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OURNA L
Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015
KDN PP5476/10/2012 (030203) ISSN 0126-513X
Dato’ Ir. Syed Muhammad Shahabudin has been in the water Dato’ Ir. Syed Muhammad Shahabudin has made many
engineering ield for close to 50 years most of which in private contributions towards the ield of engineering particularly to
practice as a consulting engineer. He graduated as an engineer the Association of Consulting Engineers Malaysia as President
from Plymouth College of Technology, United Kingdom (1985 – 1987), the Malaysian Water Association as President
and is a Professional Engineer Malaysia, a Member of The (1994 – 2007).
Institution of Engineers Malaysia, a Fellow of the Institution of As President of Malaysian Water Association, he led a
Civil Engineers, United Kingdom and a Chartered Water and team in initiating the transformation of water services industry,
Environmental Manager, United Kingdom. taking the matter up in 2004 to the Minister who obtained
After serving the Government of Malaysia for 12 years, Government’s approval to eventually form National Water
the last appointment being the Chief Executive Engineer of Services Commission (SPAN) three years later.
the newly-formed Penang Water Authority (1973-74) on As Chairman of Malaysian Water Partnership (2007 –
secondment from the Public Works Department, he became as 2011), he was committed to the implementation of Integrated
partner in the consulting engineering irm of Binnie dan Rakan Water Resources Management (IWRM) and strongly believes
(BDR) Malaysia, a member of the international group of Binnie that this is the best approach which can promote sustainability of
and Partners, United Kingdom with practices in South-East water resources management in Malaysia.
Asia and Hongkong specializing in water engineering. BDR He has been a board member of Selangor Water Management
was restructured in 1980 as Syed Muhammad, Hooi dan Binnie Board (LUAS) since its formation in 2000 and is currently a
Sdn Bhd and Dato’ Ir. Syed Muhammad Shahabudin became member of the National Water Services Commission (SPAN)
the Chairman and Managing Director. The irm was completely since its formation in 2007. He is a Fellow of the Academy of
taken over by Malaysians in 1995 and SMHB Sdn Bhd was Sciences Malaysia, established under the Act of Parliament to
formed. He assumed the duty as Executive Chairman. pursue, encourage and enhance excellence in the ield of science,
engineering and technology. He is currently Chairman of Task
Force on Water Demand Management.
Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015) 1
Exploring The Viability of Dams is Key to Malaysian Water
Resources Development of the Future
(Date received: 30/10/14/Date accepted: 11/8/2015)
DSDK, PJK, PEng, MIEM, FICE, Chartered Water and Environmental Manager, UK,
Non-executive Chairman, SMHB Sdn. Bhd.
E-mail: datosyed@smhb.com
ABSTRACT
It is said that civilization began and prospered when humans could control water; and that same civilization declined and
vanished when that control is lost. Dams and other river low barriers were built to harness and control water in the early days
of civilisation in order to secure the beneits for human basic needs and comfort. Centuries later, more dams were built to cater
for increasing population, especially in arid and semi-arid areas. But it is really in the past two centuries that many large-sized
dams have been built to satisfy a wider range of development demands – hydropower, treated water supply, irrigation, lood
control and environmental needs.
Towards the second half of the last century, society came to realise that dams can cause signiicant negative social and
environmental impacts that could outweigh the original economic beneits. Opponents of dams protest vehemently world-wide
against the development of more dams whilst proponents are convinced that they are a necessary feature to support growth and
prosperity. It is these contradicting beliefs in mind that the public must be engaged to facilitate a better understanding of the
views of both the proponents and the opponents of dam development before deciding on a long-term strategy. In the meantime,
more effort may have to be made for water and energy conservation strategies and to realize the potential applications of low
impact and non-structural solutions that complement existing dams and defer new dam development to as far into the future
as possible.
This paper aims to provoke a critical debate amongst engineers and the public to look at the longer term future of dams in water
resources development that could possibly reduce the fundamental demand for services that dam provides. In other words, to
try and answer the question “Why should a country rich in water, as Malaysia is, need to construct dams and even plan for
more?”
2 Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015)
ExPLORING THE VIABILITY OF DAMS IS KEY TO MALAYSIAN WATER RESOURCES
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FUTURE
Table 2.1
Year of
Project Capacity Ownership Purpose
Commission
The Early Dams largest in Southeast Asia until after the Second World War (TNB
The earliest large dams in the country were constructed for three Publication 1993) as shown in Figure 2.1. The aim was to make
different purposes, namely for irrigation needs of agriculture, electricity available to the State of Perak for all purposes. But
for hydroelectric generation and potable water supply (export to the tin mining industry, especially after the advent of massive
Singapore) as seen on Table 2.1 above. dredging operations, was the driving economic force behind the
demand of electric power. The dam structure is a hollow buttress
type concrete dam.
The third is a combination of large dams at Gunung Pulai II
and Pontian in Johor, built by the Straits Settlment Government
for Water Supply to Singapore as shown in Figure 2.2. Singapore
was then part of the British administration in this region. The
Table 2.2
Year of
Project Capacity Ownership Purpose
Commission
Augmented supply for
Labong Dam 1949 Government of Johor Irrigation water supply
Irrigation (1,184 ha)
Klang Gates Dam 1959 30 mgd Government of Selangor Water supply to KL and suburbs
Air Itam Dam 1963 City Council of George Town Water supply to George Town
6 mgd
stability of irrigation water supply and thereby reduce the risk of the Ahning Dam, a rock-ill with concrete faced dam type, height
crop failures, improve the chances of success for the only one 74 m, length 270 m, storage 275 MCM. The total annual release
cropping season then and for double cropping now. With dams, from these dams is 1,600 MCM.
production became more consistent and therefore stable incomes Plans are already underway to augment irrigation supply
for farmers as well. The Labong Dam for the Endau Rompin to the southern region of this MADA Granary from the Beris
irrigation scheme, as shown in Figure 2.3, was commissioned in Dam (concrete faced rock-ill type, 40 m high, 155 m long, 122.4
1949 for single cropping system. MCM storage capacity). The dams also supply water for water
This dam is an earth-ill embankment dam and the scheme supply needs in Kedah, Penang and Perlis.
has recently been added to be another one of the Granary Areas
for the country. With the re-activation, the whole scheme will The Cameron Highlands hydroelectric dams
be for double cropping. The reservoir also supplies 0.5 mgd for The year 1963 marked the CEB successful completion of its
water supply needs. irst major hydroelectric scheme in the Cameron Highlands.
Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015) 5
DATO’ IR. SYED MUHAMMAD SHAHABUDIN
The scheme started in 1959 and about half the £15 million cost CEB was renamed National Electricity Board (NEB) in June
represented the civil engineering works (Binnie short history 1965.
1990). “Much of the initial survey work in 1955 had to take
place in virgin jungle, but in addition there were still a number The 5-Year Development Plans
of guerilla camps in the area”. The power house was constructed Systematic planning for economic development of the country
260m underground, the machine hall being 24m high by 15m started with two 5-year Malayan Development Plans (1960–
wide. Some 26km of tunnels were driven, the last section feeding 1970) and followed by a series of 5-year Malaysian Development
the turbines having driven at 45º to the horizontal. The 40m high Plans (1970–2015). The country is currently undergoing
dam to pond the power water was a buttress design, Sultan Abu implementation of 10th Malaysia Plan.
Bakar (Ringlet) dam, fully closed in on the downstream face to Table 2.3 indicates large dams built for various purposes
permit overspill to occur over the whole crest of the dam. numbering 69 altogether by the end of 2000s. The locations
The construction of the similar Batang Padang hydroelectric are shown on Figures 2.6 and 2.7. Over a period of 40 years
scheme downstream followed immediately and involved another of economic diversiication from an agriculture based to
20 km tunnel, a 46m high earth dam and another underground industrialization between 1960 and the end of 1990s, 45 large
power station. Figure 2.5 indicates the Location Plan. The push dams were constructed in Malaysia; or at an average of more
towards nationwide power supply was becoming a reality and than one dam constructed every year. Of these, 20 were in the
1980s; an average of about 2 dams per year over the decade.
Most of those dams were for water supply (43 dams), relecting
the need for timely water resources development to satisfy the
growing demands of the population and industry over those 40
years. The largest dam for Malaysian water supply is the Sg.
Selangor dam (235 MCM) as seen in the photograph. The dam
development momentum continued into the new millennium.
Between the year 2000 and 2013, 18 more new dams were
added or at an average of more than 1 dam per year, the largest
being the Bakun Hydroelectric Scheme, Sarawak (44,000 MCM
and with capacity 2400 MW) as seen in the photograph. Presently
(2013), six new large dams are under construction. These are:
• Kelau, Pahang (water supply)
• Ulu Jelai, Pahang (Hydroelectric)
• Puah and Tembat, Terengganu (Hydroelectric)
• Murum, Sarawak (Hydroelectric)
• Paya Peda, Terengganu (Irrigation)
More dams are planned for the future. Based on the Review
National Water Resources Study in 2012 and other proposals
to date, another 73 dams are expected to be constructed in the
future.
Since 1960, not only were new dams constructed but there
were also existing dams re-developed to increase their capacities
by raising their dam heights. These are the Bukit Merah Dam
(1965 and 1984), the Klang Gates Dam (1979), Durian Tunggal
Dam (1992), Lebam Dam (1992) and Sg. Tinggi (2003). Works
6 Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015)
ExPLORING THE VIABILITY OF DAMS IS KEY TO MALAYSIAN WATER RESOURCES
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FUTURE
Figure 2.6
Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015) 7
Table 2.3: Major Dam Development in Malaysia
8
Purpose
No. (Primary / Before 1950s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010-2013 Total
Secondary)
A Water Supply Gunung Klang Air Hitam Dam, Lebam Dam, Semenyih Dam, Selangor Sg. Buloh (Tinggi) Sg. Selangor Dam, Kinta,
Pulai Gates Penang Johor Terip Dam, Negeri Dam, Johor Selangor Perak
Scheme Dam2 Damansara Dam, Durian Tunggal Sembilan1 Air Kuning Chereh Dam, Kuantan Terian,
1. Pulai II Selangor Dam, Melaka Malut Dam, Kedah (Taiping) Dam, Betotan Dam, N.S.
Dams Langat Dam, Ahning Dam, Kedah1 Perak Sandakan Batu
2. Pontian Selangor Mengkuang Dam, Penang Pedas Dam, N.S. Milau Dam, Kudat, Hampar,
Kechil Layang Upper Dam, Johor Juaseh Dam, N.S. Sabah N.S.
Dam Layang Lower Dam, Upper Muar Dam, Gerugu Dam, Sarikei,
Johor N.S. Sarawak
Timbangan, Semporna, Gemencheh Dam, Labu Dam, Selangor
Sabah N.S. Teluk Bahang Dam,
Sika, Bintulu, Sarawak Kelinchi Dam, N.S. Penang
Bukit Kuda, Labuan Barbagon Dam, Telibu Dam, Sabah
C Irrigation Bukit Mahang Agricultural Bukit Kwong Anak Endau Dam, Timah Tasoh Dam, Beris Dam
Merah Development Dam, Kelantan Pahang1 Perlis3
Dam, Authority Scheme Pontian Dam, Pahang1
Perak1 Pedu and Muda Dams
Labong
Dam,
Johor
2 1 3 1 1 10
D Flood Sg. Batu Dam, Selangor4 Bekok Dam, Johor4
Mitigation Sembong Dam, Johor1
Machap Dam, Johor3
2 1 3
E Environmental Silt Retention Repas
Baru Dam, Pahang1
1
F Recreation Putrajaya Dam,
1
Wilayah Persekutuan
1
13
6 1 8 5 20 12 5 69
ExPLORING THE VIABILITY OF DAMS IS KEY TO MALAYSIAN WATER RESOURCES
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FUTURE
(Water Supply). Department of Drainage and Irrigation (iii) Slam failure of a 1800 butterly guard valve upstream of
(Irrigation and Flood Control), National Electricity Board for a fully opened 1400 regulator valve on a 2200 outlet pipe
Peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak Electricity Supply Company causing failure of pipe joints and some looding. On the
and the Sabah Electric Board Sdn Bhd. Since 2004, most of same dam but unrelated to the irst incident the accidental
the construction of water supply dams has been taken over by looding of the outlet culvert (old diversion tunnel) causing
agencies under the State Governments and Ministry of Energy, loatation of the empty twin 2200 pipes 500 m long, resulting
Green Technologi and Water (KeTTHA), and irrigation dams by in damage to pipe addles and support straps -now repaired.
agencies under the state government and Ministry of Agriculture According to him, this is a good record and a credit to the dam
& Agro Based Industry (MOA). The states of Sabah and Sarawak owners and builders. These are large dams designed by qualiied
are directly responsible for construction of dams undertaken by engineers.
their agencies. However, there are many small dams mainly in estates and
for storage of tailings that are constructed without proper design.
A famous tailing dam failure is Ampang Pechah in Kuala Kubu
Catchment Control Baru with a loss of many lives. Recently, another tailing dam
A major problem facing reservoir operation in Malaysia is the failed in Gambang, Pahang.
potential for intense erosion of the catchment. The majority of
the reservoirs have steep jungle-covered catchments. Under
conditions of intense tropical rainstorms even virgin jungle
catchments will produce serious soil erosion, as commented by
WJ Carlyle, a dam expert from United Kingdom, conversant
with dam implementation in Malaysia. According to him, “it is
not uncommon for 75% of the annual sediment yield to move in
a single storm even in normal conditions.”
In his expert view, the Sultan Abu Bakar (Ringlet Falls)
reservoir in the Cameron Highlands “presents a good example
of where the catchment area has been progressively denuded to
grow tea and vegetables and in 20 years of operation, the reservoir
has been virtually illed with sediment. An interesting secondary
problem of catchment management at Ringlet Falls Reservoir
is the development that has encroached into the corridor of the
river valley downstream. This used to be a “jungle” river when
the scheme was built, but has now been cleared for intensive
Photo credit: STAR publications (M) Bhd.
vegetable and lower cultivation. The concrete dam has loat-
View of illegal farms within the Sg. Bertam reserve
operated crest radial gates which open in response to rising
reservoir levels. It is now unsafe to operate these gates because
of the risk of life loss downstream.” Dam Safety
The recent tragedy which occurred on 23rd October, 2013
involving the loss of 3 lives, downstream of Sultan Abu Bakar Malaysia has no central authority for enforcement of dam safety,
dam (as seen in the photograph) as a result of releases of large nor any governing legislation. Each dam owner is responsible
volumes of water from the dam, emphasized on the need to to carry out the inspection on the maintenance and safety of
keep river reserves and corridors downstream free of human his dam. State authorities are owners of dams for water supply
settlements and low obstructions. This problem of catchment purposes, lood control and agricultural dams. The Ministry of
management was previously raised by W.J. Carlyle in his Agriculture and Agro-based Industry is jointly responsible with
inspection report. state authorities for management of major agricultural dams.
Catchment control needs an integrated approach by all parties The other owners are the electrical power authorities which own
concerned at state level to maintain the designed life expectancy and operate the hydroelectric dams in the Peninsula, Sabah and
of any dam as well as to minimize the risks associated with dam Sarawak. Of recent times, design and construction of dams for
structural integrity and dam operations particularly during large water supply purposes has been known to be privatized.
volume releases of water during excessive stormwater lows. Although, there is no doubt that there is an appropriate
awareness of dam safety needs in Malaysia, the time has come
for need to have governing legislations to cater for Dam Safety.
Problems This is also covered in Section 3 under “Effective Governance of
In his review of dams built before 1990s, WJ Carlyle was not Water Resources Management”
aware of a failure of any Malaysian large dam over the 60 A “Guideline for Operations, Maintenances and
years of dam history. He is aware of only three incidents of any Surveillance of Dam”, dated October 1989, was prepared by
signiicance: an Inter-Departmental Committee on Dam Safety in Malaysia.
(i) Serious leakage of an asphalt deck rockill dam. Leakage The members of the Committee were Public Works Department,
was much reduced by underwater placement of clay blanket Tenaga Nasional Bhd, Department of Irrigation and Drainage,
layer Sabah Electricity Board, Sarawak Electric Supply Company and
(ii) Failure of the spillway section of a low irrigation dam due to Penang Water Authority.
piping and erosion of the concrete toe, which was rebuilt.
Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015) 9
DATO’ IR. SYED MUHAMMAD SHAHABUDIN
It is understood that since 1999, the Inter-Department 3.0 MAIN ISSUES OF CONCERN IN DAMS,
Committee on Dam Safety has not been operating. ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT
Transfer of Technology and Special Training in IN MALAYSIA
Dam Engineering
Immediately after Merdeka, the bulk of the engineers upon
Introduction
graduating from overseas or University of Malaya (being the only Malaysia has undergone rapid economic development since the
university at the time) were taken in to serve the Government, 1960s after achieving independence from Great Britain. A series
under the Malayanisation Programme to replace expatriates in of 5-year development plans have been implemented with the
the Government service. However, a few joined foreign irms of current 10th Malaysia Development Plan due for completion
consulting engineers based in the country or newly established in 2015. Ensuring adequate supply of water resources remains
local consulting engineering irms. These engineers formed the a key prime mover in the much needed development of the
core of local engineers in the private sector including the pioneers country to meet the rising demands of the increasing population,
in geotechnical works involved in the large dam schemes such the requirements of the fast expanding industrial development,
as the Cameron Highlands hydroelectric schemes (1959-1963), irrigated agricultural needs and for energy generation in the
Penang-Air Itam dam for water supply scheme (1963-1965) and hydro-electric process. The increasing demand of water is shown
MADA irrigation project (1666-1970) in Kedah. in Table 3.1 and for energy in Figure 3.1 (Generation Mix) which
During the subsequent years in the 1970s to the 1990s, a indicates increase in electricity demand from 2015 to 2030. It is
number of the foreign owned irms were taken over by Malaysian interesting to note that hydroelectric source is projected to be
engineers and among such irms involved in dam engineering 23% of the Generation Mix when the total demand increases
were SMHB Sdn Bhd, SSP, and Ranhill Bersekutu. Among from 121,000 GWh in 2015 to 211,000 GWh in 2030.
the locally established irms with background experience in Due to climatic condition in the country where, sometimes,
dam engineering were JKC, KTA Tenaga, Angkasa Consulting prolonged dry periods take place, adequate storages are
Services and RPM engineers. These local engineers received provided to ensure stability in the supply of water. Like other
in-house peer training and also gained considerable experience countries, Malaysia highlights that damming of rivers, where
through transfer of technology from their overseas associates. economically and socially feasible, is still an important priority
For the future, it is considered appropriate for new irms for water managers and policy makers. It is a convenient and
intending to be involved in dam engineering to have engineers most feasible way to solve and meet evolving water and energy
specially trained and qualiied for design, supervision of needs by building dams. However, since the past two decades,
construction, environmental and safety inspection of dams. another issue emerges in the immediate need to protect and
These engineers may need to be accredited possibly with a conserve the environment particularly in the provision of dams
yet to be formed ‘Government Commission on Dams’. This is and storageswhere extensive area of fertile land and forests are
particularly important as far as dam safety is concerned. The inundated permanently with water.
consequential effect of failure of dams can be disastrous causing So the issues of concern is not only on freshwater scarcity,
loss of lives to entire villages and townships and to properties causing a crisis, but also on adverse effect, caused by a remedial
downstream of the dams. measure in the provision of dams, to the environment. To put
Table 3.1
10 Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015)
ExPLORING THE VIABILITY OF DAMS IS KEY TO MALAYSIAN WATER RESOURCES
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FUTURE
everything in the right perspective, the inal issue of concern, in Peninsular Malaysia (Reference Table 3.2 and graphically
at the moment, is the absence of an effective coordinating Figure 3.2).
mechanism at the national level to initiate, develop and monitor the These shortages are, in fact, being managed at above stress
implementation of policy reform that are of national signiicance level mainly by regulated releases from storages impounded by
and requires cooperative action by State Governments. This dams as additional water required during dry periods. The role
mechanism can also be responsible for legislation on dam safety played by dams is certainly vital to maintain a consistent supply
and regulation on provision of dams that includes the design and of freshwater for use throughout the year.
maintenance of dams for the country similar to what is being Security of water resources is very much dependent on climatic
practiced in developed countries like Australia, South Africa, conditions. Although Malaysia is among the countries with
South Korea and Europe. high average annual rainfall, it is however, seasonal and very
Figure 3.2
Table 3.2
Figure 3.1
Source: EPU - Malaysia Energy Outlook 2010-2030
Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015) 11
DATO’ IR. SYED MUHAMMAD SHAHABUDIN
The decision lies on whether developing Asian nations would factories, mines and waste dumps, and the presence of massive
have the capacity to emulate many of the advanced countries to industrial centres upstream. Second, erosion of the reservoir and
build large dams in order to strengthen the high capita storage downstream riverbanks is causing landslides, and treating one
capacity needed for human development and economic growth. of the world’s biggest isheries in the East China Sea. Third, the
China, as the fast growing developing country, and second largest weight of the reservoir’s water has many scientist concerned
economy in world, has embarked on construction of many large over reservoir-induced seismicity. Finally, crisis have also
dams. In the case of Malaysia it is interesting to note that based argued that the project may have exacerbated recent droughts
on computation of the total storage volume of 86,763 million m3 by withholding critical water supply to downstream users and
and the current population of 29 million, the per capita storage ecosystems, and through the creation of a microclimate by its
is 2,992 m3 when compared to Australia’s 4,600 m3 and North giant reservoir. In 2011, China’s highest government body for
America’s 6,000 m3. the irst time oficially acknowledged the “urgent problems” of
the Three Gorges Dam.
Equally of major concern in the resettlement of people from
Environmental and Social Conditions of the area to be inundated as reservoirs. Some form of resettlement
Sustainability programme has to be drawn up during the planning and study
Where large quantities of water are needed for potable and/or period. In Malaysia, many of the programmes have either
industrial water supply, irrigation, energy and lood control, been unsuccessful or met with implementation problems. For
multipurpose dams have proven to be the best solution. Once instance, many Orang Asli communities have been provided
these dams are completed, they become an integral part of the with alternative housing which is built of concrete structures in
environment. It is essential that environmental assessments be land areas that are void of forest vegetation. Such housing are
made to identify potential impact by the project. From social unsuitable for the Orang Asli who are used to living in wooden
aspects, public involvement early in the project planning process houses among tall trees.
also allows the affected people not only to better understand To quote actual examples of dams that have been built in
the project but plan for and obtain assistance for real estate Malaysia and some of their effects on the environment and
acquisition and resettlement. It is an acceptable practice that communities, two dams are cited, namely Sg. Selangor dam in
people who have to be resettled must have a better quality of Hulu Selangor and Kelau Dam in Pahang.
life than they have before and also better facilities. All necessary For the Sg. Selangor Dam, because the project was in
expenses for such settlement practices should be included in the Selangor where public is more vocal and more aware of
project cost. environmental issues, there was much protests from various
Central to issues on the development of dams in Malaysia NGO groups during the early stages of the project. Now, some
is the effect it has on water resources lies on inadequate 12 years after the implementation of the dam, the actual outcome
environmental and social consideration when planning of the of some of the earlier major concerns can be summarized as
project. Perhaps if the planning and study period is spread over a follows:
reasonably longer period of at least ive years or more before the • Relocation of about 340 Orang Asli in Kg. Gerachi and
project is started, most issues of concern would be scrutinized Kg. Peretak – in this case there was emphasis placed on
and agreed to everybody’s satisfaction and adverse impacts providing the Orang Asli communities with suitable housing
reduced to absolute minimum. which was designed to be of wooden structure, more like
The environmental impact of dams are wide ranging and can kampong houses. There are nevertheless still issues in the
be briely summarized as follows: implementation programme due to inadequate follow up on
i. Habitat fragmentation within dammed rivers; their livelihood, schooling programme for the children, etc.
ii. Downstream habitat effects caused by altered lows, such • Impact on irely colonies in Kg. Kuantan located at the river
as loss of loodplains, riparian zones, and adjacent wetlands mouth about 80 km downstream of the dam – this was one
and deterioration and loss of river deltas and ocean estuaries; of the key issues of concern of the Sg. Selangor dam. The
iii. Deterioration of irrigated terrestrial environments and Malaysian Nature Society had been monitoring the irely
associated surface waters; colonies after the dam was constructed and their inding was
iv. Reduction of river lows, leading to reduced water quality that the colonies have been dwindling. However, this may
because of dilution problems for point and non-point sources not be completely due to the dam project along since there
of pollution; are also other activities at the estuary areas that could be
v. Genetic isolation of species as a result of habitat affecting the mangrove ecosystem.
fragmentation; In the case of the Kelau Dam project in Pahang, the dam
vi. Changes in ecosystem-level processes such as nutrient construction is currently ongoing. The main issue relating to
cycling and primary productivity; this project is again the resettlement of Orang Asli communities
vii. Contamination of food webs, and affecting about 110 people. The resettlement package for the
viii. Increase in greenhouse gas emissions. Orang Asli includes concrete houses, 5 acres of oil palm areas and
One example of note is the Three Gorges Dam in China. monetary compensation for 4 years. This is part of Government’s
Constructed in 2006, the dam was completed and became “Program Pembasmian Rakyat Termiskin”, (PPRT) programme.
functional by July 2012. The environmental impacts are There are already problems with the execution of the resettlement
certainly worth noting when considering the beneits of programme; the oil palm areas are poorly managed, the houses
considerable hydroelectric power (22,500MW). The irst impact are in areas that are completely cleared of vegetation, the
is the water pollution created the submergence of hundreds of drainage systems for the housing area have already collapsed,
and there is no waste collection provided for the settlement area.
12 Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015)
ExPLORING THE VIABILITY OF DAMS IS KEY TO MALAYSIAN WATER RESOURCES
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FUTURE
As a result some of the Orang Asli families have moved back to General issue of concern in management
near where they used to live before. • To change from Supply to Demand Management
Resettlement programme must involve educational proposals • From Sectorial to IWRM
and new activities such as crafts or other cottage industries to be • Federal-State coordination
developed. • Inter-state coordination
• Inter-Ministry coordination
• Public Participation
Effective Governance of Water Resources • Driving Business Development and Wealth Creation
Management • Driving Science, Technology and Innovation (STI)
Another main issue of concern is the confusion over responsibility
for governance. “Many countries still have multiple agencies Speciic Issues of Concern
with responsibilities for water. This often leads to ineffective • Water security and, consequently, food security are important
planning and utilization of available resources, including water, concerns which need to be carefully balanced with the likely
human and inancial resources. I cannot think of a country in negative social and environmental impacts they can cause.
the region that would not beneit from a long hard look at the • Dam safety – the need to have legislation in the provision
institutional arrangement for water planning and management”. of dams to ensure that dams are properly and adequately
(Makin ADB). designed, maintained and regularly inspected by providing
Management of water resources is a state responsibility in standard practices including rules and regulations
Malaysia and of late, a number of states has instituted some form • Moving towards a more inclusive approach to tackling water
of arrangement for improvement to water resources and water pollution issues has long been recognized as a positive step
demand management with a varying degree of success. The state : but turning this into a practical reality requires social
of Selangor, with the formation of Lembaga Urus Air Selangor evidence for what works well at catchment scale.
(LUAS), has for sometime established a system of governance, • Launching of water certiication standard (eg.UK-based
which would be a suitable model for other states to adopt. Among Carbon Trust) – a Water Standard to help drive the move
the responsibilities are: to resource-eficient economy, requiring to produce at least
• The conservation, replenishment and supply of water two years of data abstraction.
• The beneicial use of water • Promoting close linkages among the sectors, such as, water
• determining and recording the actual availability of water and energy. Water is not only essential for large-scale
resources within the state, electricity consumption and production but also the water
• protection of water from pollution and the improvement of sector is a major consumer of electrical power.
its quality • Promoting the provision of multi-purpose dams as a mean
• equitable distribution of water by allocating the rightful use to manage demands on use of water in the overall water
of water to users for different purposes broadly based on the resources management.
principle of IWRM
• protection of the environment Summary of Conclusion
At the National level, there has yet to be an effective Advisory
Mechanism on eficient Water Resources Management across • The main issue of concern facing Malaysia is scarcity
the whole range of users based on IWRM principles. The users in freshwater resources. At the moment, this is being
are irrigated agriculture, potable water supply and sewerage, experienced in the ive states of Perlis, Kedah, Penang,
hydropower, lood management, environment, isheries, Selangor and Melaka. There are normally large bodies of
transport and others. This mechanism, among others, can water downstream of rivers which are severely polluted.
provide guidance and advice on policy matters, human resources The situation may become serious with the imminent impact
training, research and development and investments on capital of climate change. For a long time in the past, provision of
and operational works. dams and storages has been given priority in solving water
A good example, for reference, is the way the Council of shortages and has played an important part in water sources
Australian Governments (COAG) water reform is being made regulation in the states concerned. Some amount of recycling
to work in Australia. The role of COAG is to initiate, develop has also been adopted for irrigated areas.
and monitor the implementation of policy reforms that are of • Reservoirs impounded by the dams inundate extensive areas
national signiicance and which require cooperative action by of forest and fertile lands permanently and cause adverse
Australian governments (State Governments). effect to lows in the river regimes. The initial issue before
The responsibility in water resources management lies with the construction of the dam is to satisfy the environmentalist
the State Governments. Water resources can become a National and social activists that any adverse effect will be minimized.
Issue when shortages in supply are widespread throughout or At planning stage, suficient time should be allowed (5 years
some parts of the country. In such a case, the role of the Federal or more) for reconnaissance work identifying suitable sites
Government, represented by a Mechanism, becomes important for dams. At the later stage when the dams are in operation,
to provide coordination among the states and setting direction to the dam owners are obligated to ensure that the river lows
overcome any issues and problems of national importance. This are kept to at least, the normal lows before dams make their
Mechanism should preferably be independent, sector-neutral appearance. The dam owners are to ensure that dam safety
and high level. With the formation of this mechanism, important units are set up for the regular monitoring and surveillance
issues of dam safety can be addressed, through legislation and functions. Safety review by independent and properly
applied uniformly throughout the country. qualiied engineers is strongly recommended.
Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015) 13
DATO’ IR. SYED MUHAMMAD SHAHABUDIN
• Malaysia needs a mechanism at the highest national level to HSAP is an evidence-based objective assessment of a
provide an independent, sector-neutral effective leadership project’s performance, prepared by an accredited assessor
and drive in water resources management. There is also need applicable to all stages of hydropower development in all
for private sector participation, principally as stakeholders, global contexts. Therefore, it is plausible that the HSAP could
if water resources management is to be successful. be integrated into Malaysia’s current EIA processes to help
site areas for dams that will limit the environmental, social and
economic upheaval. Furthermore, the preparation of HSAP
4.0 MAxIMIZING SUSTAINABILITY IN involved participation of leading NGOs including WWF, The
THE CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION Nature Conservancy, and Transparency International. NGO
OF DAMS participation provides further legitimacy and helps to ensure all
aspects of sustainability are being properly examined.
Introduction
Despite efforts to achieve Integrated Catchment Management, The Application of HSAP
it is conceivable that dams will be required in the future to meet
A wide application of the Protocol is desired by the IHA and
societal needs. If this is the case, what process can be followed
they argue it should be applied in a collaborative way, to
to ensure that the most sustainable outcome is achieved when
ensure the best availability of information and points of view.
considering the vast array of technical, environmental, social
The development and evaluation of a hydropower project will
and economic challenges that exist with a new or existing dam
involve many actors with different roles and responsibilities. It
project?.
is recognized that both development and operation may involve
The emphasis on sustainability has relevance in Malaysia
public entities, private companies or combined partnerships, and
considering the challenges involved in siting a dam. There are
responsibilities may change as the project progresses through its
numerous issues to contend with and past experiences of dam
life cycle.
building in the country have often faced dificulties related to
In sum, HSAP provides developers and relevant stakeholders
community resettlement and environmental degradation. Whilst
(i.e. government agencies, non-governmental, community
there are existing regulations in place to assess the sustainability
groups) with a necessary tool kit so that they are asking the
implications of a dam (i.e. Environmental Impact Assessment),
right sustainability questions across a number of topics. If
these could be enhanced with the latest developments in current
these stakeholders are unsure of the most suitable site for dams
dam building practice. This next section briely sets out a process
between a number of different sites, the HSAP provides them
of determining the most sustainable outcome for hydropower
with a way to determine the most sustainable and in which areas
projects.
they need to augment poorly performing aspects of the project.
The Hydropower Sustainability Assessment
Potential application of HSAP in Malaysia
Protocol (HSAP)
Any future application of HSAP in Malaysia could be
Developed by the International Hydropower Association (IHA) undertaken alongside the current regulatory framework for dam
and launched in 2011, the Hydropower Sustainability Assessment selection and associated environmental and social assessments,
Protocol (HSAP) is a sustainability assessment framework including the Environmental Impact Assessment (or EIA).
for hydropower development and operation. It enables the The current regulations relating to Environmental Impact
production of a sustainability proile for a project through the Assessment is stipulated under the Section 34A Environmental
assessment of performance within important sustainability Quality Act 1974, Environmental Quality (Prescribed Activities)
topics. Sustainability in this context refers to aspects related to (Environmental Impact Assessment) Order 1987. Dam projects
the environment, society, economy, technical and integrative are Prescribed Activities under three categories:
aspects. While HSAP is focused towards hydropower projects, i. Schedule 3 – Drainage and Irrigation: (a) construction of
the process of site selection, engineering design and project dams and man-made lakes and artiicial enlargement of
operation has relevance in determining suitable sites for dams in lakes with surface areas of 200 hectares or more.
Malaysia. Table 4.1 provides an overview of the sustainability ii. Schedule 13 – Power Generation and Transmission: (b)
criteria and Figure 4.1 shows an example of the scoring ‘spider dams and hydro-electric power schemes with either of both
diagram’.
Table 4.1: Sustainability criteria for dam builders as prescribed in the HSAP
FINANCIAL AND
TECHNICAL ENVIRONMENTAL SOCIAL INTEGRATIVE
ECONOMIC
Siting and Project affected communities
Downstream lows Economic viability Downstream need and strategic it
Design and livelihoods
Hydrological Resource Erosion and sedimentation Resettlement Financial viability Communications and consultation
Reservoir planning,
Water quality Indigenous people Project beneits Governance
illing and management
Biodiversity and invasive
Infrastructure safety Cultural heritage Procurement Integrated project management
species
Asset reliability and Waste, noise Environmental and social issues
Public health
eficiency and air quality management
Source: International Hydropower Association
14 Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015)
ExPLORING THE VIABILITY OF DAMS IS KEY TO MALAYSIAN WATER RESOURCES
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FUTURE
of the following:- (i) dams over 15 metres high and ancillary Preliminary Site Assessment (PSA) and submit the PSA to
structures covering a total area in excess of 40 hectares and the DOE before embarking on the full EIA study. The HSAP
(ii) reservoirs with a surface area in excess of 400 hectares. process could be a useful tool in the PSA stage. However, the
iii. Schedule 19 – Water Supply: (a) construction of dams or PSA process is a fairly simplistic assessment without involving
impounding reservoirs with a surface area of 200 hectares or the participation of an independent expert and auditor which is
more. the concept of the HSAP.
The Hydropower Sustainability Assessment Protocol (HSAP) The HSAP could provide a more comprehensive assessment
appears to be a good tool for site selection exercise whereby of potential sustainability impacts than the PSA and, moreover,
environmental, social and economic factors are included in the if successfully adhered to, provides the developer with a
decision to site a dam. The HSAP would be most appropriate certiication standard of international standing.
to be used during the masterplanning stage when preliminary
investigations are made to identify sites for dams. For instance,
for water supply dams, the water resources masterplan studies 5.0 FUTURE OUTLOOK OF TOMORROW’S
identify dam sites which are recommended to be gazetted for the DAMS TO ACHIEVE SUSTAINABLE TARGET
purpose. The HSAP tool could be used for such studies.
In Malaysia, the EIA process usually takes place once the Introduction
dam site has already been identiied and using the HSAP at this For a long time dams have been the most obvious option in
stage is almost too late for a change in the site. The EIA identiies meeting development objectives. Over the past 5,000 years,
the impacts and make recommendations to mitigate the impacts, more than 50,000 large dams have been completed. Throughout
which is more a corrective rather than a preventive means of history of the world, dams and reservoirs have been used
minimizing environmental and social issues. In most cases, the successfully in collecting, storing and managing water needed
EIA is conducted in tandem with the engineering design and to sustain civilization.
at this stage, the project proponent (usually the government Construction of dams gathers momentum since 1900s when
authorities) is already quite committed to the implementation of more than 60% of the dams have been built as shown in Figure
the project and would have already invested time and cost. 5.1. Most of the construction has taken place in industrialized
Having said that, recently the DOE has included an additional countries where need for water grows tremendously beyond
step in the EIA process which is the requirement to conduct a the basic needs in food production, drinking water supply
Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015) 15
DATO’ IR. SYED MUHAMMAD SHAHABUDIN
In operation up to 1999
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
< 1900- 1910- 1920- 1930- 1940- 1950- 1960- 1970- 1980- 1990-
1900 1909 1919 1929 1939 1949 1959 1969 1979 1989 1999
Figure 5.1
Source: Dams and Reservoirs, Societies and Environment in the 21st Century
(22 ICOLD International Conference 2006)
and lood control measures. The era of intensive development hydroelectric dams in large countries like China, India, Brazil,
in industrialized or developed countries calls for massive Russia and Congo.
energy requirement which relies a lot of energy provided by Before 1970, for dams as for other human activities, there
hydroelectric generation. More than 80% of the world reservoirs was little concern for the environment. For now, the possibility
storage is used for hydropower. to build dams is made more dificult in view of actions of some
However, over the past three decades there has been opponents. Critics to large hydraulic structures, particularly to
a dramatic decline in dam investment in industrialized or large dams often argue that economic and social development
developed countries. This is possibly due to stabilization in can also be achieved without them. It is the intention in this
demand for water and energy in developed countries and also presentation to address this issue based on available alternative
resiting of some heavy industries to developing countries options which can be used. The two main environmental
possessing extensive energy potentials like hydroelectric power. drawbacks of dams are large impounded areas and, in some
The present total storage is about 6,800 km3 (billion m3) cases, the withdrawal of most of the river water throughout the
and is estimated to increase by 2,500 km3, i.e. around 40% up year. Besides studying the possible alternative options to large
to 2050. A further increase of 1,000 or 1,500 km3 after 2050 is dams, the dissemination of fair and balanced information on the
likely, as shown in Table 5.1. beneits of the dams and the management of these drawbacks are
The probable huge increase in oil costs, the likely premiums thus essential.
to clean energy may provide impetus to building more
Table 5.1
YEAR 2000 2050 2100
a) Irrigation, water supply,dry season releases, lood
1200 2400 3000
mitigation, part for hydropower (50%)
b) Hydropower alone 3000 3600 4000
Source: Dams and Reservoirs, Societies and Environment in the 21st Century
(22nd ICOLD International Conference, 2006)
16 Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015)
ExPLORING THE VIABILITY OF DAMS IS KEY TO MALAYSIAN WATER RESOURCES
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FUTURE
Dam Development in Developed Countries World War II and has plan to build 73 more by 2050 (Review
of NWRS 2012 and other reports). About 95% of the reservoir
Most developed countries turned to large dams to help them
storage is used for hydropower.
in their industrialization development to meet escalating
Malaysia has undertaken ten Five-Year Economic
water, energy and other demands from the 1930s to the 1970s.
Development Plans (EDP) successfully and has ensured that
Compared to the rest of the world, they had a headstart in dam
there is suficient quantity of water supply for development in
building and this reached a peak in the 1970s when 7000 dams
agriculture, domestic and industrial uses. For the same period,
were constructed as seen in Figure 5.1. On average two or
storages were provided for hydro-electric generation. Timely
three new large dams were commissioned each day somewhere
commissioning of dams under the various stages of the EDP has
in the world. The water that is stored and regulated by dams
assisted in the stability in the supply of water resources for the
and reservoirs produces irreplaceable water resources and
economic development and water security of the country. It is a
apart from water and energy demands, also brings beneits to
credit to the country that Malaysia has maintained water security
lood mitigation, river navigation, recreation, tourism and the
at all time with the continued implementation of EDP. This is
environment. Globally, this represents 30% of the world’s
crucial in achieving sustainable and inclusive growth.
available water resources which reaches the end users. However
over the past three decades there has been a dramatic decline in
dam investment in developed countries. Adverse Impacts of Dam
Over this same period, partly due to pressure from anti
Worldwide, dams have been accepted as an important means
dam movement, the world is looking for a balance between
of meeting perceived needs for water and energy services and
the beneits and the environment for water resources projects.
as long-term, strategic investments with the ability to deliver
The challenge for the future will be the utilization of dams in
multiple beneits. Some of these beneits include job creation,
conjunction with the climate, environment and land use as part
creating income from export earnings by selling cash crops
of social and economic development goals, crucial to achieving
or processed products. In many cases an unacceptable and
sustainable and inclusive growth of which natural aquatic
often unnecessary price has been paid to secure those beneits
ecosystems are considered as an integral part.
especially in social and environmental terms.
The generic nature of the impacts of large dams on ecosystems,
Dam Development in Developing Countries biodiversity and downstream livelihoods is increasingly well
known. Increased attention is now given to avoidance or
Many developing countries started building large dams after
minimization of ecological impacts. A number of developed
World War II and are still building more in order to meet the
countries, particularly in the USA, ecosystem restoration is
increasing water and energy demands for now and the future. As
being implemented as a result of the decommissioning of dams.
shown in Figure 5.2, the top ive dam-building countries account
It is possible that impacts of large dams have yet to reach a
for more than three quarters of all large dams worldwide, with
serious level in Malaysia. The question is what about what may
approximately two-thirds of the world’s existing large dams
unfold in the future if more dams are built. Perhaps lessons can be
found in developing countries. Being late starters in dam building,
learnt from China, which along with India is now building most
inevitably, they face the full force of anti-dam movement of the
of the large dams among developing countries. Can developing
world which became active after 1970s.
countries like Malaysia manage suficiently well without dam?
Among developing countries, Malaysia has to date
constructed 69 large dams, of which 66 were constructed after
Spain - 1,196%
Others - 7,372%
3%
70%
Others
23%
France - 569
4% Canada - 793
9%
Brazil - 594
China - 22,000 4% South Korea - 765
45% Turkey - 625 9%
4%
Figure 5.2: World population of dams, by country
Source: World Commission on Dams (WCD) estimates, based on ICOLD and Other sources
Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015) 17
DATO’ IR. SYED MUHAMMAD SHAHABUDIN
Other Options to Dam Building In contrast, neighbouring Singapore reports an NRW value
Opponents of large dams contend that better, cheaper, more of just at 4.6% (Asian Green Index, 2011). This issue
benign options for meeting water and energy needs exist and highlights not only the considerable waste of water but the
have been frequently ignored. Dams have often been selected waste of energy and chemicals required for the treatment
over other options that may meet water or energy goals at process.
lower cost or that may offer development beneits that are more • Groundwater Utilization: Determine the opportunities for
sustainable and more equitable. groundwater extraction, including critical research to derive
For Malaysia, several options to dam building for water and the extent of sources and treatment technologies required.
energy resources development to meet sustainable energy, water • Water Demand Management (WDM): Implementation
and food needs currently exist as shown in Figure 5.3. water demand management strategies to reduce the need for
• Stakeholder Engagement: Promoting IWRM is now water. Such techniques include education of water users to
widely accepted internationally as central to effective minimize their consumption and encourage installation of
management of water resources. Although accepted by water eficient technologies (i.e. half lush on toilets, push
the Government for adoption more than 20 years ago, the taps). This can be supported by considering the economies
results have not been satisfactory. Getting all parties to be of water supply, including revisions of the current water
tariff. Examples of water demand management in action
include programmes in the Murray-Darling Basin, a water
Stateholder Engagement
Surface Water
scarce region in Southeast Australia. Here, an integrated
Promoting Integrated
Management programme was devised to support better use across the
Water Resources major industrial and agricultural user groups, as well as
Management (IWRM)
including a plan for residential users too.
• Utilize Latest Research: Recent developments in the ield
Other Options For
Supply-side of ‘water footprint’ to allow a better understanding of the
Utilize Latest Water and Energy
Research Resources Eficiency extent of our water quality and quantitative impacts related
Development to water production and consumption. Determining a ‘water
footprint’ for the Malaysian Water Industry as a whole may
help to justify more sustainable strategies and approaches.
Demand-side Groundwater Infrastructure All these alternative options are not easily implemented but if
Management Water Utilities Management successfully put in use can question the wisdom in building more
Demand Management dams. But can this happen?
(WDM)
Some of the alternative options make economic sense and
merit special attention listed as follows:
Figure 5.3: Other Options for Water and Energy Resources
► Demand-side management (WDM)
Development
Options for water supply hinge on demand-side management
involved in an integrated manner in water management can (WDM) in reducing usage and wastage and eficient
assist in solving major water problems like keeping clean distribution and accounting for water supplied to end users
(to acceptable standards) large bodies of water in rivers and In the case of potable water supply, any reduction in per capita
lakes and maintaining them in good conditions, for use. usage means saving in water usage and reducing wastage.
• Surface Water Management: Improve the management Correspondingly, a better management in water distribution can
of surface water in order to utilize this resource more cut down on water losses considerably. As an example, Table
effectively, including improving the surface water quality 5.2 indicatively shows a potential saving of at least 1600 Mld in
and tackling pollution. This includes examining how best to potable water supply in 2020 in Peninsular Malaysia assuming
manage current surface water sources through the legislative a 15% reduction in per capita demand and a 6% reduction in
and regulatory frameworks. The diesel oil spill into Sungai losses.
Selangor in August 2013 is a case in point: the incident In the case of agricultural water usage, particularly
reveals a breakdown in the enforcement and monitoring of paddy cultivation, a small reduction in water usage can free a
polluting industries in the Malaysian urban context. considerable amount of water for other end users, like domestic
• Supply-side eficiency: This can include inter- and industrial supplies and for environment and recreational
basin transfers, recycling and reuse of water and new beneits.
supply alternatives like renewable energy options. Efforts to develop varieties that require less water is currently
Where practicable, there should be provision in raising of on going. In the mean time, efforts to increase irrigation eficiency
existing dams to store more water instead of planning for has to be stepped up. As an example, as shown in Table 5.3, the
more dams. As far as possible, more existing dams should total paddy crop water requirement for the MADA Granary is
be converted and used as multi-purpose dams. 0.011 MCM/ha for the main season and 0.013 MCM/ha for the
• Infrastructure Management: Manage existing off season. Thus the total crop water requirement is equivalent to
infrastructure to minimize water losses, such as reducing 0.024 MCM/ha/year. Rainfall provides 52% (0.0125 MCM/ha)
non-revenue water (NRW) from illegal connections and of the total water needs and the remaining 48% (0.0115 MCM/
damaged pipelines. Malaysia treats approximately 14,000 ha) is from non-rainfall sources namely the dams (32%), rivers
mega litres a day in 2011: however, nearly 37% does not (10%) and re-use (6%). With a total area of 96,558 ha, then the
reach consumers (Malaysian Water Industry Guide 2012). total crop water requirement is 2,317 MCM/year. Since 52%
of this amount 1,205 MCM is from rainfall and the remaining
18 Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015)
ExPLORING THE VIABILITY OF DAMS IS KEY TO MALAYSIAN WATER RESOURCES
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FUTURE
48% or 1,112 MCM has to be from irrigation. Presently, MADA have been known to take place in hydroelectric generation.
irrigation system is reported to be operating at 70% irrigation One example is in the Cameron Highland Scheme, where
eficiency. This means that the irrigation supply to produce rice augmentation of water supply comes from upper reaches of
here is 1,588 MCM/year. If irrigation eficiency is raised to Sg. Kelantan at Sg. Plauur to Ringlet completed in 1963. It
75% (an on-going effort), then the total irrigation supply would is possible that such similar schemes may take place in the
be 1,483 MCM/year, a reduction of 105 MCM/year. This is future, particularly, the transfer of water from existing dams
equivalent to a relief of 288 MLD for the water supply industry. in water rich states to recipient’s states needing water.
Assuming a domestic and industrial consumption rate of 250 ► Regulating reuse and recycling of water, potentially,
litres/day/capita, this savings from irrigation could satisfy water as augmented supply to available water resources.
supply requirements for about 1.2 million population. Estimating One of the greatest opportunities for water reuse is to
that the populations of Kedah, Perlis and Pulau Pinang now are supplement or replace the potable water or freshwater
nearly 2.3, 0.7 and 1.7 million (2015) respectively or a total of demands of industries and other commercial uses. The
4.7 million, this saving in irrigation represents nearly 25% of the industry is the second largest market for water supply
water supply requirements of the population in the three northern after agriculture, accounting for around 25% of global
states. demand. The milestone in the development of safe
► Supply-side management in eficient inter-basin water transfer water reuse practices are as seen in Figure 5.4 and are
Inter-basin water transfers have solved a number of vital based on the advances in waste water treatment with the
water shortage cases in Peninsular Malaysia in recent technological break through in of membrane iltration.
years. The most notable completed project in the transfer In developed countries an important new concept in water reuse
of water from the Sg. Muar to Melaka to meet the shortfall is the ‘it-to-purpose’ approach which entails the production
in potable water supply in 1991. Catchment water transfers of recycled water of a quality that suits the end users. Figure
5.5 (Asano 2002; Lazarova et al., 2013) shows the sequence
Table 5.2: Reduction in per capita consumption and water losses
treatment and reuse for the main categories of water reuse.
YEAR 2020 Water reclamation and puriication technologies exist
Projected Potable Water Demand (MId) to produce pure water of almost any quality desired,
18,618 MId
For Malaysia including puriied water of quality equal to or higher
a) Per capita demand
than drinking water (IWA Lazarova et al., 2013).
Assuming 50% as domestic and 9,309 MId
15% reduction in per capita demand
In Malaysia, this potential supply should be closely studied
with particular reference to treated efluent discharges
For Peninsular Malaysia 8, 046 MId
in built-up areas in Selangor, Kuala Lumpur, Putrajaya,
Correspondingly reduction in per capita demand 1, 123 MId Johor and Penang where there is scarcity of unregulated
b) Water losses water resources (Review of NWRS 2000-2050). The total
Assuming 50% as domestic and 9,309 MId potential augmentation from treated wastewater efluent is
6% reduction in losses estimated to be about 14% of total water demand for these
For Peninsular Malaysia 8,046 MId states as shown in Table 5.4. (Using data from Malaysian
and 6% reduction in losses 483 MId Water Industry Guide (MWIG 2012).
TOTAL (a) + (b) 1,606 MId Similarly, if focus is given to Selangor, Kuala Lumpur and
Putrajaya, the total potential augmentation from treated biomass
Source: Demand Projection: Review of NWRS (2000-2050)
efluent is estimated to be 24.5% of total water demands as
Table 5.3: Irrigation water saving through eficiency improvement shown in Table 5.5.
Large commercial and industrial complexes are known to
POTENTIAL WATER SAVINGS IN IRRIGATION
(AN ILLUSTRATION) – THE MADA GRANARY have their own recycling systems to meet their own requirements
A. Estimated Total Paddy Crop Water Requirement
for non-potable water usage for washroom facilities, cleaning
a) Main Season 0.011 MCM/ha purposes and landscape work. In some cases, with further
b) Off-Season 0.013 MCM/ha treatment, the water has been used for potable purposes. It is
c) Total Annual 0.024 MCM/ha understood that the irst large scale recycling system is planned
for TRX (Tun Razak Exchange in Kuala Lumpur) with a capacity
B. Total MADA Granary Area 96,558 ha of 14 Mld.
C. Total Annual Crop Water Requirement
2,317 MCM ► Renewable Energy (RE) Options
(A(c) x B)
Due prominence is now given to usage of renewable sources
D. Sources of Water
a) Rainfall (52% x C) 1,205 MCM/yr
Table 5.4: Potential for water supply augmentation by recycling of
b) Non-Rainfall (48% x C) 1,112 MCM/yr
wastewater in Selangor, Putrajaya, Kuala Lumpur,
E. Irrigation Supply Johor and Penang
a) Present Irrigation Eficiency 70% 2020
b) Thus Irrigation Supply (D(b)/E(a)) 1,588 MCM/yr
Total estimated efluent from Regional Plants (2011) 1151 Mld
F. Potential Savings Total potable water demand in the region 8046 Mld
Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015) 19
DATO’ IR. SYED MUHAMMAD SHAHABUDIN
Summary of Conclusions
It is apparent that there is a future in the provision of RE
and the implementation of green technology as both are
strongly supported by the Government and with public-sector
participation. In both cases, intensive efforts are being undertaken
Source: International Water Association (IWA) Water 21 – August 2013 to provide alternative options to production of energy via RE
Figure 5.5 and reduction and saving in usage of electricity by application
of green technology.
Table 5.5: Potential for water supply augmentation by recycling of There is as yet to be an effective effort in all-round reduction
wastewater in Selangor, KL and Putrajaya in water usage and consumption in the Water Industry and
YEAR 2020 production of additional water sources, like recycling of biomass
efluent and rehabilitation of rivers to a scale which constitutes a
Total estimated potable water demand for Selangor,
KL and Putrajaya
4896 Mld sizeable igure in water use and consumption.
Any remarkable success in these areas will no doubt
Total estimated efluent water available for recycling
(source IWK estimated)
1200 Mld inluence decisions on dam building of the future.
Percentage of water recycled 24.5%
Source: Potable water demand – Review of NWRS (2000-2050Treated Efluent – 6.0 CONCLUDING THOUGHTS
MWIG 2012
On balance, there is still good ground to justify more dam
of energy (RE). In the Five-Fuel Diversiication Policy (2001), construction in Malaysia but this must be preceded by in-depth
RE is incorporated as the ifth fuel, the other four being oil, study and detailed planning at least ive to ten years or even
hydro, gas and coal (Malaysia Energy Outlook 2010-2030, more before any project is started with most issues of concern
EPU.). scrutinized and agreed to everybody’s satisfaction and adverse
impacts reduced to absolute minimum. It is important, therefore,
Under the Renewable Energy Act 2011, there are only that an Integrated River Basin Management Plan (IRBM) be
four technologies applicable for Feed-in Tariff (FiT) completed before implementation of large structures, like dams.
portfolio, which are biomass, biogas, solar photovoltaic Dams should be made more attractive to the people and
and small hydro. It is reported that the Sustainable Energy people must be seen to beneit from large projects like dams.
Development Authority Malaysia (Seda) is considering the Dams should not only be seen as beneiting from industry’s point
inclusion of wind as another renewable resource in the RE of view but should also address rights of the people especially
Scheme. Seda together with Energy, Green Technology and those affected by land acquisition and resettlement. This can be
Water Ministry is on a mission to increase RE sources, which achieved by following an internationally respected standard for
20 Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015)
ExPLORING THE VIABILITY OF DAMS IS KEY TO MALAYSIAN WATER RESOURCES
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FUTURE
Region Type of Prime Mover Installed Capacity (MW) Unit Generated (MWh)
Land Fill Gas 2.00 5,613
Mini Hydro 45.98 38,780
Peninsular Malaysia Solar 0.80 666
Palm Oil Mill Efluent (POME) 2.00 2,030
Subtotal 48.78 47,089
Palm Shell & Empty Fruit Bunch (EFB) 35.20 165,425
Wood Waste 10.00 4
Sabah Mini Hydro 17.34 47,841
Palm Oil Waste 14.00 69,483
Subtotal 76.54 282,753
Mini Hydro 6.00 7,021
Sarawak Solar 0.02 15
Subtotal 6.02 7,036
Grand Total 131.3 336,879
Source: National Energy Balance 2011- Suruhanjaya Tenaga
Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015) 21
DATO’ IR. SYED MUHAMMAD SHAHABUDIN
Fourth: nothing much has been done for water. It is timely, therefore,
Hydroelectric scheme is expected to be promoted because it is that a national mechanism be set up at the highest level to assist
RE, source of clean energy and green. and coordinate water bodies at federal and state levels in all-
round reduction in water usage and consumption and production
Fifth: of additional water sources, like recycling of biomass efluent
and rehabilitation of rivers to a scale which constitutes a sizeable
As the country transforms into a developed nation, the water
igure in water use and consumption. At the same time, this
management approach will also have to transform in tandem.
national mechanism could assist in setting up a “Government
This is the change from Supply-side Management to meet the
Commission on Dams” for enforcement of dam safety in
basic needs of a developing country, to that of Water Demand
Malaysia.
Management, a characteristic of a developed Nation that makes
best use of available infrastructure and water. However, it will
still take sometime to achieve a mature and stable environment ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
to complete that transformation and achieving high levels of
water security is a critical element in this process. Thus for now, I would like to record my sincere thanks to Ir. Mohd Adnan bin
the prudent strategy would be to continue planning for dams as Mohd Nor, Managing Director, RPM Engineers Sdn Bhd for his
a component of total water resources management plan for the untiring effort in advising and supporting me in the preparation
future. of this paper. My thanks also goes to Mr. Rory Patield of
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) and staff of SMHB Sdn
Sixth: Bhd. Without their untiring support, the preparation of this paper
would not have been as planned.
Recovery of additional source of water for use as industrial water
or other non-potable uses can be substantial from recycling of
treated biomass efluent. For developed areas in Selangor, Kuala REFERENCES
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that energy and water are intrinsically linked and should be Water Security – an engineering perspective, published by The
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every element of the water cycle, while water is necessary for
[10] Tenth Malaysia Plan 2011-2015, published by The Economic
energy production. The effects of climate change and global
Planning Unit, Prime Minister’s Department, Putrajaya, 2010.
warming reinforce the need for a holistic approach to the
management of energy and water into an integrated system. [11] Suruhanjaya Tenaga (Energy Commission), Ministry of Energy,
Green Technology and Water (KeTTHA), National Energy
This holistic approach has not effectively taken place, at the Balance, 2011, published by the Energy Commission.
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[12] Review of the National Water Resources Study (2000-2050) and
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and GreenTech Malaysia (for green technology/climate change) 2011.
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ExPLORING THE VIABILITY OF DAMS IS KEY TO MALAYSIAN WATER RESOURCES
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FUTURE
[13] Cecilia Tortajada, Dogan Altinbilek, Asit K. Biswas; 2012, [22] Muda Agricultural Development Authority (MADA) 2013.
Impacts of Large Dams ; A Global Assessment, Water Resources Retrieved from http://www.mada.gov.my.
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[23] The Southern African Development Community (SADC) 2013
[14] The River Revitalisation of Korea, 2011, The Four Rivers Per Capita Water Storage Indicator. Retreived from http://
Restoration Project, Republic of Korea (www.4rivers,go.kr/eng). www.sadc water accounting.org/indicators/4.5 Percapita Water
Storage. asPX.
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[16] Detailed Environmental Impact Assessment Study (1999) for the [25] International Rivers, Berkeley CA, USA, February 2012. Three
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Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015) 23
Control of Bifurcation Behaviour of the Buck Converter via a
Resonant Parametric Perturbation Circuit
(Date received: 24/01/2014/Date accepted: 6/5/2015)
Ir. Dr Ng Kok Chiang*1, Dr Michelle Tan Tien Tien2, Dr Nadia Tan Mei Lin3
1
R&D Centre, Leong Hing Sdn. Bhd., No. 1, Jalan P4/7, Seksyen 4, Bandar Teknologi Kajang, 43500 Semenyih, Selangor,
Malaysia. 2The University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus, Jalan Broga, 43500 Semenyih, Selangor, Malaysia.
3
Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Jalan IKRAM-UNITEN, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia.
*Corresponding author: kokchiang.ng@leonghing.com
ABSTRACT
Nonlinear circuits and systems research has been growing very quickly over the past two decades. Actively pursued in almost every
branch of science and engineering, nonlinear systems theory has found wide applications in a variety of practical engineering
problems. Engineers, scientists and mathematicians have similarly advanced from the passive role of simply analyzing, or
identifying chaos to their present, active involvement in controlling chaos – control directed not only at suppression, but also at
exploiting its enormous potential. We now stand at the threshold of major advances in the control and synchronization of chaos
for new applications across the range of engineering disciplines. All feedback controlled power converters exhibit certain
non-linear phenomena over a speciic breadth of parameter values. Despite being commonly encountered by power electronics
engineers, these non-linear phenomena are by and large not thoroughly understood by engineers. Such phenomena remaining
somewhat mysterious and hardly ever been examined in a formal way. As the discipline of power electronics becomes more
matured, demand for better functionality, dependability and performance of power electronics circuits will inevitably force
researchers to engage themselves in more detailed study and analysis of non-linear phenomena and complex behaviour of
power electronics converters. The bifurcation behaviour of the buck converter occurs when the input voltage is varied. In this
study, the computer simulation scheme, PSPICE is employed to model the behaviour of the ideal buck converter. For certain
values of the input voltage Vin instability occurs. The resonant parametric perturbation method is then applied to control
the bifurcation behaviour of the voltage-mode controlled buck converter. Analysis and simulations are presented to provide
theoretical and practical evidence for the proposed control method. As the buck converter has wide industrial application, it
would be deemed necessary for designers to know about its bifurcation behaviour and how to control such behaviour.
Keywords: Bifurcation, Chaos, Control, Buck Converter, Parametric Perturbation
1.0 INTRODUCTION the shape or nature of the bifurcation, the introduction of a new
bifurcation phenomena, the ine tuning of the system performance
Bifurcations control involves the designing of a controller to
around a bifurcation point, the supervision of the multiplicity,
curb or lessen the bifurcation dynamics of a given system to
amplitude and frequency of some limit cycles surfacing from a
attain desirable dynamical behaviour. There have been proposals
bifurcation process, and the adjustment of the parameter sets or
for control methods to bifurcation and chaos behaviour for a
values of an existing bifurcation point [1].
variety of engineering applications [1-3]. The objectives of the
As for the non-feedback scheme, there is no need for any
control methods can be divided into two groups. The irst is
system variables to be gauged, and it is of no necessity to identify
the identiication of one of the unstable periodic orbits within
any speciic periodic orbit as the control target [4, 5]. Among the
a chaotic attractor as the control target and the utilisation of a
known techniques of controlling bifurcation behaviour without
control technique to speciically stabilise the system on the
feedback are the resonant parametric perturbation technique
targeted periodic orbit [2]. The second group involves the control
[4-6], the weak periodic perturbation, and the entrainment and
action to attain the required operating state (target) without much
migration control [7, 8]. Contrasting the non-feedback scheme to
emphasis on which unstable orbit that is stabilised in the chaotic
the feedback scheme, the method that is more suited for practical
attractor. The feedback scheme is used to for the irst category of
implementation and for anti-jamming ability is that of the non-
control objective, while the non-feedback scheme is employed
feedback scheme [7, 9].
mostly for the second category [2, 3].
Implementation of bifurcations and chaos control with
For the feedback method, some parameters of the control
speciic objectives have been successful in various experimental
mechanism are changed to attain the required control objective
systems and numerical simulations in a wide range of ields and
after the establishment and implementation of control laws. These
disciplines, the former including electrical, mechanical, chemical,
control laws are established from the collection and examinations
and the latter, aeronautical studies, biology, meteorology,
of the system variables via experiments and simulations [2, 3].
physics and chemistry [10]. Bifurcation control usually paves
Among the techniques that are currently employed to counter the
the way to the identiication of chaos control as bifurcation is a
bifurcation behaviour using the feedback method are the deferral
generic route to chaos in most nonlinear dynamical systems [10-
of the incident of an intrinsic bifurcation, the modiication of
12]. In the course of this study, the non-feedback type of control,
24 Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015)
CONTROL OF BIFURCATION BEHAVIOUR OF THE BUCK CONVERTER VIA A RESONANT
PARAMETRIC PERTURBATION CIRCUIT
namely the resonant parametric perturbation method, will be In this work, the circuit parameter with the strongest effect
examined in detail for the control of chaotic and bifurcation on the system is employed to be the perturbation parameter,
behaviour of the buck converter. i.e. the reference voltage, Vref of the buck converter circuit. The
circuit used to study the effectiveness of the resonant parametric
perturbation method in controlling the chaos and bifurcation
2.0 METHODOLOGY behaviour of the buck converter will be further discussed in the
The PSPICE Model for this study –The PSPICE schematic of Results and Discussion section of this paper. The waveforms
the closed-loop voltage feedback buck converter used in this obtained are then observed and analysed to establish the effects
study is depicted in Figure 1. The changes made in this PSPICE of the changes of the perturbation amplitude, in the newly
circuit however are the replacement of one of the comparators introduced function, Vref (1 + α sin 2πf r t ) on the typical circuit
with a gain of 8.4 in the Fossas and Olivar’s paper with an ideal characteristics.
multiplier and a difference comparator, which forms the error The perturbation frequency fr is set to the driving frequency
ampliier circuit of the buck converter to generate the birfucation and the perturbation amplitude, α is varied from 0 to 0.25. The
behaviour and the replacement of Vref with the Vref- (1 + α sin 2πf r t ) chaotic behaviour of the buck converter when Vin = 33 V is
function as the control which forms the Resonant Parametric examined in this study. Simulation of the buck converter for each
Perturbation Circuit as indicated in Figure 1 [13, 14]. The PWM value of α is presented in three main categories of waveforms
controls the ideal switch, S1 and it is the most complex part of the namely, the time-domain voltage and current waveforms, the
switched regulator of the buck converter [13, 15]. The switched Fast Fourier Transform (FFT), and the phase portrait (better
buck converter circuit in this study uses a PWM integrator known as the Trajectory).
circuit. The PWM circuit consists of the wave generator, the Procedures in Controlling the Bifurcation Behaviour – The
error ampliier and an ininite gain comparator. The PWM value for α of the resonant parametric perturbation function
controls the ideal switch, S1 and is the most complex part of in the PSPICE model of the buck converter
the switched regulator of the buck converter [13, 14]. All the in Figure 1 is varied while other circuit parameters are held
components used in this PSPICE model are ideal components. constant to obtain the required waveforms. The ixed value
Both switches, S1 and S2 have zero on and ininite off resistance, parameters, which include the input voltage, Vin (when the circuit
and can switch instantaneously. Both the S1 and S2 switches exhibits chaotic behaviour), the load resistor, R, the inductor, L,
work in a complementary manner. When S1 is on, S2 will be off the capacitor, C, switching frequency, ƒ of the ramp generator,
and the input voltage supplies energy to the load resistance and the perturbation frequency, ƒr , and the ramp upper and lower
the inductor. On the other hand, when S1 is off and S2 is on, the voltages are as summarised in the Table 1.
inductor current decays while lowing through S2 and at the same
time transfers some of the stored energy to the load resistor.
The output voltage is controlled by setting the frequency of the
sawtooth generator to be of constant switching frequency and by
altering the on-interval of the switch. The switch ratio, d which
can be characterised as the ratio of the on-time to the switching
period is changed through the PWM switching. As the switches
turn off and turn on in a complementary way, instantaneously
allowing the current low in two different directions, the
discontinuous conduction mode can be assumed to be avoided.
Such mechanisms of the switches also cater for the existence of
light load levels [13-15].
Figure 1: PSPICE Schematic of the Modiied Voltage Feedback Buck Converter with Resonant Parametric Perturbation Control Circuit
Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015) 25
IR. DR NG KOK CHIANG; DR NADIA TAN MEI LIN; DR MICHELLE TAN TIEN TIEN
26 Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015)
CONTROL OF BIFURCATION BEHAVIOUR OF THE BUCK CONVERTER VIA A RESONANT
PARAMETRIC PERTURBATION CIRCUIT
When α = 0.00, the operation of the buck converter is in having little hiccups in them. The output voltage and the inductor
the chaotic region where Vin = 33 V. This is very much the current waveforms when α = 0.02 are very much the same as
same operation as in the case of chaotic operation of the buck when the buck converter was operating in its period-2 region as
converter when Vin = 33 V as previously reported [19-21]. This is if when Vin = 28 V as previously reported [19, 21]. Hence, by
because at α = 0.00, the resonant parametric perturbation circuit just changing the, the operation of the buck converter as if Vin
remains dormant and does not affect the operation of the buck is equal to 28 V (as been reported previously [19-21]) can be
converter signiicantly. When α is increased to 0.01 however, we achieved even at Vin = 33 V, which would have been chaotic if it
can see some improvement in the waveforms as compared to that was not for the resonant parametric perturbation circuit. The Fast
when α = 0.00. Random, unsymmetrical disjoint and aperiodic Fourier Transform Spectrum (see Figure 12) is now no longer
nature that are evident in the waveforms of the output voltage continuous and of a broadband nature as before. Moreover, to
and the inductor current of the buck converter as in Figure 6 and strengthen the argument that the buck converter is now operating
7, have improved a little. Nonetheless, as expected, the output in the period-2 region, the trajectory or the phase portrait in
voltage and the inductor current waveforms still do not follow Figure 13 is a two-branch loop of a period-2 attractor.
a speciic form of repetition. Improvement is also evident in the
phase portrait in Figure 9 where the trajectory is less chaotic
when compared to that in Figure 5. As for the Fast Fourier
Transform Spectrum in Figure 8, a continuous and broadband
nature can still be observed suggesting that the buck converter is
still operating in the chaotic region.
Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015) 27
IR. DR NG KOK CHIANG; DR NADIA TAN MEI LIN; DR MICHELLE TAN TIEN TIEN
Figure 19: Inductor Current, IL at α = 0.06 Figure 26: Output Voltage, VC at α = 0.09
Figure 20: FFT Spectrum at α = 0.06 Figure 27: Inductor Current, IL at α = 0.09
28 Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015)
CONTROL OF BIFURCATION BEHAVIOUR OF THE BUCK CONVERTER VIA A RESONANT
PARAMETRIC PERTURBATION CIRCUIT
Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015) 29
IR. DR NG KOK CHIANG; DR NADIA TAN MEI LIN; DR MICHELLE TAN TIEN TIEN
As the buck converter is expected to function under a DC/DC Converter with Phase Shift and Frequency Mismatch
generous range of input voltage, Vin, additional control may Consideration,” International Journal of Bifurcation and Chaos,
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Systems Society Newsletter, pp. 1-5, March 1998.
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PROFILES
IR. DR NG KOK CHIANG graduated from the University of Western Australia with irst class honours in Bachelor of Engineering in Electrical &
Electronics and Bachelor of Commerce majoring in Accounting, Investment Finance (Derivatives), and Managerial Accounting. He then furthered
his studies to the University of Nottingham, UK and graduated with a PhD in Engineering having worked in the area of renewable energy and
its storage for three and a half years. Ir. Dr Ng Kok Chiang in his course of research and work had liaised with various organisations such as
E.ON (Power and Gas), Lockheed Martin, Jaguar/Land Rover (supercapacitors in automotive industry/electric cars), Battelle (lab management
and commercialisation), Malaysia Rubber Board (energy management, artiicial intelligent, control, and electronics), and MOSTI (Fabrication of
Advanced Supercapacitors). He is currently the Chief Technology Oficer of MyBig Sdn. Bhd. and a Professional Engineer with the R&D Centre
at Leong Hing Sdn. Bhd. involved in research and prototyping projects in collaboration with various Malaysian Government Agencies and research
bodies. Among the prominent solutions founded were the advanced switching mechanism in the Nexcap storage to eficiently capture minuscule
trickle of charges, intelligent control systems incorporating power electronics device, and the advanced Sunopy solar system.
DR NADIA TAN MEI LIN was born in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. She received the B.Eng. (Hons.) degree from the University of Shefield,
Shefield, U.K., in 2002, the M.Eng. degree from Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Kajang, Malaysia, in 2007, and the Ph.D. degree from Tokyo
Institute of Technology, Tokyo, Japan, in 2010, all in electrical engineering. Since October 2010, she has been a Senior Lecturer in the Department
of Electrical Power Engineering, Universiti Tenaga Nasional. Her current research interests include power conversion systems and bidirectional
isolated dc–dc converters. Dr. Tan is a Graduate Member of the Institution of Engineers Malaysia (IEM), a Member of the Institution of Engineering
and Technology (IET), and a Member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).
DR MICHELLE TAN TIEN TIEN is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Electrical & Electronic Engineering at the University of
Nottingham Malaysia Campus. She received her BEng. degree in Electrical & Electronic Engineering at Swansea University, Wales, UK where
she also completed her PhD on using one dimensional Zinc Oxide nanowires for bio-sensing application. Michelle’s current research focuses on
the synthesis and characterisation of nanomaterials for bio-sensing applications, with emphasis on graphene, metal oxide and graphene/metal oxide
composites. Besides that, her research also focuses on incorporating graphene composites for application in critical and hard environments, such as
aerospace applications, of which is currently funded by the Ministry of Science Technology & Innovation (MOSTI), Malaysia.
Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015) 31
Characteristics of Optical Silicone Tactile Sensor
(Date received: 06/12/13/Date accepted: 14/04/15)
ABSTRACT
The main objective of this research work is to analyze the characteristics of a newly developed optical tactile sensor for
sensing surface hardness. Many optical tactile sensors are bulky in size and lack of dexterity for biomedical applications.
Therefore, this tactile sensor is design relative small in size and lexible for easier insertion in endoscopic surgery application.
The characteristics of the tactile sensor are calibrated with respect to changes in the diameter, area and perimeter of a silicon
tactile sensor subjected to normal forces applied at the point of interaction. A surface exploration computer algorithm to obtain
the sensing information was developed to analyse the characteristic of the optical tactile sensor. The overall image analysis
technique involves the following main stages: image acquisition (capturing of images), processing (thresholding, noise iltering
and boundary detection) and evaluation (force measurement). The measured forces were then compared to the actual forces to
determine the accuracy of the tactile sensor’s characteristics. The results showed that the sensing characteristic with respect to
changes in perimeter of the tactile sensor is more accurate compared to the other sensing characteristics. The outcomes of this
research shows that the functionality of the developed new image analysis computer algorithm coupled with the silicone tactile
sensor is suitable for biomedical applications such as in endoscopic surgery for measurement of tissue softness.
Keywords: Image Processing, Optical Tactile Sensor and WiT. Introduction
Minimal access surgery (MAS), are known as keyhole surgery is patient’s body by through analyzing the softness of the tissues
routinely used as the preferred choice for many operations. The based on its sensing information such as the change in size,
scanning technology with the assistance of a video camera and shape, texture, etc. [4] will be eased to achieved.
several thin instrument give an useful displays visual information The material used in this project for the development of
which is “medical imaging” to the surgeon[1]. “Medical imaging” the miniature tactile sensor element is silicone rubber. Silicone
is the technique of creating images of the interior of a body for rubber is a very stable material and has been widely used in many
medical analysis. Currently, surgeons also performed manually ields because of its ability to be fabricated by conventional
using naked eyes or scanning device to analyze characterization techniques, its inherent silicone advantages, including excellent
of soft tissue by captured the images [2]. Unfortunately, the thermal stability, good water characteristics, weather and
main limitation this technique is the lack of sense of touch on chemical resistance[5] and [6].
the surface characteristic information such on the hardness of the Several researchers have actively involved and engaged in
soft tissue. Tactile sensation is important information for surface developing a better tactile sensor[3], [4] and[7]. Unfortunately
sensorization, manipulation and exploration. Because of that, most of the developed tactile sensors are bulky in size and lack
many researcher concerning in this area. of lexibility for biomedical applications. Hence, there is a need
During recent years, Minimally Invasive Robot-Assisted to explore and develop new generation of tactile sensor that can
surgery, this has become the main choice for surgically reported perform various tasks in biomedical applications. The developed
in Science Daily. Because of that, this surgery manipulates the tactile sensor in this paper is focus on the application for
tactile feedback of organs and assesses the condition of tissue. endoscopic inspection where sensorization information is need.
In other words, the system allows greater precision and better In this research, the development of the vision based tactile
visualization compared to MAS technique by the combination sensor is using single wave optical image conduction method
of the image processing with the sense of touch. However, it [7]. The tactile sensor which is made of a silicone based material
would be advantageous for the surgeon to have an idea about the has been used for measuring normal and shear forces. The inite
characteristic of the surfaces which are in contact with the tools. element model and its initial behavior of the tactile sensor was
According to, researcher from Nagoya [3], they developed an explained in [8],[9] and [10]. In this paper, the characteristics
optical three-axis tactile sensor capable to recognize the objects of the tactile sensor will be further analyzed by using surface
shape and surface condition either its hardness or smoothness exploration computer algorithm developed in this research
by utilized image processing as their method to obtain the project.
information of the sensor. Therefore, the use of optical based Thus, the outcome of this study is to validate the functionality,
tactile sensor for surface characterization is a new approach reliability and characteristics of the optical silicone tactile sensor
in biomedical applications. This new approach provides more using the developed surface exploration computer algorithm that
information regarding the surface condition directly by analyzing can measure the normal forces to a high accuracy in order to
the sensing information. The consequence of this technique, facilitate and automate the process of surface characterization.
several applications of a sensor is detecting various tumors in
32 Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015)
CHARACTERISTICS OF OPTICAL SILICONE TACTILE SENSOR
Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015) 33
NURUL FATHIAH MOHAMED ROSLI; MUHAMMAD AZMI AYUB; ROSELEENA JAAFAR
circle were found. All the parameter values to ilter the blobs
(6)
were obtained and optimum values for all conditions were
obtained. After getting a satisfactory hole detection result,
the area, perimeter, diameter and centroid of the hole are
computed using the following equation:-
1. Area:
(1)
2. Perimeter:
(2)
3. Diameter:
(3)
(5)
34 Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015)
CHARACTERISTICS OF OPTICAL SILICONE TACTILE SENSOR
3. ExPERIMENTAL RESULTS
This chapter present the analysis of data for the overall
performance of the machine vision for the optical tactile
sensor. The performance of the machine vision will be based
on the analysis of results from the image processing techniques,
the analysis of the source of image noise and the analysis of
deformation behaviour. Figure 6: Average Forces for Changes in Diameter.
Three series of the same experiments were done in order to
ensure reliability and accuracy of the results. The results for the
average forces of the changes in diameter, area and perimeter
were presented in Figure 6, Figure 7 and Figure 8 respectively.
The plotted graphs show the correlation between the calibrated
force, Fc, actual force, Fa and experimental force, Fe for the three
sensing characteristics. The graph demonstrates that the initial
value of Fe, inluences the accuracy of the results. As seen, when
force is applied to the tip of the tactile sensor, all data show
signiicant increase in experimental forces, which indicates that
over prolonged time and increased applied force, the value of the
experimental force become stable and reliable.
The limitation in this inding is the range of the Fa, which is
between 0N to 1.5N. For medical applications, it is considered
satisfactory if the force sensitivity is within the range of
0.1N-11N [4]. Forces higher than this range of values are not
effective using this particular type of optical tactile sensor
because the system cannot analyze the deformation image
completely due to the limitation of the view range. This situation
happens because the image for the next displacement is already
out of view. Hence, the image processing is unable to deine the
Figure 7: Average Forces for Changes in Area.
data for these images. One of the reasons for this to happen is
due to the small size of the tactile sensor used. Therefore, it is
able to capture the full image up to certain amount of delection.
The optical tactile sensor in term concept in design and method
are suitable for applications in the biomedical industries. Figure
9 shows an example of an image which is out of view and cannot
be analyzed. Further works need to be carried out in this research
study to use smaller silicone tactile sensor (suggest:Ø=3mm)
that can inluence the force sensitivity results so that in future,
this sensor is suitable to be used for small internal parts of the
human body such as arteries.
Another concern is that, the accuracy of the tactile sensor
was not able to be determined directly from these plotted graphs.
Hence, an average error value was calculated to derive the
error value using equation (5) and (6). For the error analysis,
the experimental force value, Fe which is the real time value, is
compared to the actual force value, Fa which refers to the value
indicated by the digital force meter. A lower average percentage
error value indicates forces almost to the actual force line, which Figure 8: Average Forces for Changes in Perimeter.
Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015) 35
NURUL FATHIAH MOHAMED ROSLI; MUHAMMAD AZMI AYUB; ROSELEENA JAAFAR
5.0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors gratefully acknowledge the Ministry of Higher
Education Malaysia (MOHE) for the inancial support under the
Figure 9: Out of view image.
ERGS fund (project Grant No: 600-RMI/ERGS 5/3 (17/2011),
and the Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Malaysia.
also signiies the image processing algorithm reliability even
when a small force is exerted onto the tactile sensor.
According to the others conference paper show that normal 6.0 REFERENCES
force calibration that only analysis one parameter for sensing
[1] M. E. Eltaib and J. Hewit, “Tactile sensing technology for
characteristics there is area [9].Furthermore, it is dificult to obtain minimal access surgery––a review,” Mechatronics, vol. 13, no.
a good result to analyze with only one parameter are consider. 10, pp. 1163–1177, Dec. 2003.
In this inding, three parameters for the sensing characteristics
of the silicone tactile sensor are analyzed in order to obtain the [2] C.-K. Chen, H.-T. Wu, H.-J. Chiou, C.-J. Wei, C.-H. Yen, C.-Y.
Chang, and W.-M. Chen, “Differentiating Benign and Malignant
best parameter. Hence, the best sensing characteristic to select
Soft Tissue Masses by Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Role of
is the perimeter because its average error value is the lowest
Tissue Component Analysis,” Journal of the Chinese Medical
as compared to the other sensing characteristics as tabulated in Association : JCMA, vol. 72, no. 4, pp. 194–201, Apr. 2009.
Table 1.
[3] S. C. Abdullah, J. Wada, M. Ohka, and H. Yussof, “Object
Table 2: Concrete mix proportion Exploration Algorithm Based on Three-Axis Tactile Data,”
Percentage of Error, % 2010 Fourth Asia International Conference on Mathematical/
Analytical Modelling and Computer Simulation, pp. 158–163,
Diameter Area Perimeter
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13.865 21.726 10.113
[4] J. Dargahi, S. Najarian, and B. Liu, “Sensitivity Analysis of a
Novel Tactile Probe for Measurement of Tissue Softness with
Applications in Biomedical Robotics,” Journal of Materials
(5) Processing Technology, vol. 183, no. 2–3, pp. 176–182, 2007.
[5] J. Liu and S. Wu, “The Research of Interaction Between the
Silicone Rubber Sealant and Concrete,” 2011 International
Conference on Electrical and Control Engineering (ICECE) vol.
(6)
05, pp. 1839–1841, 2011.
[6] J. S. Liu, D. L. Li, J. Yu, and Z. W. Zhang, “Study on Durability
Where, of Silicone Rubber Sealant for Pavement Joint,” Advanced
n: Number of sample Materials Research, vol. 496, pp. 30–33, Mar. 2012.
[7] B. Ali, Sukarnur, and M. Azmi, “Development of Experimental
Test-Rig for a Vision-Based Tactile Sensor,” Proceedings
4. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK of International Conference on Advances in Mechanical
This paper presents the development of an image analysis Engineering (ICAME 2009), Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
algorithm using WiT environment to facilitate and automate UiTM Malaysia, 2009.
the process of a silicon tactile sensor behavior. Through series [8] Bakri Ali, R. Othman, R. Deraman, and M. A. Ayub, “A New
of experiments, it can be concluded that the image processing Approach in Design and Operating Principle of Silicone Tactile
analysis is very important to help in getting detailed information Sensor,” Journal of Computer Science, Science Publications, vol.
on the hardness, roughness and other physical surface 6, no. 8, pp. 940–945, 2010.
characteristics. The result shows that the perimeter (one of the [9] A. Halim, B. Ali, and M. Azmi, “Normal Force Calibration for
sensing characteristics) is the best parameter since it has a low Optical Based Silicone Tactile Sensor,” International Symposium
percentage error and able to detect small changes of force with on Robotics and Intelligent Sensors 2012 (IRIS 2012), vol. 41,
better sensitivity. There are factors such as background lighting pp. 210–215, 2012.
36 Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015)
CHARACTERISTICS OF OPTICAL SILICONE TACTILE SENSOR
PROFILES
NURUL FATHIAH MOHAMED ROSLI was born in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. She received her Diploma in Electronic Engineering (Computer)
from Sultan Idris Shah Polytechnic, Malaysia in 2008. In 2012, she received a Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering (Manufacturing) (Hons) Degree
from the Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Malaysia. She is currently doing her Master’s Degree on Robotics and Image processing.
E-mail: nurulfathiahmrosli@yahoo.com.
MUHAMMAD AZMI AYUB is an Associate Professor for Mechatronics at the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA,
Malaysia. He received his B. degree of Engineering (Mechanical) from UNSW Australia in 1989, and MSc and PhD from Loughborough University,
UK in 1996 and 2004 respectively. He was the Deputy Dean of the faculty from 2004 until 2009. Currently, he is the Head of the Research Center
for Humanoid Robots and Biosensors. His research interests include mechatronics, visual feedback and control of mechanical systems. E-mail:
muhammadayub@salam.uitm.edu.my.
ROSELEENA JAAFAR obtained her BEng (Hons) in Mechanical Engineering from Brighton Polytechnic, UK in 1993 and MSc in Computer
Integrated Manufacturing from Loughborough University of Technology, UK in 1994. She is currently an Associate Professor at the Faculty of
Mechanical Engineering, UniversitiTeknologi MARA (UiTM), Shah Alam since 2004. She has completed several eScience Projects since 2008 in
the areas of Automation, Mechatronics, Manufacturing Processes and Systems and Ergonomics. E-mail: rosel714@salam.uitm.edu.my.
Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015) 37
Effect of Polishing Grits, Temperatures and Selected Activators on
Electroless-nickel Deposition on Cast Aluminium Substrates
(Date received: 07/10/13/Date accepted: 07/09/15)
1, 2
Ajibola O. O, 1Oloruntoba D.T, and 1Adewuyi B.O.
1
Metallurgical and Materials Engineering Dept., Federal University of Technology., Akure, Nigeria
2
Materials and Metallurgical Engineering Dept., Federal University Oye Ekiti, Nigeria
*olawale.ajibola@fuoye.edu.ng
*corresponding author
ABSTRACT
The state of the surface of a material controls how stable and lasting such material will be under the service condition. Wear
and corrosion take place on the contacting surfaces. For an eficient engineering design, the surface has to be protected by
different method of surface deposition technique such as electroless-nickel (EN) plating. The irmness and the dependability is
built strongly on the morphology of the metallic ilm. This paper aimed to study the effect of grinding grits, types of activator
and plating operation temperatures on the quantity (EN deposition per unit area) and quality (appearance, lustre, adhesion) of
the nickel plating on Al substrate. A number of experiments were performed from which the best of results were used to model
the trend of each individual effect on plating process. Different grades of polishing grits were applied and their effects on the
adhesion, appearance and quantity of EN deposits per unit area on cast aluminium substrates were studied.
Keywords: Cast Aluminium Alloy, Electroless-Nickel Deposition, Selected Activators, Substrate, Surface Polishing, Plating
Temperature
38 Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015)
EFFECT OF POLISHING GRITS, TEMPERATURES AND SELECTED ACTIVATORS ON
ELECTROLESS-NICKEL DEPOSITION ON CAST ALUMINIUM SUBSTRATES
In the presence of a catalytic surface and suficient energy, Model, and Brinell hardness tester respectively. The results are
hypophosphite ions are oxidized to orthophosphite. Acid presented in Table 1.
solutions were found to have several advantages over alkaline
solutions: higher plating rate, better stability, greater ease of 2.2 Preparation of cast samples used for EN
control, and improved deposit corrosion resistance. Using a plating
proper surface pre-treatment order and precise process control, 2000g of as-received aluminium alloy sourced from purchased
high-quality adhesion and outstanding service performance, piston (calliper) was weighed into a melting pot and melted at
very homogeneous thickness is produced all over the part, even temperature range of 750oC to 800oC in electric furnace under a
for asymmetrical shapes, holes, recesses, internal surfaces and controlled atmosphere. The molten metal was sand cast into rods
valves. of 300mm long by 30mm diameter from which the two set of
High-quality adhesion of EN deposits on Al alloy emanates tests specimen (pistons and coins) were cut and machined out.
from excellent cleaning and lowest amount etching operations. They were sliced to obtain 15mm thick by 25mm diameter
There is now a better understanding of the features inluencing coin size used for plating tests (Figure 2). The surfaces of the
adhesion properties. Good adhesion is reliant on having a aluminium alloy substrates were grinded and polished with
dirt-free surface free from soils, oxides, particulate matter and different types of polishing grits on the grinding and polishing
embedded materials. For instance, gentle etch alkaline cleaners machines (Metaserv 2000 model). The microstructure and
work well for many surface contaminating soils. surfaces of the samples were examined under the metallurgical
There are different surfactants such as applicable in cleaning, microscope of X800 maximum magniication (Nikon Eclipse
surface modiication, sensitization, catalyzing, activation ME600 model).
(acceleration) and as stabilizers. Surfactants are also used as
wetting agents that lower the surface tension of a liquid, allowing
easier distribution, and lower the interfacial tension between two
liquids or a liquid and solid surface. In an EN bath, existences of
surfactants encourage the deposition reaction between the bath
solution and the immersed substrate surface [18]. The deposition
of Electroless-Ni on cast aluminium was investigated for its
wear and corrosion properties through experimental methods
and is reported in this paper.
Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015) 39
AJIBOLA O. O, OLORUNTOBA D.T, AND ADEWUYI B.O.
Table 2: Plating chemicals and the mixing ratio substrates. The micro-structural examination is
Concentration Temperature Time carried out to reveal the micro structure of the alloy
Bath Media and to compare the similarities and differences.
(g/l or ml/l) (oC) (mins)
Emulsiier: The hardness values are compared as means of
15 ml/l predicting their behaviour under friction with respect
Kerosene
Emulsifying 60±5 1-5 to their composition and micro-structure. With these,
with Detergent
15 g/l some reasons for their corrosion and wear behaviours
solution
of the aluminium alloy substrates could be understood.
Alkaline Sodium Table 1 shows the results of chemical compositions
0.4 g/l 60±5 1-5
cleaning hydroxide and hardness of as-received Al alloy (control sample)
Acid Hydrochloric and cast Al alloy used in the experiment. The chemical
5 ml/l 60±5 1-5
cleaning acid analysis shows that 98.87%Al, 0.38%Si, 0.40%Mg,
Surfactant PCl2 0.0 ~ 0.12 g/l 85 0.5-2 and 0.23%Fe were present in the AR, that 98.44%Al,
Plating Nickel Chloride 30 g/l 85±5 2 - 10 0.32%Si, 0.29%Mg, and 0.16%Fe were present in
the AC while equal amount of 0.001%Mn, 0.01%Cu,
Sodium
40 g/l 0.001%Zn, 0.001%Cr and 0.001%Ti were present in
Hypophosphite
both AR and AC alloys.
Sodium citrate 25 g/l
Ammonium 3.2 EN deposition per unit area on
50 g/l
chloride aluminium substrates
PCl2 0.02/l The trends and amount of electroless-nickel deposition
per unit area on AR and AC alloy substrates at various
The effect of surface inishing on the EN plating was polishing grits, temperatures and surface activation are illustrated
studied using different emery paper polishing grits (60µm, in Figures 4-23.
120µm, 220µm, 320µm, 400µm, 600µm, 800µm and 1200µm).
In another case, the effects of six selected chemical media 3.3 Effect of surface polishing grits SFG
used as surfactants (sodium-di-chromate, palladium chloride, variation on amount of EN deposition on AR
zincate, water, HCl and NaOH) were also studied. The
inluence of plating bath temperatures varied from 80oC, 85oC
and AC at 85oC using PdCl2
and 90oC temperatures were also examined on the EN plating Deposition of electroless-nickel on as-received and cast
characteristics. aluminium alloy substrates at various polishing grit is carried
The amount of EN deposit (g) is determined from the out for 10 minutes at 85oC.
difference between the initial weight (Mi) and inal weight
(Mf), measured before and after EN plating using electronic
digital weight meter, from which the amount deposited per unit
area (g/mm2) and EN plating rate (g/mm2/min) are calculated;
∆W = Mf – Mi (5)
Amount EN deposited per unit area = ∆W/(AT) (6)
EN deposition rate REN = ∆W/(AT x t) (7)
where Wi = weight of the sample before EN-plating, Wf = Figure 4: Effect of SFG variation on EN deposition per unit area
weight of the sample after EN-plating and ∆W = EN ilm (g/mm2) on AR and AC samples operated at 85oC plating
weight deposited, AT = Total surface area of substrate, t = temperature.
plating time. Figure 4 shows that there is more of EN deposition per unit
area on the 60µm and 120µm grits polished as-received alloy
than the cast aluminium substrate. There is steady increase in
the quantity of EN deposition per unit area on cast aluminium
substrate as the grade of surface polishing grits increased from
60µm to 600µm, above which there was reduction in the amount
of EN deposition per unit area obtained on the cast aluminium
substrate. There is subsequent greater amount of EN deposition
Figure 3: Pictorial views of complete assembly of the cleaning line
per unit area on cast substrate than the as-received substrate with
(a) and EN plating bath (b).
respect to the increase in the grade of surface polishing grits
used.
3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS It is observed that there is fall in the quantity of EN deposition
per unit area on as-received alloy as grade of surface polishing
3.1 Characteristics of the aluminium substrates grits increased from 60µm to 220µm, above which there was
The aluminium alloy substrates, (as-received Al or AR and cast increase in the amount of EN deposition per unit area obtained
Al or AC samples) were characterised by atomic absorption on the as-received aluminium substrate. 600µm surface polishing
spectrometry to ascertain the chemical composition of the grits produced the highest quantity of EN deposition per unit
area on both the cast and as-received aluminium substrates.
40 Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015)
EFFECT OF POLISHING GRITS, TEMPERATURES AND SELECTED ACTIVATORS ON
ELECTROLESS-NICKEL DEPOSITION ON CAST ALUMINIUM SUBSTRATES
The trend of the amount of EN deposited with respect to produced least quantity of EN deposition per unit area at 80oC
increasing polishing grit was studied using the experimental data followed by 85oC and 90oC. The 90oC plating temperature
generated from the experiment. The best it models for the trend produced highest values of EN deposition per unit area on 220,
using MS excel application were of polynomial equations to 320, 400, 600 and 1200µm grit polished surfaces. Similar trends
power 2 relating the amount of EN deposited to surface polishing in quantity of EN deposition per unit area are obtained on 400
grits (um). The developed models from the study are: to 1200µm grit polished surfaces for 85oC and 90oC plating
Mn1= -8E-06x2 + 8E-05x + 0.0002 (8) temperature operated baths. In principle, electroless deposition
Mn2= -3E-06x2 + 2E-05x + 0.0003 (9) is energy driven. It is a chemical reaction process that is highly
controlled by temperature and time. The kinetics of the reaction
where 60≥x≥1200µm, x = grade of surface polishing grits, is more favoured and result oriented at higher temperature. In
Mn1 and Mn2 are the amount (g/mm2) of EN deposited with respect case of EN deposition, working at temperatures above 80oC had
to surface polishing grits on cast and as-received aluminium alloy been encouraged.
respectively in acidic sodium hypophosphite reduced bath. The The amount of EN deposition per unit area (g/mm2) in
EN deposition per unit area increased with increasing SFG from Figures 6-11 are derived from Figure 5. The effect of SFG and
60µm to 600µm after which there is reduction in the amount of Temperature variations on amount of EN deposition per unit
EN deposition per unit area on AC Al alloy substrate. The case is area (g/mm2) on AC and AR samples with the errors bars are
dissimilar in the AR Al alloy, there is decline in the EN deposition illustrated in Figure 6-11. All the plots in Figures 6-11 show the
per unit area on 60µm to 220µm grits polished samples; there is amount of EN deposition per unit area (g/mm2) on cast Al alloy
boost in EN deposition per unit area from 220µm to 600µm after and as-received Al alloy substrates measured from 8 different
which there is decrease in EN deposition per unit area obtained. SFG values. The error bars for each plot give the upper and
0.000446g/mm2 and 0.000364g/mm2 maximum EN plating per lower limit (maximum and minimum amount) of EN deposition
unit area were obtained on the 600µm grit polished cast and as- per unit area obtained from each of SPG values. For the cast and
received aluminium samples respectively. as-received substrate samples, the 48 points are within the 5%
Rough surfaces have more points and crevices than the the error bars for EN deposition per unit area of the SPG points.
smooth surfaces, hence rough surface are likely to have larger The polynomial trendlines equations (10) to (15) are also derived
surface areas. Unlike electro-deposition processes (electroplating, from the plots.
electroforming, etc). Where deposition concentrate more at
points and less at crevices, electroless plating give a more
uniform plating thickness that electro-deposition process, hence
the electroless plating is not solely controlled by the degree of
roughness of surface.
Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015) 41
AJIBOLA O. O, OLORUNTOBA D.T, AND ADEWUYI B.O.
Figures 6-8 are derived from Figure 5. Comparisons of Figures 9-11 are also derived from Figure 5. The trend of the
results of EN deposition on cast samples at different temperatures amount of EN deposited per unit area with respect to increasing
in Figures 5, 6, 7 and 8; show that EN deposition per unit area on plating bath temperature was studied using the experimental data
AR and AC are of close trend and values in each of the plating generated from the experiment. The polynomial it equations for
temperatures (80oC and 85oC). Hence, the deposition is more the trend using MS excel application relates the amount of EN
dependent on the degree of polished surface grits rather than deposited on as-received Al alloy (AR) substrates to plating bath
the aluminium material type; while further observation shows temperature (oC) and surface polishing grits operated at 80oC,
that for 90oC plating temperature, the deposition is dependent 85oC and 90oC respectively as:
on both polished surface grits and the aluminium material Mn6 = 4E-06x2 - 3E-05x + 0.0004 (13)
types. The trend of the amount of EN deposited per unit area Mn7 = 6E-07x2 + 5E-06x + 0.0003 (14)
with respect to increasing plating bath temperature was studied Mn8 = 3E-06x2 - 3E-05x + 0.0004 (15)
using the experimental data generated from the experiment. The
polynomial it equations for the trend using MS excel application Where 60≥x≥1200µm, x = surface polishing grits (µm),
relates the amount of EN deposited to plating bath temperature Mn6, Mn7 and Mn8 are the amount of EN deposited per unit area
(oC) and surface polishing grits operated at 80oC, 85oC and 90oC (g/mm2) with respect to plating bath temperatures operated at
respectively as: 80oC, 85oC and 90oC, respectively on as-received aluminium
Mn3 = 5E-06x2 - 4E-05x + 0.0004 (10) alloy in acidic sodium hypophosphite reduced bath.
Mn4 = 2E-06x2 - 1E-05x + 0.0003 (11) From Figures 5-11, EN deposition on AR and AC is not
Mn5 = 1E-06x2 + 1E-06x + 0.0003 (12) solely dependent on the increase in level of the polishing grit.
The least trend of deposition per unit area is obtained at 85oC,
Where 60≥x≥1200µm, x = surface polishing grits, Mn3, producing best of the adhesion and appearance at SFG of 600µm
Mn4 and Mn5 are the amount of EN deposited per unit area and above. The trend of EN deposition per unit area at all plating
(g/mm2) with respect to plating bath temperatures operated at temperatures is observed to be controlled by the increasing
80oC, 85oC and 90oC, respectively on cast aluminium alloy in plating temperature especially for 400 to 1200µm polished
acidic sodium hypophosphite reduced bath. surfaces grits. Figure 12 show the appearance of EN plating on
cast aluminium substrate at (a) 80oC, (b) 85oC and (c) 90oC using
1200µm polishing grit.
Figure 14: Effect of activators on EN deposition per unit area Figure 16: Effect of activators and SFG variations on EN deposition
((g/mm2) on 1200µm polished AC samples operated at 85oC per unit area (g/mm2) on AC samples operated at 85oC temperatures
temperatures (oC). (oC).
The Figure 14 is derived from Figure 13. Figures 13 and 14 The zincate produced relative higher values of EN
illustrate the effects of 6 activators and SFG variations on EN depositions than the Chlorides on six of the eight grits tested.
deposition (g) and EN deposition per unit area ((g/mm2) on Among the six activators presented in Figures 13-16, only the
1200µm polished AC samples operated at 85oC temperatures zincate and chloride yielded quality EN deposition that could
(oC). The effects of 2 activators (zincate and chloride) and SFG possibly be of practical beneit.
variations on EN deposition per unit area (g/mm2) on 6 different Deposition of electroless-nickel on AC and AR alloy
grits polished AC samples operated at 85oC temperature (oC) are substrates at various polishing grits is carried out for 10 minutes
presented in Figure 15 and 16. The quantities of EN deposit with in EN baths operated at 85oC. Figure 17 shows the appearances
respect to activators decline in order of the chromate, palladium of EN deposition on (a) 60µm (b) 320µm (c) 600µm (d) 800µm
chloride, zincate, water, NaOH and HCl. (e) 1200µm polished cast substrates (AC) in acidic sodium
hypophosphite reduced bath without use of activators.
Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015) 43
AJIBOLA O. O, OLORUNTOBA D.T, AND ADEWUYI B.O.
or NaOH etched Al substrates than in water rinsed surfaces. In below 400µm) under microscopic examination are more prone
some cases the activation (acceleration) step can be omitted, but to high porosity than the EN coated as-received substrates. It is
then the plating solution may get contaminated [25]. observed that the quantity of EN deposition per area is dependent
It was observed that HCl, NaOH and water activated cast on the type and roughness of the surface of the aluminium alloy
substrates, whereas the adhesion and brightness are not solely
controlled by the surface polishing grits. There are instances
where low polishing grit produced better and more tenacious
coating than the higher polishing grit.
(a) PdCl2 activated EN chips at 85oC (x100 mag), (b) PdCl2 activated
dull EN lakes at 90oC (x100 mag), (c) Dull EN deposition at 85oC
(x50 mag), (d) Bright EN deposition at 90oC (x50 mag),
Figure 19: Micrograph of EN plating on (a-d) PdCl2 activated 60µm Figure 21: (a-c) surfaces showing (b)PDCl2 and (c) zincate activated
grit polished cast aluminium substrate at different temperatures. EN plated cast aluminium samples
44 Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015)
EFFECT OF POLISHING GRITS, TEMPERATURES AND SELECTED ACTIVATORS ON
ELECTROLESS-NICKEL DEPOSITION ON CAST ALUMINIUM SUBSTRATES
Calculating the plating rates based on data generated from rough polishing grit produced improved and more irm, tenacious
Figures 14 using equation (7); lower plating rates of 0.00849 coatings than the smooth polishing grits. Of the six surfactants
mg/mm2/min, 0.00886 mg/mm2/min and 0.0169 mg/mm2/min tested, zincate and palladium chloride solutions produced the
were obtained from using HCl, NaOH and water as cleaning best of the results in terms of the plating quality porosity, colour,
reagents. Pure and aluminium alloy form layer of oxide when adhesion and appearance. The zincate produced relative higher
exposed to air and water. This oxide reduces the adhesion of EN amount of EN depositions than the chloride on six (120-800µm)
on the surface. The oxide is reactive to both acid and alkaline; of the eight grits tested. Zincating on cast aluminium substrate
hence they disallow the continuity of autocatalytic reaction at the prior to EN-plating as it has been reported to be result oriented
immediate interface of the EN solution and the substrate. and hence, encouraged for better adhesion. The SFG variation
Higher plating rates of 0.0301 mg/mm2/min, 0.0241 mg/ seems to have similar trend of EN deposition on AR and AC
mm2/min and 0.0290 mg/mm2/min were obtained from cleaning samples operated at 85oC plating temperature. The 90oC plating
with chromate, zincate and chloride. The highest plating rate is temperature produced highest values of EN deposition per unit
obtained from chromate cleaned substrate but of worst adhesion area on a range of 220-1200µm grits polished Al alloy surfaces.
quality among the three. Zincate and chloride cleaned aluminium EN deposition on AR and AC is not solely dependent on the
substrates yielded better quality than chromate cleaned cast increase in level of the polishing grit.
aluminium substrate. The application of zincates as primer on
cast aluminium substrate before EN-deposition has been widely
accepted, reported to be result oriented and encouraged for better ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
adhesion. [20, 21, 22, 23, 24]. The authors would like to express their since gratitude to the
Adhesion problem is one of the major experienced challenges staff of following laboratories and establishments. These
of EN plating especially when the substrate is aluminium include: Engineering Materials Development Institute (EMDI),
alloy. The cast aluminium alloy has greater challenges of EN Akure. Project Development and design Laboratory, Materials
plating than other wrought aluminium materials hence cast Al and Metallurgy division, Federal Institute of Industrial Research,
surfaces are specially prepared by cleaning in diverse reagents Oshodi. (FIIRO), Lagos. The premier wings engineering
and followed by surface activation. 17-20 show the variation in services, Ado Ekiti.
the quality of EN deposit on cast aluminium alloy substrates in
acidic sodium hypophosphite reduced bath using six different
reagents as the surface activators. The best yield in terms of REFERENCES
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PROFILES
AJIBOLA OLAWALE OLAREWAJU is a Lecturer II in the Department of Materials and Metallurgical Engineering, Federal University Oye-
Ekiti (FUOYE), Nigeria. He holds Master’s degree (M. Eng) in Metallurgical and Materials Engineering from the Federal University of Technology,
Akure (FUTA) in 2008 and currently a Ph.D student of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering (Surface Engineering/Hard coatings) at FUTA. He
is a Member of the Nigerian Society of Engineers and registered by the Council of Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria (COREN). He has worked
in various capacities as a Lecturer in the Department of Mineral Resources Engineering at Federal Polytechnic, Ado Ekiti for more than a decade
before he joined the FUOYE in January, 2013. He had over 30 relevant academic publications in learned journals and conference proceedings.
OLORUNTOBA DANIEL TOYIN is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Federal University of
Technology, Akure (FUTA), Nigeria. He holds PhD (2009) in Metallurgical and Materials Engineering from FUTA and a post doctoral fellow at
CMME Dept., Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa. He is registered by the Council of Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria
(COREN) and other professional bodies. He has worked in various capacities as a Lecturer. He had over 25 academic publications in learned
journals and conference proceedings.
ADEWUYI BENJAMIN OMOTAYO is a Professor at Metallurgical and Materials Engineering Dept., Federal University of Technology, Akure
(FUTA), Nigeria. A distinguished Fellow of the Material Society of Nigeria (FMSN). All his appointments were based on his excellent academic
records coupled with his academic zeal and passion for research, teaching and community engagement. He is registered by the COREN. Research
interest focuses include the development and characterization of alloys and materials suitable for structural applications in the building, automobile
and oil and gas industries. Particular interest in processing and process simulation of materials; Alloy Development; Composite Development-
bioibres for reinforcement; Nanotechnology; Development of Corrosion Inhibitors using Biomaterials. He has many peer–reviewed journals and
facilitator of conferences and publications. He is a professional member of national and international societies.
46 Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015)
Effect of Grinding on Workability and Strength of Penang Rice
Husk Ash Blended Concrete Grade 30
(Date received: 25/09/13/Date accepted: 13/04/15)
ABSTRACT
The practice of replacing with conditioned waste materials in construction is well known for conservation of natural resources.
Ecological was damaged due to quarrying caused depletion of natural resources (limestone, iron ore, clay). Many researchers
proving that these by-products have pozzolanic properties which improve the quality of concrete. Global production of rice
husk is approximately 580 million tonnes a year and this is rising as the world population and consumption of rice increases.
This paper reports the effect of rice husk ash (RHA) grinding time on the workability and strength of concrete. Concrete mix
proportions were introduced with RHA and superplasticiser (Sp) as additives. Three RHA with different ineness, i.e. RHA1(5)
Sp, RHA2(5)Sp and RHA3(5)Sp were used for study .Based on analysis, it is found that the increasing of ineness decreases
the workability but increases the compressive strength of the concrete. The use of RHA3(5)Sp results in highest strength at
28 days, which is due to the better dispersion and illing effect as well as an increase in pozzolanic reaction. From the research,
it is shown that RHA has the potential to be a cement replacement material. The research has an important implication on
environmental for sustainability due to usage of waste product as construction material.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Landill of waste is a problem to the environment. Hence, many from 30, 60 and 90 minutes by using ball bearing mechanism.
researchers are looking into the utilization of waste material. The workability and compressive strength of Grade 30 N/mm²
Fortunately, from their studies, some of the waste materials have concrete with partial cement replacement of RHA were reported.
pozzolonic characteristics due to the presence of SiO2, Al2O3,
MgO and Fe2O3[1]. Those wastes are agricultural by product
such as palm oil bottom ash (POBA)[2,3] and RHA [4-6]. The 2.0 MATERIALS AND MIx PROPORTIONS
husk of the rice is removed in the farming process before it is
sold and consumed. It has been found beneicial to burn this 2.1 Materials
rice husk in kilns for various purposes. The rice husk ash is then Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) used in this work was a type
used as a substitute or admixture in cement. Therefore the entire I cement. RHA was used as cement partial replacement which
rice product is used in an eficient and environmentally friendly replaced 5% of the cement content. Rice husk ash were ground
approach. Processes of burning rice husk were under control and into 3 lots which were 30, 60 and 90 minutes times of grinding.
sustain at lower temperature. Reactivity of rice husk ash depend Crushed granite with maximum size of 10 mm with speciic
on amorphous form and particle size of the material. Hence, iner gravity of 2.4 for surface saturated density was used. Mining
material cause high reactivity due to high speciic surface area sand was used which maximum size of 5 mm with percentage
exposed for hydration. High production cost of cement causes passing 600 µm was 25%. SiO2 content is more than 92% where
high cost in concrete construction industry. the chemical analysis of OPC and RHA been extracted from
By applying supplementary cementitious material (SCM) previous studies by Sumrerng et al., [13,14], Kartini et al., [5,6],
concept, cement usage can be minimized or reduced while Habeeb et al., [12], Tuan et al., [15], Rukzon et al.,[16], and Abu
the strength and durability of the concrete can be improvised Bakar et al., [17] is shown in Table 1.
compared to the conventional concrete [7-9]. In addition it Rice husk was collected and transported from Bernas
reduces the concrete production cost as well as the negative factory at Kampung Bukit Tengah, Seberang Perai Tengah,
impact on the environmental [5,10,11]. So far, RHA has not Penang, Malaysia. Abu Bakar et al., [17] suggested that
been utilized yet in the construction industry. The reason essentially amorphous silica can be produce by maintaining
for not utilizing this material may be probably due to lack of or control the combustion temperature below 500°C. Study
understanding of the RHA blended concrete characteristic. done by Habeeb et al., [12], the RHA was burned in the mufle
Many researchers have already published on properties of furnace with incinerating temperature not exceeding 700°C.
the blended RHA concrete such as strength and durability. In this research, incineration was self- sustained with the total
However, only few researchers were found on the effect of RHA duration of 7 hrs at 250°C. The burnt RHA was later left inside
ineness on the properties [12]. This paper highlighted the study the furnace to cool for 24 hrs. After that, burnt RHA was divided
on the effect of ineness on the workability and compressive into 3 parts for grinding. RHA was grinded using Los Angeles
strength of concrete which the ineness of RHA was obtained mill machine for 30, 60 and 90 minutes.
based on the grinding method. The grinding times were varies
Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015) 47
RAHIZUWAN HAMID; NORISHAM IBRAHIM
Two sizes of steel balls used for grinding; 25 and 12 mm 12390-3 [20] using 3000 kN concrete compression machine.
in diameter. For each lot, 1 kg of 25 mm and 0.5 kg of 12 mm Samples were tested at the ages 7, 14, 28 and 60 days.
steel ball were used for every grinding time. In order to ensure
the uniformity and consistency of the RHA, necessary measures
were taken to control treatment include mass of RHA fed into 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
the ball mill, milling speed, thickness of rice husk layer in the
furnace during incinerating and the duration as well as the 4.1. Workability
temperature of incinerating. The grinding of RHA increased its ineness and reactivity [10].
Table 1: Chemical analysis of OPC and RHA The longer RHA is ground, the iner RHA size obtained resulting
in increment of pozzolanic reactivity due to the higher surface
Oxides OPC (%) RHA(%) area of rice husk [12]. Since, rice husk being cellular in nature,
SiO2 15.05 - 20.09 92.00 - 96.70 the use of RHA tend to increase water requirement therefore
Al2O3 2.56 - 4.76 0.21 - 1.01 Sp need to be considered. The slump design to achieved desire
range between 60 – 180 mm. The result was in the range of 150 -
Fe2O3 3.42 - 4.00 0.05 - 0.21
50 mm. For the same percentage of RHA replacement, increment
MgO 1.25 - 1.27 0.37 - 1.59 of RHA grinding time decreases the concrete workability. There
CaO 65.41 - 72.17 0.41 - 1.28 are two reasons for this; its absorptive characteristic [6] and
ineness of its size as referred by Habeeb and Fayyadh [12] in
Na2O 0.08 - 0.74 0.05 - 0.26 (Zhang et al., 1996; Ganesan et al., 2008). Both of these features
K2O 0.35 - 0.41 0.91 - 2.31 results in high water demand to wet the surface area of RHA.
SO3 2.71 - 2.96 0.94 - 2.90 According to Habeeb et al., [12] increases the speciic
surface area of RHA which therefore more water requires to
LOI 0.96 - 1.33 2.36 - 4.81 wet the surface area of RHA. Since, the water/binder ratio was
maintained, Sp was added up as aid to enhance the luidity. It
2.2 Mix proportions and curing was found that Sp increase the slump of the irst mix (RHA
The OPC was partially replaced with pozzolans at the dosage ground 30 minutes) by 10 mm in comparison with the control
of 20% by weight of cementitious materials. The control OPC mix. However, the slump decreases when the grinding time
concrete was designed to achieve 30 N/mm² using DOE method increases as shown in Table 3. Sp is absorbed onto the cement
[18]. Based on this method, cement content of 380 kg/m³ was particles and impart a very strong negative charge which helps to
adopted to all mixes. The water binder ratio (w/b) of control lower the surface tension of the surrounding water considerably
mix was 0.61 with a slump ranged 60-180 mm. Since, rice husk and thus greatly enhances the luidity of the mix [21]. As evident
being cellular in nature [4], the used of RHA tend to increase in Table 3, it is seen that for the same amount of water and Sp,
water requirement therefore Sp need to be considered. The mix and increase in the grinding time, decreases the slump reading.
proportions and abbreviations are given in Table 2. They were Figure 1 shows some typical slumps for the various RHA
demoulded at the age 1 day and cured in water maintained at concrete.
room temperature until the test aged. Table 3: Slump and compressive strength of concrete mixes
48 Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015)
EFFECT OF GRINDING ON WORKABILITY AND STRENGTH OF PENANG RICE
HUSK ASH BLENDED CONCRETE GRADE 30
Figure 2: Effect of grinding times to the slump of concrete Figure 3: Compressive strength of concrete mixtures
4.2. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH From Figure 4, the strength of concrete were below 30 N/
mm² but due to increasing to grinding time, the compressive
The results of the compressive strength for the various mixes
strength were increase even the increment was not drastic. At
of grade 30 were presented in the Table 3 and Figure 3. RHAs
age 14 days, the strength of concrete was static/ stagnant even
concrete with Sp from Figure 3 are well above the target
the grinding time was increase as in Figure 4. At 7 days, strength
strength of 30 N/mm² at 28 days. The strength of concrete can be
of concrete increase tremendously due to additional C-S-H gel
discussed in term of in the early age strength (7 and 14 days) and
produce from second hydration which totally depend on calcium
late age strength (28 and 60 days). At early age, the compressive
hydroxide [Ca(OH)2] produce from primary hydration [1,22] but
strength of concrete containing RHA increases tremendously
the strength are stop in increasing at age 14 days due to reduction
with respect to the grinding time. It is due to the ineness of RHA
of Ca(OH)2 which mostly had been used by second hydration at
particles that have high speciic surface area which increases and
early age.
fasten the pozzolonic reactivity. At the age of 28 days, it is found
Generally, from Figure 4 it can be seen that the compressive
that the concrete mix containing RHA ground for 90 minutes
strength of all RHA concrete are well above target strength of
(longest period) shows the highest compressive strength which
30 N/mm² and 40 N/mm² for age 28 and 60 days respectively.
is 40 N/mm². Normally, compressive strength increases as the
According to Habeeb et al., [12], speciic surface area increase
grinding time of RHA also increases [12]. It can be seen that
when the ineness increased. The iner particles, the more
the combination of RHA and Sp effect of compressive strength
activity of pozzolanic hydration occur [10,15]. Therefore, higher
contribute from inclusion of Sp while maintaining w/b 0.61 i.e.
quantity of C-S-H gel produced which increased the strength
29.9 N/mm² for RHA 1(5)Sp, 34.1 N/mm² for RHA 2(5)Sp and
of the concrete. In comparison the activity of producing C-S-H
40.6 N/mm² for RHA 3(5)Sp concrete at age 28 days. Thus
occur only once for control specimen. Sizes of RHA inluence
suggesting that inclusion of Sp is important to maintained
a lot to the rate of pozzolonic hydration (due to the surface area
under same water cement ratio condition. Finer RHA, water will
being exposed to the chemical hydration) and some mechanical
be absorb more. Hence, if the quantity of water was maintained,
properties of concrete [4-6]. Hence, it showing at late age,
the increasing if ineness will reduce the luidity which the
secondary hydration received adequate Ca(OH)2 from primary
water should be add in order to maintained desire slump. But
hydration which can be proved by additional of C-S-H gel due to
then, the w/b ratio was maintained in this study. Improvement
aggressively increment in strength. However, this increment of
of workability was done by adding Sp into the concrete mix.
strength was developed with the aid of curing process for every
Hence, water was not added thus the strength of the concrete
age had been tested.
was not affected. In addition of that Sp improves the strength.
It was due to the fact that adding Sp (while keeping w/b ratio
constant), it enhances the luidity of the mix even the increasing 5.0 CONCLUSIONS
ineness of RHA due to grinding time that cause loosing of water
It can be concluded that the differences of grinding times produced
demand (reduce slump),thus improved the workability and the
different ineness. Fine rice husk ash reduces the water binder
strength [4,5].
ratio (w/b) and improved the strength compared with coarser rice
From Figure 3, compressive strength also reached target
husk ash. The used of RHA3(5)Sp results in a good strength in
strength at 14 days for all RHA concrete mixes but the rate of
comparison with other RHAs owning to the better dispersion and
Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015) 49
RAHIZUWAN HAMID; NORISHAM IBRAHIM
[2] Mohd. Warid Hussin, Khairunisa Muthusamy, Fadhadli Zakaria [15] Tuan, N.V., Ye, G., Breugel, K.V, Fraaij, A.L.A, Dai, B.D(2011).”
(2010). “Effect of Mixing Constituent Toward Engineering The Study of Using Rice Husk Ash to Produce Ultra High
Properties Of POFA Cement-Based Aerated Concrete.” Journal Performance Concrete.” Construction and Building Material 25.
of Materials In Civil Engineering. April 2010: pp287-295. Pp 2030-2035.
[3] M. A. Megat Johari, Nurdeen M. Altwair, S.F.Saiyid Hashim [16] Rukzon, S. and Chinaprasirt, P (2010).” Strength and Carbonation
(2012). “Flexural Performance Of Green Engineered Cementitous Model of Rice Husk Ash Cement Mortar with Different Fineness.”
Composities Containing High Volume Of Palm Oil Fuel Ash.” Journal of Material in Civil Engineering (ASCE). Pp 253.
Construction and Building Material, Vol.37: pp518-525. [17] Badorul Hisham Abu Bakar, Ramadhansyah PutrajayaC and
[4] Kartini, K. (2011). “Rice Husk Ash-Pozzolanic Material For Hamidi Abdul Aziz (2010). “Malaysian Rice Husk Ash –
Sustainability.” International Journal Of Applied Science and Improving the Durability and Corrosion Resistance of Concrete:
Pre-Review.” Concrete Research Letters. Vol. 1 (1): pp6-13.
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[18] Department Of Environment (DOE) (1992). Design Of Normal
[5] Kartini K., Mahmud H.B., Hamidah M.S.(2010).” Absorption
Concrete Mixes. BRE Publication, United Kingdom.
and Permeability Performance of Selangor Rice Husk Ash
Blended Grade 30 Concrete.” Journal of Engineering [19] British Standard Institution, BS EN 12350-2:2009. Testing Fresh
Science and Technology. Vol. 5, No.1: pp1-16. Concrete. Slump Test. [20] British Standard Institution, BS
EN 12390-3:2009. Testing Hardened Concrete. Compressive
[6] Kartini, K., Mahmud, H.B., Hamidah, M.S.(2006). “Strength
Strength of Test Specimen.
Properties of Grade 30 Rice Husk Ash Concrete.” 31st
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August 2006, Singapore. 1978.
[22] P. Kumar Mehta and Paulo J.M. Monteiro (2006). Concrete-
Microstructure, Properties and Materials, 3th Ed., McGraw
Hill, New York.
50 Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015)
EFFECT OF GRINDING ON WORKABILITY AND STRENGTH OF PENANG RICE
HUSK ASH BLENDED CONCRETE GRADE 30
PROFILES
RAHIZUWAN HAMID is an assistant director at Cawangan Pangkalan Udara dan Maritim, JKR Headquarters Malaysia. He is also structural
designer/engineer for most of his branch project which involved in maritime work. He experienced in designing precast jetty, breakwater,
revetment, retaining wall, concrete bridge and so forth. He is also currently doing his PhD in forensic engineering regarding on structural retroitting
technology from University Science Malaysia. He obtained his Diploma in Civil Engineering (Design) from Universiti Teknologi MARA at 2010.
Then his degree, B.Eng(Hons)(Civil) major in concrete from Universiti Teknologi MARA also. He pursued his postgraduate study in Master of
Science (Structural Engineering) at University Science Malaysia and graduated in 2013.
NORISHAM is a lecturer of Structural Design at the Faculty of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Mara, Shah Alam. She is also currently
the Coordinator for the subject of Basic Timber and Steel Design. She obtained her B.E (Civil Engineering) and MSc (Structural Engineering) from
Universiti Sains Malaysia.
Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015) 51
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A. SUBMISSION OF PAPER
In the reference secion, the references should be writen in full, as follows:
Four types of papers are solicited for the IEM Journal: Style for papers: Author last name, followed by irst iniial, (year), Journal Title
1. Regular paper – Presentaion of signiicant research, developments or (italics), volume (issue), page range.
applicaions in any ield of engineering or within the scope of the journal. Style for books: Author last name, followed by irst iniial, (year) itle (italics),
Tutorials and surveys are also considered. For submissions, the length locaion and publisher, chapter or page numbers (if desired).
should be about 30 pages.
Style for website: www.iem.org.my (accessed October 2013)
2. brief paper – A concise descripion of new technical concepts or
applicaions within the scope of the journal. Submission should be about Sample format for references is as follows:
20 pages.
For paper
3. Technical Correspondence – Leter to the Editor, comments on established
Khalid, M. Omatu, S. and Yusof, R. (1995). “Temperature Regulaions with
engineering topics and discussion of published papers. Submission should
Neural Networks and Alternaive Control Schemes”, IEEE Trans on Neural
be about 10 pages.
Networks, 572-582,.
4. Review paper – Aricles which survey the state-of-the-art of a speciic area
For Book
of research.
Omatu, S. Khalid, M. and Yusof, R. (1995). Neural-Control and Its Applicaions,
A minimum of 10 references, primarily to recent journal paper is expected. London: Springer-Verlag,.
Citaions of textbooks and web pages should be used very rarely. In order to
verify of the IEM journal is the right Journal for manuscript submission authors At the end of the manuscript, each author should provide a brief proile (less
may check if they are able link their to indings to other work published in the than 150 words), together with recent photographs (preferable less than 3 MB).
IEM Journal. plagiarism is strictly prohibited for the IEM Journal.
Manuscripts submited as papers should state the signiicance of the problem
in the Introducion.
C. STYLE FOR ILLUSTRATIONS
Authors are to suggest at least 4 reviewers who are able to review the submited Try to include the illustraions in between the text.
paper. These reviewers should be the experts in the area of research.
Originals for illustraions should be sharp, noise-free and of good contrast.
If the manuscript has been presented, published, or submited for publicaion
elsewhere, please also inform the Editor. Our primary objecive is to publish Each illustraion must be numbered such as “Figure 1, Figures 2-3, etc.” and
have a meaningful capion at the botom. For tables, the capion must be at
the top.
The language of the Journal is in English. However, a paper in Bahasa Melayu
is also accepted. For accepted papers, an abstract in English and Bahasa On graphs, show only the coordinate axes, or at most the major grid lines, to
Melayu must be included. avoid a dense hard-thread result.
All letering should be large enough to permit legible reducion of the igure
technical materials not available elsewhere. to column width, perhaps as much as 4:1. Typing on igures is not acceptable.
Photographs should be glossy prints, of good contrast and gradaion and any
reasonable size.
B. STYLE FOR DRAFT OF MANUSCRIPT
FOR REVIEW PROCESS
D. SUBMISSION OF PAPER
The manuscript should be typewriten using double-spacing, font of 12 (Times);
on one side of sheet only and in a single column format. The format for IEM Authors are required to submit the manuscript via email for consideraion of
Journal follows that of the IEEE Transacions (USA). publicaion in IEM Journal and enclose a cover leter giving your contact details
including telephone and e-mail address for correspondence.
Provide an informaive 100- to 250-words abstract at the head of the manuscript.
Submissions should be made to the address below:
All secions should be numbered in Arabic such as 1, 2, etc. with the itle in
capitals. Sub-secions should be numbered such as 1.1, 2.3, etc. Chief Editor
The Insituion of Engineers, Malaysia
Numbered all equaions in round brackets ( ) lush to the right. The equaion Bangunan Ingenieur, Lots 60 & 62, Jalan 52/4
should be in the center. Pei Surat 223 (Jalan Sultan), 46720 Petaling Jaya, Selangor Darul Ehsan
Tel: 03-79684001/2 Fax: 03-79577678
E-mail: pub@iem.org.my or iemjournal@gmail.com
(for atachment bigger than 5 MB)
52 Journal – The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia (Vol. 76, No. 1, July 2015)
ADVISORY PANEL FOR IEM JOURNAL
(MAY 2014 TO MARCH 2016)
Prof. Dr Azah binti Mohamed Ir. Prof. Dr Muhd. Fadhil bin Nuruddin Assoc. Prof. Margaret Jollands
Department of Electrical, Electronic and Systems Engineering Dean, Faculty of Engineering School of Civil, Environmental and Chemical Engineering
Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS RMIT University, 124 La Trobe St.
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Bandar Seri Iskandar Melbourne, Victoria 3000
43600 UKM, Bangi, Selangor Darul Ehsan 31750 Tronoh, Perak Darul Ridzuan AUSTRALIA
E-mail: azah@eng.ukm.my E-mail: fadhilnuruddin@petronas.com.my E-mail: margaret.jollands@rmit.edu.au
Expertise: Research and innovation Expertise: Environmental and engineering education
PUBLICATION DISCLAIMER
The publication has been compiled by IEM and Dimension with great care and they disclaim any duty to investigate any product, process, service, design and the like which may may be described in
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is free from errors. IEM and Dimension do not necessarily agree with the statement or the opinion expressed in this publication.
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Journal of IEM is the oficial magazine of The Institution of Engineers, Malaysia and is published by Dimension Publishing Sdn. Bhd. The Institution and the Publisher retain the copyright in all material
published in the magazine. No part of this magazine may be reproduced and transmitted in any form, or stored in any retrieval system of any nature without the prior written permission of IEM and
the Publisher.
We are pleased to announce that the articles in the IEM Journals have been indexed by other organisation i.e. Linda Hall Library of Science, Engineering and Technology, Kansas City.
THE INSTITUTION OF ENGINEERS, MALAYSIA
Bangunan Ingenieur, Lots 60 & 62, Jalan 52/4, P.O. Box 223 (Jalan Sultan), 46720 Petaling Jaya, Selangor.
Tel: 03-7968 4001/4002 Fax: 03-7957 7678 E-mail: sec@iem.org.my Homepage: htp://www.myiem.org.my