5 to 18% Cr. Magnetic, cold workable,
machinable, higher toughness Stainless steels. Hardened by air cooling. Temp. temp. is 590

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°C, higher temp. causes lower corrosion resistance due to the precipitation of carbides and
410-510°C causes temper embrittlement. S addition enhances machinability.
Appln.: Turbine blades, Machine parts, springs, surgical instruments, ball bearings, heat
exchangers.
Ferritic Stainless Steels: Straight Cr steels with 19 to 27% Cr. Not hardenable but moderately
hardened by cold working. Magnetic, cold or hot worked,
Ferritic Stainless Steels (contd.) : Exhibits excellent corrosion resistance in annealed
condition.
Appln.:Nitric acid tank, furnace parts, nozzle, combustion chambers.
Austenitic Stainless Steels: Cr-Ni or Cr –Ni- Mn stainless steels. Nonmagnetic and can not be
hardened by heat treatment. Excellent corrosion resistance among stainless steel category.
Can be hardened by cold deformation.
Appln.: Chemical & food processing equipment, screw machine parts, shafts, valves, nuclear
energy applns., photographic equipments.
Precipitation-Hardenable (PH) Stainless Steels: contains Si, Mn, Mo, Cu, Al, P in addition to
Cr & Ni. Small amount of Ni improves stability of austenite. They are either austenitic or
martensitic variety.

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Maraging Steels
These are essentially high alloy steels containing carbon as impurity element
<0.03%), up to 25 per cent nickel, 7 to 10 per cent cobalt, 3 to 5 per cent molybdenum, up to
1.75 per cent titanium and up to 0.20 per cent aluminium. In addition to these elements,
some grades of maraging steels also contain beryllium, niobium and tungsten in small
amounts. Presence of nickel in large amounts is needed for the information of soft and
ductile markensite based on iron-nickel system. This soft, ductile and tough martensite is
strengthened by precipitation hardening. Properly heat treated maraging steel has a
microstructure consisting of fine particle of intermetallic compounds in a martensitic matrix.
Maraging steels are well known for their good yield strength to tensile strength ratio,
wedability, formability, excellent fracture toughness of resistance to hydrogen
embrittlement. There are two grades: 18%Ni martensite & 20- 25%Ni martensite
Application: Hulls of hydrospace vehicles, motor cases for missiles, hot extrusion dies,
pressure vessels.
3.5.23 Tool Steels

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Tool steels are the steels used for making cutting, shearing and forming tools. A large
number of steels, from plain carbon steels to high alloy steels, are used for the purpose
depending on the service conditions. American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) has grouped
tool steels into seven major classes as detailed in Table below.
Table AISI Classification of Tool Steels
Tool Steel Symbol Alloying elements
Water-hardening W Cr and V
Shock-resisting S Cr, W and Mo
Cold-work
Oil-hardening O Cr, W and Mo
Air-hardening A Cr. Ni, V, W and Mo
High C and Cr. D Cr, V, Co and Mo
Hot-work H Cr, V, W, Co and Mo
High-speed
Tungsten base T Cr, V, Co and W
Molybdenum base M Cr, V, W, Co and Mo
Mould P Cr, Ni and Mo
Special-purpose
Low-alloy L Cr, Ni, V and Mo
C-W Steels F W
High speed steel:
Alloying elements: 20-40%. Including W, Mo, Cr, V, Co (for Hot hardness, machinability), .7-
1.5%C.
Application: High speed cutting tools, milling cutters, dril bits ,dies, reamers, lathe centers.
Popular grade: 18-4-1 HSS ( W, Cr, V with .7%C and Co 5-12%) Co addition tool life increases
200-300%.
Carbides formed : MC,M2C,M6C, M7C3, M23C6. VC and V4C are powerful carbides and
control grain coarsening upto 12900C. Co dissolves in matrix to improve machinability and
thermal conductivity. Tool life may be improved by 200-300%. Also increases melting point.
Free machining / Cutting steel: It is low carbol steel variety containing Mn, Pb, S, B etc. as
small addition. Addition of these elements improves machinability by converting the
continuous chips as periodically broken type due to incorporation of brittleness.Lead present
in the matrix acts as solid lubricant to reduce friction. Tool life improves.
Non ferrous alloys

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Copper alloys: Copper is one of the earliest metals discovered by man. The boilers on early
steam boats were made from copper. The copper tubing used in water plumbing in Pyramids
was found in serviceable condition after more than 5,000 years. Cu is a ductile metal. Pure
Cu is soft and malleable, difficult to machine. Very high electrical and thermal conductivity –
second only to silver. Copper is refined to high purity for many electrical applications.
Electrical and construction industries are the largest users of Cu. The second largest use of
Cu is probably in coins. The U.S. nickel is actually 75% copper. The various Euro coins are
made of Cu-Ni, Cu-Zn-Ni or Cu-Al-Zn-Sn alloys.

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Brass: Brass is the most common alloy of Cu with Zn. Brass has higher ductility than copper
or zinc. Easy to cast i.e., relatively low melting point and high fluidity. Properties can be
tailored by varying Zn content. Some of the common brasses are yellow, naval and
cartridge. Brass is frequently used to make musical instruments (good ductility and acoustic
properties). Homogenising, recrystallisation annealing & stress relieve allealing treatments
are given. Berilium bronze undergoes age hardening.
Bronze: Copper alloys containing tin, lead, aluminum, silicon and nickel are classified as
bronzes. Cu-Sn Bronze is one of the earliest alloy to be discovered as Cu ores invariably
contain Sn. Stronger than brasses with good corrosion and tensile properties; can be cast,
hot worked and cold worked. Wide range of applications: ancient Chinese cast artifacts,
skateboard ball bearings, surgical and dental instruments.
Types bronzes:
BERYLLIUM COPPER (Beryllium bronze): Cu-Be alloys are heat treatable. Max solubility of Be
in Cu is 2.7% at 866 oC. Decreasing solubility at lower temp. imparts precipitation hardening
ability. Cast alloys contain higher Be and wrought alloys contain lower Be and some Co. Cu-
Be is ductile, weldable and machinable. Also resistant to non-oxidizing acids (HCl), abrasive
wear. Thermal conductivity is between steels and aluminum.
Applications: Used in springs, load cells and other parts subjected to repeated loading. Low-
current contacts for batteries and electrical connectors. Cast alloys are used in injection
molds. Other applications include jet aircraft landing gear bearings and bushings and
percussion instruments. Composition ,property & uses of some Brasses:

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Composition ,property & uses of some Bronzes:

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Aluminium : Aluminium is a light metal (Density= 2.7 g/cc); is easily machinable; has wide
variety of surface finishes; good electrical and thermal conductivities; highly reflective to
heat and light. Versatile metal - can be cast, rolled, stamped, drawn, spun, roll-formed,
hammered, extruded and forged into many shapes. Aluminium can be riveted, welded,
brazed, or resin bonded. Corrosion resistant - no protective coating needed, however it is
often anodized to improve surface finish, appearance.
Al alloys: High strength-to-weight ratio (high specific strength) owing to low density. Such
materials are widely used in aerospace and automotive applications where weight savings
are needed for better fuel efficiency and performance. Al-Li alloys are lightest among all Al
alloys and find wide applications in the aerospace industry. Aluminum alloys are classified
into two categories – Cast and Wrought alloys. Wrought alloys can be either heat-treatable
or non-heat treatable. Alloys are designated by a 4 digit number. Wrought – the 1 st digit
indicates the major alloying element. Homogenising, recrystallisation annealing & recovery
annealing (stress relieve annealing) and age hardening treatments are given.

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Composition ,property & uses of some Aluminium alloys:

Duralumin:
Al –Cu alloy with less than 5 wt% Cu and trace additions of Mg, Zn, Ni, Si etc. It is an age
hardenable alloy. It is possible to improve hardness and strength of the alloy by heat

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treatment. Generally used in air craft and automobile industries.

Cast Iron:
Cast iron has higher carbon and silicon contents than steel. Because of the higher carbon
content, the structure of cast iron, as opposed to that of steel, exhibits a carbon rich phase.
Depending primarily in composition & cooling rate, cast iron can solidify according to the
thermodynamically metastable Fe-Fe3C system or the stable Fe-Graphite system.
Basic classification of cast iron was based on its fracture.
Higher carbon content makes them more brittle. Cast irons are brittle, and cannot be forged,
rolled, drawn, etc. but can only be ‘cast’ into desired shape and size by pouring the molten
alloy of desired composition into a mould of desired shape and allowing it to solidify. Due to
presence of high carbon content in it machinability is poor.
If carbon is in the form of cementite then white cast iron forms and if carbon present as
graphite and cementite then grey cast iron forms. White cast irons have all the carbon in the
combined cementite form. Cementite is a hard, brittle, white compound. The fractured
surface of white cast iron looks silvery-white due to white cementite, and that is why the
name white cast iron is given. Graphite is soft, brittle and gray, and thus, imparts gray colour
to the fracture.
WHITE CAST IRON: These are iron-carbon alloys having more than 2% carbon and all the
carbon is present in the combined cementite form. Typical white cast iron contains 2.5 –
3.5% C, 0.4 – 1.5% Si, 0.4 – 0.6 % Mn, 0.1 – 0.4% P, 0.15% S, and balance Fe. At room
temperature white cast iron is mixture of pearlite and proeutectoid cementite. Exhibits a
white, crystalline fracture surface because fracture occurs along the iron carbide plates; it is
the result of metastable solidification (Fe 3C eutectic). White cast iron is very brittle and
unmachinable as it is very hard due to presence of hard and brittle cementite and thus finds
very few applications. It is the gray cast iron, the common commercial variety most

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extensively used in industry; due to its certain specific properties. The compressive strength
and hardness of gray cast iron are quite high.

Because of extreme brittleness and lack of machinability, white irons find limited
engineering applications.
Application The parts where resistance to wear is the most important requirement such as
liners of cement mixers, ball mills, pumps, wearing plates. Parts of sand-slingers, certain type
of drawing dies, extrusion nozzles, grinding balls. Most parts are sand-cast and don’t require
much machining, which can be done by grinding. A large tonnage of white cast irons is used
as a starting material for the production of malleable cast iron parts. • Brake shoes • Shot
blasting nozzles • Mill liners • Crushers • Pump impellers and other abrasion resistant parts.
GRAY CAST IRON:
Iron-carbon alloys containing flakes of graphite embedded in ferrite matrix, which show a
gray-blackish coloured fracture due to graphite—the free form of carbon, are called gray cast
irons. The strength of gray iron depends on the strength of ferrite matrix and the size and
character of graphite flakes in it.
Generally gray cast irons are hypoeutectic cast irons, the total carbon content lies between
2.4% to 3.8%. The amount of carbon does not exceed 3.8%. Higher the carbon%, more the
eutectic liquid, which yields more graphite as flakes, results in poor mechanical properties.
Carbon is kept at least 2.4%. So that cast iron has good fluidity and castability. Silicon is kept
between1.4 % to 3.5%. It being a graphitiser controls carbon precipitation and the rate of
cooling.
The generalised range of composition of gray irons is:
Carbon : 2.4—3.8%, Silicon : 1.2—3.5% , Manganese : 0.5—1.0%, Sulphur : 0.06—0.12%,
Phosphorus : 0.1—0.9%.
In manufacturing of gray cast irons, the tendency of cementite to separate into graphite and
austenite or ferrite is favoured by controlling alloy composition and cooling rate.
Strength of gray cast iron depends almost entirely on the matrix in which the graphite is
embedded. If the composition and cooling rate are such that the eutectoid cementite also
graphitizes, then the matrix will be entirely Ferritic. If graphitization of the eutectoid
cementite is prevented, the Matrix will be entirely pearlitic. Gray iron, the strength and
hardness increase with the in increase in carbide, reaching a maximum for pearlitic gray iron,
since graphite-ferrite mixture is the softest and weakest.
MALLEABLE IRON: It consists of structure of irregularly round (circular cross section)
graphite particles called temper carbon and structure is obtained by malleabilisation heat
treatment. The composition of white cast irons suitable for malleabilisation is as follows:
Carbon 2.00-2.65, Silicon 0.90-1.40, Manganese 0.25-0.55, Phosphorus Less than 0.18 and
Sulphur 0.05. Cementite (iron carbide) is actually a metastable phase. There is a tendency
for cementite to decompose into iron and carbon, but under normal conditions the
decomposition rate is neglegible. The tendency to form free carbon by the decomposition of
Fe3C (Fe3C 3Fe + C) is the key for the manufacture of malleable cast iron. The
decomposition reaction is taking place faster at elevated temperatures, the existence of solid

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non metallic impurities, higher carbon contents, and the presence of elements that aid the
decomposition of Fe3C. The purpose of malleabilization is to convert all the combined
carbon in white iron into irregular nodules of tamper carbon (graphite) and ferrite.
Application of malleable iron: Axle & differential housings, Automobile cam &crank shafts,
sprockets, chain links, linkages, small tools (wrenches, hammers, clamps).
Effect of alloying elements on C.I. :
(a) Carbon: Higher is the carbon, more is graphite formed and lower the mechanical
properties. It also lowers the melting point.
(b) Silicon: Silicon is a strong graphitiser and increases the fluidity. It controls the relative
proportions of combined carbon and free graphite. If silicon is present during the
solidification carbon precipitates as graphite flakes. Silicon content may vary between 1.0%
to 3.5%. Silicon shifts the graphite-eutectic line upwards. Thus during cooling from liquid
state, a larger degree of under cooling is possible with greater chance to form graphite.
(c) Sulphur and Manganese: Sulphur retards graphitisation and increases the size of the
flakes, High sulphur tends to reduce fluidity and is often causes blow holes in castings.
Sulphur is kept low in amount of 0.06 to 0.12%. It is present either as FeS or MnS. FeS tends
to promote cementite formation, i.e., white cast iron. Mn is a mild carbide forming element.
Manganese formes MnS, retards primarily graphitisation. However, it has strong cementite
stabilising effect on eutectoid graphitisation.
(d) Phosphorus- Most cast iron contain phosphorus between 0.1 to 0.3%. Its amount may be
more than 0.9%, then it forms iron phosphide (Fe3P), which form a ternary eutectic with
cementite and austenite. The ternary Eutectic is called steadite. Steadite is brittle and has a
melting point of around 960 degree. This increase the fluidity also helps in giving good
castability.

General Properties of Cast iron

1. Low melting point: (1150- 1250°C ) It is several hundred degrees less than steel,
requires simple furnaces like pit furnace, crucible furnace, cupola, etc. The control of
impurities is not critical here as in steel melting.
2. Good Castability: Excellent fluidity and takes good mould-impressions easily. Cast
irons; as compared to steels solidity mainly at the constant eutectic temperature.
Graphite having low density is voluminous. Its large volume compensates for the
shrinkage. Gray iron, thus, does not need shrinkage allowance at all to take almost
exact casting impressions.
3. Good machinability: Easy discontinuous chips formation due to brittle graphite flakes.
Graphite serves as a solid lubricant decreasing coefficient of friction. It smears the
cutting tool allowing free sliding of chips increasing thus, tool life too. (White cast
irons, due to high hardness, are unmachinable).
4. Good wear resistance : Being graphite acting as solid lubricant layer, avoiding metal
to metal direct contact. On other hand, white cast irons are wear resistant due to
their high hardness.

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5. High damping capacity : Graphite flakes breaks continuity of the metallic matrix, and
thus, vibrations are not allowed to transfer from one side of flake to other, i.e.,
graphitic cracks quickly dampen the vibrations and resonance oscillations. Gray iron
suits thus the machine beds as compared to steels.
6. High compressive strength: Almost 3 to 5 times of its tensile strength (110-350
N/mm2), and almost equal to that of steels makes it suitable for applications, where
components are subjected to compression such as machine beds, etc.
7. High thermal conductivity and ability to withstand thermal shocks.

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